Skip to main content

Full text of "The dictionary of national biography : founded in 1882 by George Smith"

See other formats 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

NATIONAL    BIOGRAPHY 


SUPPLEMENT 

VOL.  III. 
How WOODWARD 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


NATIONAL    BIOGRAPHY 


EDITED   BY 

SIDNEY     LEE 


SUPPLEMENT 


VOL.    III. 


THE     MACMILLAN      COMPANY 

LONDON:  SMITH,  ELDER,  &  CO. 
IQOI 


2% 


IfSSt, 


r.3 


LIST    OF    WEITEES 


IN    THE    THIRD    VOLUME    OF    THE    SUPPLEMENT. 


E.  A. 

.  .  THE  LATE  EVELYN  ABBOTT,  LL.D. 

C.  D  

CA 

A.  J.  A.  . 

.  .  SIR     ALEXANDER      AEBUTHNOT, 

R.  K.  D. 

PR 

K.C.S.I. 

F.  G.  E..  .  . 

F. 

W.  A.  .  . 

,  SIK  WALTER  ARMSTRONG. 

C  L  F 

f! 

J.  B.  A.  . 

.  .  J.  B.  ATLAY. 

CTT      T! 

.  H.  F.  .  .  . 

. 

R.  B.   .  . 

.  .  THE  KEY.  RONALD  BAYNE. 

F.  W.  G.  .  . 

F. 

T.  B. 

.  .  THOMAS  BAYKE. 

B.  G  

Ri 

T.  H.  B. 

.  .  PROFESSOR  T.  HUDSON  BEARE. 

C.  B. 

.  .  PROFESSOR  CECIL  BENDALL. 

A.  G  

Ti 

H.  B-E.  . 

.  .  H.  BEVERIDGE. 

H.  R.  H. 

H 

A.  B-L.  . 

.  .  AUGUSTINE  BIRRELL,  K.C. 

A.  H-N.  .  .  . 

Ai 

T.  G.  B.. 

.  .  THE  RET.  CANON  BONNEY,  F.R.S. 

C.  A.  H..  .  . 

C. 

T.  B.  B.  . 

.  .  T.  B.  BROWNING. 

T.  F.  H. 

T. 

E.  I.  C.  . 

.  .  E.  IRVING  CARLYLE. 

W.  H  

TJ 

J.  L.  C.  . 

.  .  J.  L.  CAW. 

T.  B.  J.  .  .  . 

T] 

E.  C-E. 

.  .  SIR  ERNEST  CLARKE,  F.S.A. 

L.  W.  K.   .  . 

L 

A.  M.  C. 

.  .  Miss  A.  M.  CLERKE. 

J.  K  

Jc 

S.  C. 

.  .  SIDNEY  COLVIN. 

J.  K.  L.  .  .  . 

p 

E.  T.  C. 

.  .  E.  T.  COOK. 

W.  J.  L.  .  . 

W 

J.  C. 

.  .  THE    REV.    PROFESSOR    COOPER 

I.  S.  L.  .  .  . 

I. 

D.D. 

Ef 

.  L  

T.  C.    . 

.  .  .  THOMPSON  COOPER,  F.S.A. 

S.  L  

S 

J.  S.  C. 

.  .  .  J.  S.  COTTON. 

C.  H.  L..  .  . 

C 

W.  P.  C. 

.  .  W.  P.  COURTNEY. 

E.  M.  L.   .  . 

C 

L.  C.    . 

.  .  .LIONEL  CUST,  F.S.A. 

S.  J.  L.  .  .  . 

S 

H.  D 

.  .  .  HENRY  DAVEY 

J.  H.  L.  .  .  . 

T 

J.  LL.  D 

.  .  .  THE  REV.  J.  LLEWELYN  DAVIES. 

A.D.   . 

.  .  .  AUSTIN  DOBSON. 

R.  L.   . 

P 

.  CAMPBELL  DODGSON. 

.  PROFESSOR  R.  K.  DOUGLAS. 

.  F.  G.  EDWARDS. 

C.  LITTON  FALKINER. 
.  C.  H.  FIRTH. 
.  F.  W.  GAMBLE. 

RICHARD      GARNETT,      LL.D., 
C.B. 

.  THE  REV,  ALEXANDER  GORDON. 

.  H.  R.  HALL. 

.  ARTHUR  HARDEN,  PH.D. 

.  C.  ALEXANDER  HARRIS,  C.M.G. 

.  T.  F.  HENDERSON. 

.  THE  REV.  WILLIAM  HUNT. 

.  THE  REV.  T.  B.  JOHNSTONE. 

.  L.  W.  KING. 
JOSEPH  KNIGHT,  F.S.A. 

.  PROFESSOR  J.  K.  LAUGHTON. 

.  W.  J.  LAWRENCE. 

.  I.  S.  LEADAM. 
.  .  Miss  ELIZABETH  LEE. 
.  .  SIDNEY  LEE. 
.  .  C.  H.  LEES,  D.Sc. 
.  .  COLONEL  E.  M.  LLOYD,  R.E. 
.  .  SIDNEY  J.  Low. 

.  .  THE      REV.     J.      H.      LUPTON, 
D.D. 

.  .  RICHARD  LYDEKKER,  F.R.S. 


vi      List  of  Writers  to  Volume  III. — Supplement. 


J.  R.  M. .  .  .  J.  R.  MACDOHALD. 

A.  A.  M. .  .  .  PROFWWOR  A.  A.  MACDONELL. 

J.  W.  M.  .  .  J.  W.  MACKAIL. 

A.  P.  M.    .  .  A.  PATCHETT  MARTIN. 

J.  C.  M. .  .  .  THE  HON.  MR.  JCBTICE  MATIIEW. 

H.  E.  M.  .  .  TUB  RIGHT  Hox.  SIB  HERBERT 
MAXWELL,  BART.,  M.P. 

A.  H.  M.   ..A.M.  MILLAR. 

C.  M THE  LATE  COSMO  MONKHOUBE. 

H.  C.  If.  .  .  H.  C.  MOORE. 

N.  U NORMAH  MOORE,  M.D. 

O.  LB  O.  N.  O.  LE  GBTS  NOROATE. 
F.  M.  O'D.  .  F.  M.  O'DoNooHOE. 

E.  O Miss  ELIZA  ORME. 

J.  H.  O. .  .  .  THE  RET.  CANON  OVERTON. 

A.  F.  P. ...  A.  F.  POLLARD. 

D'A.  P.  ...  D'Ancs  POWER,  F.R.C.S. 

E.  R.   ....  ERNEST  RADFORD. 

F.  R.   ....  FRABER  RAE. 

W.  P.  R.  .  .  THE  HON.  W.  P.  REEVES. 
J.  M.  R. .  .  .  J.  M.  Rioo. 

JOBX  SABUU  THE  RT.  RET.  THE    BISHOP  OF 
SALISBURY. 


T.  8 THOMAS  SECCOMBE. 

A.  S-K.  .  .  .  ARTHUR  SIDGWICK. 
C.  S-H.  .  .  .  CECIL  SMITH. 

C.  F.  S.  .  .  .  Miss  C.  FELL  SMITH. 

L.  T.  S. .  .  .  Miss  LUCY  TOULMIN  SMITH. 

L.  8 LESLIE  STEPHEN. 

J.  H.  S. .  .  .  J.  H.  STETEJJHON. 
G.  S-H.  .  .  .  GEORGE  STRONACH. 

B.  N.  S. .  .  .  MRS.  NAPIER  STURT. 
H.  R.  T.    .  .  H.  R.  TEDDER,  F.S.A. 

D.  LL.  T.  .  .  D.  LLEUFER  THOMAS. 

H.  L.  T.    .  .  THE  RET.  H.  L.  THOMPSON. 

E.  B.  T..  .  .  PROFESSOR  E.  B.  TYLOR,  F.R.S. 
R.  Y.  T. .  .  .  PROFESSOR  R.  Y.  TYRRELL,  D.C.L. 
R.  H.  V.   .  .  COLONEL   R.    H.    VETCH,    R.E., 

C.B. 

A.  W.  W.  .  .  DR.  A.   W.   WARD,    MASTER    OF 

PETERHOUSE,  CAMBRIDGE. 

P.  W PAUL  WATERHOUSE. 

W.  W.  W.    .  MAJOR    W.    W.    WEBB,    M.D., 

F.S.A. 
W.  F.  R.  W.  PROFESSOR  WELDON,  F.R.S. 

B.  B.  W.   .  .  B.  B.  WOODWARD. 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

NATIONAL    BIOGRAPHY 


SUPPLEMENT 


How 


How 


HOW,  WILLIAM  WALSHAM  (1823- 
1897),  first  bishop  of  Wakefield,  born 
13  Dec.  1823  at  College  Hill,  St.  Chad's 


congress  speaker.  He  was  offered  and  de- 
clined the  bishoprics  of  Natal  (1867),  New- 
Zealand  (1868),  Montreal  (1869),  Cape  Town 


A  full  Index  to  the  Dictionary,  including  the  Supplement,  is  in 
preparation.  The  names  of  articles  appearing  both  in  the  substantive 
work  and  in  the  Supplement  will  be  set  forth  there  in  a  single  alphabet 
with  precise  references  to  volume  and  page. 


The  following  are  some  of  the  chief  articles 

THOMAS     HENRY     HUXLEY,     by     Professor 

Weldon,  F.R.S. 
SIR  JOHN   RENNET   LAWES,    by  Sir   Ernest  ! 

Clarke,  F.S.A. 

BENJAMIN  JOWETT,  by  Dr.  Evelyn  Abbott. 
SIB  AUSTEN  LAYARD,  by  Mr.  L.  W.  King,  of 

the  British  Museum. 

LORD  LEIGHTON,  by  Sir  Walter  Armstrong. 
HENEY  GEORGE  LIDDELL,  Dean  of   Christ 

Church,  by  the  Kev.  H.  L.  Thompson. 
FREDERICK  LOCKEE-LAMPSON,  by  Mr.  Austin 

Dobson. 
JAMES     MARTINEAU,     by     Rev.    Alexander 

Gordon. 
FRIEDRICH  MAX  MULLER,  by  Professor  A.  A. 

Mae.donell. 
SIR  JOHN  EVERETT  MILLAIS,  by  Mr.  Cosmo 

Monkhouse. 

WILLIAM  MORRIS,  by  Mr.  J.  W.  MACKAIL. 
SIR  CHARLES  NEWTON,  Archaeologist,  by  Mr. 

Cecil  Smith. 
SIR  JAMES  PAGET,  by  Mr.  D'Arcy  Power. 


in  this  volume : 

SIB  HENRY   PARKES,  Australian  Statesman, 

by  Mr.  A.  Patchett  Martin. 
COVENTRY      PATMOBE,     by     Dr.     Richard 

Garnett,  C.B.,  LL.D. 
JAMBS  PAYN,  by  Mr  Leslie  Stephen. 
JOHN  LOUGHBOBOUGH  PEABSON,  Architect, 

by  Mr.  Paul  Waterhouse. 
GENERAL  PITT-RIVEBS,  Anthropologist,   by 

Professor  E.  B.  Tylor,  F.R.S. 
SIMS  REEVES,  by  Mr.  F.  G.  Edwards. 
SIB  HEBCULES  ROBINSON,  Lord  Rosmead,  by 

Mr.  C.  Alexander  Harris,  C.M.G. 
JOHN  RUSKIN,  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Cook. 
LORD  RUSSELL  OF  KILLOWEN,  by  Mr.  Justice 

Mathew. 
PROFESSOR  HENRY  SIDGWICK,  by  Mr.  Leslie 

Stephen. 
JOHN   PATRICK    CRICHTON    STUART,   Third 

Marquis  of  Bute,  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Stevenson. 
SIR    ARTHUR    SULLIVAN,    by    Mr.     F.    G. 

Edwards. 
QUEEN  VICTORIA,  by  Mr.  Sidney  Lee. 


Supplement. 


vi      List  of  Writers  to  Volume  III. — Supplement. 


J.  R.  M. .  .  .  J.  R.  MACDONALD. 

A.  A.  M. .  .  .  PBorsmoB  A.  A.  MACDONELL. 

J.  W.  M.  .  .  J.  W.  MACKAIL. 

A.  P.  M.    .  .  A.  PATCHKTT  MARTIN. 

J.  C.  M. .  .  .  THE  HON.  MR.  JUSTICE  MATIIEW. 

H.  B.  If.  .  .  THX  RIOHT  HON.  SIR  HERBERT 
MAXWELL,  BART.,  M.P. 

A.  1 1 .  M .   .  .  A.  if .  MILLAR. 

C.  M THE  LATE  COSMO  MONKHOUSE. 

H.  C.  M.  .  .  H.  C.  MOORE. 

N.  M NORMAN  MOORE,  M.D. 

O.  LE  O.  N.  O.  LE  ORTS  NOROATE. 
P.  M.  O'D.  .  F.  M.  O'DoNooHUE. 

E.  O Miss  ELIZA  ORME. 

J.  H.  O. .  .  .  THE  REV.  CAXON  OVERTON. 

A.  P.  P. ...  A.  F.  POLLARD. 

D'A.  P.  .     .  D'ABCY  POWER,  F.R.C.S. 


T.  S THOMAS  SECCOMBE. 

A.  S-K.  .  .  .  ARTHUR  SIDOWICK. 
C.  S  ii.  .  .  .  CECIL  SMITH. 

C.  F.  S.  .  .  .  Miss  C.  FELL  SMITH. 

L.  T.  S. .  .  ,  Miss  LUCY  TOULMIN  SMITH. 

L.  S LESLIE  STEPHEN. 

J.  H.  S. .  .  .  J.  H.  STEVENSON. 
G.  S-H.  .  .  .  GEORGE  STRONACH. 

B.  N.  S. .  .  .  MRS.  NAPIER  STUBT. 
H.  R.  T.    .  .  H.  R-.  TEDDER,  F.S.A. 

D.  LL.  T.  .  .  D.  LLEUFER  THOMAS. 

H.  L.  T.    .  .  THE  REV.  H.  L.  THOMPSON. 

E.  B.  T..  .  .  PROFESSOR  E.  B.  TYLOB,  F.R.S. 
R.  Y.  T. .  .  .  PROFESSOR  R.  Y.  TYRRELL,  D.C.L. 
R.  H.  V.   .  .  COLONEL   R.    H.    VETCH,    R.E., 

C.B. 

A.  W.  W.  .  .  Dn.    A.    W.    WAWTV     MAHTPB     nw 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

NATIONAL    BIOGRAPHY 


SUPPLEMENT 


How 


How 


HOW,  WILLIAM  WALSHAM  (1823- 
1897),  first  bishop  of  Wakefield,  bora 
13  Dec.  1823  at  College  Hill,  St.  Chad's 
parish,  Shrewsbury,  was  eldest  son  of  Wil- 
liam Wyberg  How,  who  belonged  to  an  old 
Cumberland  family  and  practised  at  Shrews- 
bury as  a  solicitor.  He  was  educated  at 
Shrewsbury  school,  and  on  19  Nov.  1840 
entered  at  Wadharn  College,  Oxford.  He 
was  Goodridge  exhibitioner  in  1842,  Warner 
exhibitioner  1842-3,  and  graduated  B.A. 
with  third-class  honours  in  lit.  hum,  on 
10  May  1845,  and  M.A.  on  26  May  1847. 
He  then  passed  through  the  theological 
course  at  Durham,  was  ordained  deacon  De- 
cember 1846,  and  became  curate  at  St. 
George's,  Kidderminster,  under  Thomas  Legh 
Claughton,  afterwards  bishop  of  St.  Albans 
[q.  v.  Suppl.],  from  whom  he  received  an 
excellent  training  for  his  ministerial  work. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  December  1847, 
and  in  1848,  for  family  reasons,  returned  to 
Shrewsbury,  where  he  acted  as  curate  in  the 
parish  of  Holy  Cross.  In  1849  he  married 
Frances  Anne,  daughter  of  Henry  Douglas, 
rector  of  Salwarpe  and  residentiary  canon 
of  Durham.  In  1851  he  became  rector  of 
Whittington  in  Shropshire,  and  remained 
there,  an  exemplary  parish  priest,  for  twenty- 
eight  years.  In  1854  he  was  appointed 
rural  dean  of  Oswestry,  in  1860  honorary 
canon  of  St.  Asaph,  in  1868  proctor  for  the 
clergy  in  convocation,  and  in  the  same  year 
select  preacher  at  Oxford. 

How  soon  became  known  as  a  devotional 
writer,  an  efficient  conductor  of  parochial 
missions,  quiet  days,  and  retreats,  and  a 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


congress  speaker.  He  was  offered  and  de- 
clined the  bishoprics  of  Natal  (1867),  New 
Zealand  (1868),  Montreal  (1869),  Cape  Town 
(1873),  and  Jamaica  (1878),  besides  a 
canonry,  with  superintendence  of  home 
mission  work,  at  Winchester  (1878),  and 
the  important  livings  of  Brighton  (1870), 
All  Saints',  Margaret  Street  (1873),  and 
Windsor,  with  a  readership  to  the  queen 
(1878).  The  first  offer  he  accepted  was  that 
of  suffragan  to  the  bishop  of  London,  with 
episcopal  supervision  of  East  London.  He 
had  to  assume  the  title  of  bishop  of  Bedford, 
because  the  only  titles  which  could  then  be 
used  by  suffragan  bishops  were  those  specified 
in  the  Suffragan-bishop  Act  of  Henry  VIII. 
He  was  consecrated  on  St.  James's  day,  1879, 
and  on  the  following  day  was  instituted  to 
the  living  of  St.  Andrew  Undershaft,  which 
supplied  the  income  for  the  bishop,  and  a 
prebendal  stall  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral; 
in  the  same  year  he  was  created  D.D.  by  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  on  15  June 
1886  by  Oxford  University.  He  resided  at 
Stainforth  House,  Upper  Clapton,  which 
was  generously  put  at  his  disposal  by  the 
owner,  and  became,  as  a  co-worker  said, 
'  the  leader  of  an  East  London  crusade.' 
He  availed  himself  of  the  general  feeling 
that  the  spiritual  destitution  of  East  Lon- 
don was  appalling,  and  enlisted  agencies 
for  remedying  the  situation  from  all  quarters. 
His  first  policy  was  '  to  fill  up  the  gaps 
in  the  ministry,  both  clerical  and  lay,'  and 
for  this  purpose  he  founded  an  '  East  London 
Church  Fund,'  which  met  with  a  ready 
response.  The  Princess  Christian  evinced 


How  : 

the  deepest  sympathy  with  his  work.  He 
secured  pulpits  and  drawing-room  meetings 
in  the  nch  west  i-ml  t<>  h*-lp  t lie  poor  east, 
and  awakened  an  intnv.-t  in  tin*  subject 
in  rich  watering-places  liko  Brighton,  l'un- 
bridgo  Wells,  and  Eastbourne,  and  also  in 
the  public  schools  and  universities.  Being 
recognised  as  a  spiritual  force,  he  attracted 
all  spiritually  minded  people  round  him,  and 
especially  the  clergy  and  laity  in  his  own 
diocese.  He  received  his  clergy  daily  at 
Clapton,  visited  them  at  their  own  homes, 
and  spent  every  available  Sunday  with  one 
or  other  of  them.  But  perhaps  the  work  he 
loved  best  was  that  among  children.  There 
was  no  title  that  he  valued  more  than  that  of 
1  The  Children's  Bishop,'  which  was  popu- 
larly accorded  him,  ana  no  one  of  his  com- 
positions which  he  wrote  with  greater  zest 
than  his  volume  of  sermons  to  children. 

The  bishop's  wife,  who  had  taken  a  large 
share  in  the  London  work,  died  on  28  Aug. 
1887,  and  the  loss  doubtless  affected  Walsham 
How's  decision  when  in  1888  he  accepted  the 
nffer  of  the  new  bishopric  of  Wakefield. 
He  soon  became  as  great  a  power  in  the 
north  as  he  had  been  in  the  south.  He  met, 
perhaps,  with  more  troubles  in  his  new 
sphere  than  in  his  old,  but  his  earnestness, 
tact,  and  geniality  soon  enabled  him  to  over- 
come them,  and  his  death,  which  took  place 
during  his  August  holiday  in  the  west  of 
Ireland  on  10  Aug.  1897,  was  as  much  re- 
gretted in  Yorkshire  as  in  London.  He  was 
buried  at  Whittington,  and  the  enlargement 
of  Wakefield  Cathedral  was  decided  upon 
as  a  fitting  memorial  to  him.  He  left  a 
family  of  five  sons  and  one  daughter.  An 
excellent  portrait  of  him  was  painted  by 
Mr.  II.  L.  Norris  for  Wadham  College  in 
1887,  shortly  before  his  death,  and  there  is 
also  one  painted  by  Edward  Taylor  and 

5 resented  to  him  by  the  clergy  of  St.  Asaph 
iocese  in  1879. 

How  was  a  keen  fisherman  and  an  accom- 
plished botanist,  and  a  most  popular  writer, 
both  in  prose  and  verse.  His  writings  in- 
clude 'Plain  Words,'  four  series  of  admirable 
short  sermons,  the  first  of  which  appeared 
in  1869,  and  is  now  in  its  forty-eighth  edi- 
tion ;  several  other  volumes  of  '  Sermons,' 
published  at  various  times ;  a  '  Commentary 
on  the  Four  Gospels '  for  S.P.C.K.,  begun  in 
1863  and  finished  in  1868,  which  has  had  a 
sale  of  223,000 ;  '  Pastor  in  Parochia '  (1868, 
5th  ed.  1872)  and  '  Pastoral  Work'  (1883), 
which  have  also  had  a  very  large  sale ; 
'  Manual  for  the  Holy  Communion,7 
8.P.C.K.,  1868,  of  which  657,000  copies  have 
been  sold;  'Daily  Family  Prayers'  (1852, 
4th  ed.  1872),  which  are  very  widely  used. 


Howard 

In  1854  he  published,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Rev.  T.  B.  Morrell,  a  compilation  of '  Psalms 
and  Hymns;'  he  was  one  of  the  original 
compilers  of  '  Church  Hymns,1  brought  out 
by  S.P.C.K.  in  1871,  and  Mrs.  Carey  Brock's 
'  Children's  Hymn  Book '  (1881)  was  pub- 
lished under  his  revision.  His  own  original 
hymns  are  very  popular.  His  last  was  the 
hymn  for  Queen  Victoria's  diamond  jubilee, 
written  at  the  request  of  the  Prince  of  Wales 
in  1897,  not  many  weeks  before  his  death. 
He  also  wrote  some  good  sonnets  and  poems 
on  miscellaneous  subjects. 

[Memoir  of  Bishop  Walsham  How,  by  his 
son,  V.  D.  How ;  Bishop  How's  own  writings ; 
Gardiner's  Reg.  Wadham  Coll.  ii.  400  ;  Foster's 
Alumui  Oxon.  1715-1886;  Crockford's  Clerical 
Directory;  private  information  and  personal 
knowledge.]  J.  H.  0. 

HOWARD,  EDWARD  HENRY  (1829- 
.1892),  cardinal,  born  at  Nottingham  011 
'13  Feb.  1829,  was  eldest  son  of  Edward 
Gyles  Howard  (grandson  of  the  twelfth 
Duke  of  Norfolk),  by  his  marriage  with 
Frances  Anne,  eldest  daughter  of  George 
Robert  Heneage  of  Hainton  Hall,  Lincoln- 
shire. He  was  educated  at  Oscott,  and 
afterwards  continued  his  studies  at  Edin- 
burgh. In  his  youth  he  served  the  queen  as 
an  officer  in  the  2nd  life  guards,  but  he 
afterwards  studied  theology,  was  ordained 
priest  by  Cardinal  Wiseman  in  the  English 
College  at  Rome  on  8  Dec.  1854,  and  attached 
himself  to  the  service  of  Pius  IX.  He 
learned  Arabic,  Coptic,  Hindustani,  and  Rus- 
sian, and  became  an  accomplished  linguist. 
For  about  a  year  he  was  employed  in  India 
in  connection  with  a  mission  to  put  an  end 
to  the  Goa  schism,  and  the  rest  of  Uis  eccle- 
siastical career  was  spent  in  Italy.  His 
graceful  and  dignified  bearing  was  familiar 
to  frequenters  of  St.  Peter's,  in  which  basilica 
he  held  the  office  of  archpriest's  vicar.  He 
was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Neocsesaria 
in  partibus  infidelium  in  1872,  and  made  co- 
adjutor bishop  of  Frascati,  an  office  which 
he  retained  for  only  a  few  weeks.  He  was 
created  a  cardinal-priest  by  Pius  IX  on 
12  March  1877,  the  titular  church  assigned 
to  him  being  that  of  St.  John  and  St.  Paul 
on  the  Coslian  Hill.  As  protector  of  the 
English  College  in  Rome — to  which  he 
afterwards  bequeathed  his  magnificent  li- 
brary— he  took  possession  of  that  insti- 
tution on  24  March  1878.  In  December 
1881  he  was  nominated  archpriest  of  the 
basilica  of  St.  Peter,  and  in  that  capacity  he 
also  became  prefect  of  the  congregation 
which  has  the  care  of  the  edifice  itself.  In 
the  spring  of  1884  he  was  raised  by  Leo  XIII 
to  the  dignity  of  cardinal  bishop,  and  trans- 


Howe 


Howe 


lated  to  the  suburbican  see  of  Frascati. 
Having  been  seized  with  a  serious  illness  in 
1887,  he  was  brought  to  England  in  the 
Spring  of  the  following  year.  He  died  on 
16  Sept.  1892  at  Hatch  Beauchamp,  a  villa 
on  the  London  Road,  in  the  extreme  outskirts 
of  Brighton,  and  was  buried  at  Arundel  on 
1  Oct. 

[Oscotian,  1888,  p.  47,  with  portrait;  Illus- 
trated London  News,  24  Sept.  1892,  p.  390; 
Times,  17  Nov.  1892;  Men  of  the  Time,  llth 
edit. ;  Tablet,  24  Sept.  1892,  p.  481.]  T.  C. 

HOWE,  GEORGE  AUGUSTUS,  third 
VISCOUNT  HOWE  (1725  P-1758),  born  in  1724 
or  1725,  was  the  grandson  of  Scrope  Howe, 
first  viscount  Howe  [q.  v.],  and  the  second 
but  eldest  surviving  son  of  Emanuel  Scrope 
Howe,  second  viscount  Howe  (d.  29  March 
1735),  by  his  wife,  Mary  Sophia  Charlotte 
(d.  13  June  1782),  said  by  Horace  Wai  pole 
to  be  an  illegitimate  daughter  of  George  I,  by 
Charlotte  Sophia,  countess  of  Darlington 
(d.  20  April  1725),  wife  of  John  Adolph, 
baron  von  Kielmansegge  (d.  15  Nov.  1717). 
Kielmansegge  was  master  of  the  horse  to 
George  I  as  elector  of  Hanover.  Richard 
Howe,  Earl  Howe  [q.  v.],  and  William 
Howe,  fifth  viscount  Howe  [q.  v.],  were  the 
third  viscount's  younger  brothers.  George 
succeeded  his  father  as  third  viscount  in  the 
Irish  peerage  in  1735,  and  was  returned  to  the 
English  parliament  for  the  town  of  Notting- 
ham on  30  June  1747.  He  was  re-elected  in 
April  1754,  retaining  the  seat  until  his  death. 

In  January  1746-7  Howe  was  nominated 
one  of  the  officers  to  take  part  in  the  cam- 
paign in  Flanders  as  aide-de-camp  to  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland  (Gent.  Mag.  1747,  pp. 
45, 103).  On  1  May  1749  he  was  nominated 
lieutenant-colonel  and  captain  in  the  first 
foot  guards  ;  on  25  Feb.  1757  he  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel,  and  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  60th  foot  or  Royal  Americans.  With 
this  regiment  he  arrived  in  Halifax  in  July. 
On  28  Sept.  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
55th  foot,  recently  raised  for  service  in  the 
American  war,  and  received  the  local  rank 
of  brigadier-general  in  North  America  on 
Dec.  29.  Pitt  nominated  Howe  second  to  Bri- 
gadier-general James  Abercromby  in  com- 
mand of  the  force  destined  to  capture  Ticon- 
deroga  and  Crown  Point  from  the  French, 
and  thus  open  the  route  by  Lake  Champlain 
for  the  invasion  of  Canada.  He  trusted  that 
Howe's  vigour  of  mind  would  compensate 
for  Abercromby's  lethargic  temperament,  and 
knew  that  Abercromby  placed  implicit  con- 
fidence in  him.  Howe  introduced  several  re- 
forms into  the  English  force,  among  others 
inducing  the  officers  to  dress  like  the  men  to 


avoid  a  repetition  of  Braddock's  disaster, 
when  the  officers  were  picked  off  by  the 
enemy's  marksmen.  On  5  July  1758  the 
English  force  proceeded  down  Lake  George, 
and  disembarked  at  nightfall  at  Sabbath  Day 
Point.  Thence  Howe  proceeded  next  morn- 
ing by  land  to  find  a  practicable  route  to 
Fort  Ticonderoga.  On  arriving  at  Trout 
Brook,  two  miles  from  the  outlet  of  the  lake, 
he  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  with  a  French 
detachment,  possibly  shot  by  his  own  men 
in  the  confusion.  His  fall  paralysed  Aber- 
cromby, who  afterwards  failed  before  Ticon- 
deroga. Howe  was  buried  at  Trout  Brook 
in  a  dense  forest,  the  spot  being  marked 
by  a  simple  headstone  bearing  his  name, 
which  together  with  his  remains  was  dis- 
covered in  1890  (Newcastle  Weekly  Chro- 
nicle, Suppl.  2  Jan.  1892).  A  monument 
was  erected  to  his  memory  in  West- 
minster Abbey  by  the  colony  of  Massachu- 
setts, designed  by  James  Stuart  and  sculp- 
tured by  Peter  Scheemakers.  He  was 
unmarried  and  was  succeeded  as  fourth 
viscount  by  his  brother  Richard.  An  en- 
graved portrait  of  Lord  Howe  is  contained 
in  Entick's  '  General  History  of  the  late 
War,'  1779,  iii.  209. 

[G.  E.  C[okayne]'s Peerage;  Collins's Peerage, 
1812,  viii.  144  ;  Mante's  History  of  the  late  War 
in  America,  1772,  pp.  146-7 ;  Cutter's  Life  of 
Putnam,  New  York,  1847,  pp.  88-9;  Williams's 
Hist,  of  Vermont,  Burlington,  1809,  i.  406,  505  ; 
Pouchot's  Memoirs  upon  the  late  War,  ed. 
Hough,  Roxbury,  1866,  i.  109-12 ;  Rogers's 
Journals,  1765,  pp.  105-14;  Reminiscences  of  the 
French  War,  Concord,  1831,  pp.  179-80  ;  Wat- 
son's History  of  Essex  County,  1869,  pp.  84-9  ; 
T.  Hutchinson's  Hist,  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
1749-74,  ed.  J.  Hutchinson,  1828,  pp.  70-1; 
Lossing's  Life  and  Times  of  Schuyler,  New  York, 
1872,  i.  145-52;  Mrs.  Grant's  Memoirs  of  an 
American  Lady,  1846,  pp.  175-80;  Stanley's 
Memorials  of  Westminster  Abbey,  1882,  p.  237 ; 
Official  Return  of  Members  of  Parliament ;  Notes 
and  Queries,  2nd  series  iv.  129-30,  viii.  86, 
7th  series  ix.  87 ;  Walpole's  Letters,  ed.  Cun- 
ningham, 1857,  vol.  i.  p.  civ;  Chesterfield 
Letters,  ed.  Bradshaw,  1892,  iii.  1209  ;  Chatham 
Correspondence,  1838,  i.  339  ;  Annual  Register, 
1758,  pp.  72-3,  17621.94;  Gent.  Mag.  1758, 
pp.  389-90.]  E.  I.  C. 

HOWE,  HENRY  (1812-1896),  actor, 
whose  real  name  was  HENBY  HOWE  HUTCH- 
INSOX,  was  born  of  quaker  parents  in  Nor- 
wich on  31  March  1812.  After  some 
experiments  as  an  amateur  under  the  name 
Halsingham,  he  made  his  debut  at  the  Vic- 
toria theatre  in  October  1834  as  Rashleigh 
Osbaldistone.  At  east-end  and  suburban 
theatres  he  played  Antonio  in  the  '  Merchant 
of  Venice,'  and  Tressel  in  '  Richard  III ; ' 

B2 


Huchown 


Huchown 


and  at  the  Strand,  under  J.  W.  Hammond 
in  1837,  wan  Winkle  in  a  piece  called 
'  Pickwick.'  Many  years  later  he  played 
M  r.  1  'ickwick  in  Albery's  play  at  the  Lyceum. 
The  same  year  he  acted  with  Macready  at 
Covent  Garden,  and  he  participated  in  tlu> 
original  performance  of  the  '  Lady  of  Lyons  ' 
He  also  played  Mark  An- 
tony in  'Julius  Caesar.'  Joining  the  Hay- 
market  under  Webster,  he  remained  there 
without  a  break  in  his  engagement  for  the 
almost  unprecedented  term  of  forty  years. 
Among  innumerable  original  parts  were: 
Brandon  in  Lovell's  '  Look  before  you  Leap  ' 
on  29  Oet  Klfl,  Ernest  de  Fonblanche 
in  the  '  Housed  Lion'  on  15  Nov.  1847, 
Lord  Arden  in  Lovell's  '  Wife's  Secret  ' 
on  17  Jan.  1*4^.  His  characters  included 
Fazio,  Sir  George  Airy  in  the  '  Busy  Body,' 
Lord  Townley  in  the  '  Provoked  Husband,' 
Archer  in  the  '  Beaux'  Stratagem,'  Benedick, 
Joseph  Surface,  Sir  Anthony  Absolute,  Sir 
Peter  Teazle,  Malvolio,  Jaques,  MacdufF, 
Harry  Dornton.  He  used  to  state  that 
there  were  pieces  (such  as  the  '  Lady  of 
Lyons')  in  which,  during  his  gradual  rise,  he 
had  played  every  male  part  from  the  lowest 
to  the  highest.  On  16  Aug.  1879,  at  the 
Vaudeville,  he  was  the  first  Rev.  Otho 
Doxey  in  Richard  Lee's  '  Home  for  Home,' 
and  played  Farren's  part  of  Clench  in  the 
•Girls.'  "  Soon  afterwards  he  took  (Sir)  Henry 
Irring's  role  of  Digby  Grant  in  a  revival  of 
Albery's  '  Two  Roses.'  On  26  Dec.  1881  ,  as 
Mr.  Furnival  in  same  piece,  he  appeared  at 
the  Lyceum,  with  which  his  closing  years 
were  connected.  Here  he  played  characters 
such  as  Old  Capulet,  Antonio  in  '  Much  Ado 
about  Nothing  '  and  '  Twelfth  Night,'  Ger- 
meuil  in  '  Robert  Macaire,'  Farmer  Flam- 
borough  in  '  Olivia,'  Burgomaster  in  '  Faust,' 
and  very  many  others.  He  accompanied 
Sir  Henry  Irving  to  America,  where  he  died 
on  10  March  1896.  He  was  a  thoroughly 
conscientious  actor,  and  an  exceptionally 
worthy  and  amiable  man,  whose  one  delight 
was  to  cultivate  his  garden  at  Isleworth. 
His  son.  Henry  A.  Hutchinson  Howe,  musical 
and  theatrical  critic  on  the  '  Morning  Adver- 
tiser/ predeceased  him,  dying  on  1  June 
1894,  aged  sixty-one. 

[Personal  recollections;  The  Player,  12  May 
1860;  Pa«coe's  Dramatic  List;  Scott  and 
Howard's  BUncbard  ;  Scott's  From  the  Bells  to 
King  Arthur;  Era  Almanack,  various  years; 
Sunday  Times,  various  years;  Theatrical  Notes, 


. 

HUCHOWN  (fi.  14th  cent.),  the  author 
of  several  romances  in  the  old  alliterative 
ve«e,  is  described  by  Wyntoun  as  '  Huchown 
of  the  Awle  Ryale'  (in  one  MS.  'Auld  Ryall  '). 


Wyntouu  eulogises  him  as '  cunnand  in  litera- 
ture,' and  ascribes  to  him  three  romances, 
4  The  Gret  Gest  of  Arthure,' '  The  A wntyre  of 
Gawane,'and  'The  Pvstyll  of  Swete  Susan.' 
Of  these  '  The  Pystyll  of  Swete  Susan '  can 
be  identified  beyond  dispute.  It  exists  in  five 
manuscripts  (two  in  the  British  Museum,  one 
in  the  Bodleian  library,  a  fourth  at  Chelten- 
ham, and  a  fifth  at  Ripley),  and  was  pub- 
lished in  Laing's  'Select  Remains,'  1822, 
and,  besides  several  times  by  German  editors, 
by  the  Scottish  Text  Society  in  '  Scottish- 
Alliterative Poems'from  the  five  manuscripts 
ed.  F.  J.  Amours,  1896-7.  Further,  by  means 
of  an  exhaustive  comparison  with  the 
'Pystyll,'  Dr.  Trauttnann  (Der  Dichter 
Huchoiim  und  seine  Werke  in  Anylta,  1877) 
has  established  the  identification  of  '  The 
Gest  of  Arthure '  with  the  non-rhyming 
alliterative  poem '  Morte  Arthure  '  preserved 
in  the  Thornton  MS.  at  Lincoln,  and  pub- 
lished, ed.  Ilalliwell,  1847,  and  by  the  Larly 
English  Text  Society,  ed.  E.  Brock,  1865. 
The  identification  of  'The  Awn  tyre  of 
Gawaine '  is  still,  however,  a  matter  of  dis- 
pute. Mr.  F.  J.  Amours  (Scottish  Allitera- 
tive Poems)  argues  with  some  plausibility 
for  the  rhyming  alliterative  poem,  '  The 
Awntyres  of  Arthure  at  the  Terne  Wathe- 
lyne,'  preserved  in  the  Thornton  MS.,  in  the 
Douce  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  and  in 
the  Ireland  MS.  at  Hale,  Lancashire,  and 
published  by  Pinkerton  from  the  Douce  MS. 
in  'Scottish  Poems,'  1792,  under  the  title 
'  Sir  Gawain  and  Sir  Galaron  of  Galloway,' 
by  David  Laing  in  '  Select  Remains,'  1822 
(2nd  ed.  1885) ;  by  the  Bannatyne  Club,  ed. 
Sir  F.  Madden,  1839 ;  by  the  Camden  So- 
ciety, ed.  Robson,  1842 ;  and  by  the  Scottish 
Text  Society  in  'Scottish  Alliterative  Poems,* 
ed.  F.  J.  Amours,  1896-7.  This  conclusion 
cannot,  however,  be  regarded  as  more  than 
probable;  and  there  is  even  a  possibility  that 
it  maybe  the  non-rhyming  'Sir Gawain  and 
the  Green  Knight,'  which  is  poetically  of 
great  merit. 

As  to  the  identity  of  the  poet  himself, 
since  his  name  was  Huchown  (French 
Huchon),  it  has  generally  been  supposed 
that  he  was  the  '  gude  Sir  Hew  of  Eglyn- 
toun '  mentioned  in  Dunbar's  '  Lament  for 
the  Makeris.'  A  Sir  Hugh  of  Eglinton,  who 
flourished  between  1348  and  1375,  was  mar- 
ried to  Egidia,  half  sister  of  Robert  II,  and 
was  for  some  years  auditor  of  accounts.  The 
name  of  no  other  Sir  Hew  of  Eglinton 
occurs  in  public  documents  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  and  notwithstanding  some  ingenious 
arguments  to  the  contrary,  there  is  absolutely 
no  reason  for  refusing  to  accept  this  Sir  Hew 
as  the  poet  referred  to  by  D  unbar,  and  there- 


Hudson 

fore  in  all  probability  *  Huchown  of  the  Awle 
Ryale,'  which  two  last  words  have,  with  at 
least  plausibility,  been  interpreted  as  '  royal 
palace.' 

[Authorities  mentioned  in  text ;  Athenaeum, 
1900-1.]  T.  F.  H. 

HUDSON,  SIB  JOHN  (1833-1 893),  lieu- 
tenant-general, born  in  1833,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Captain  John  Hudson,  R.N.,  by  his 
first  wife,  Emily  (d.  9  Oct.  1844),  only  child 
of  Patrick  Keith,  rector  of  Ruckinge  and 
Stalisfield  in  Kent.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Royal  Xaval  School,  New  Cross.  He  ob- 
tained a  commission  in  the  64th  regiment 
on  ~2'2  April  1853,  and  received  his  lieu- 
tenancy on  9  March  1855.  He  served  as 
adjutant  to  his  regiment  throughout  the 
Persian  campaign  of  1856-7.  He  was  pre- 
sent at  the  storm  and  capture  of  Reshire, 
the  surrender  of  Bushire,  the  night  attack 
and  battle  of  Kooshab,  and  the  bombard- 
ment of  Mohumrah,  and  received  a  medal 
with  a  clasp.  At  the  time  of  the  Indian 
mutiny  he  served  as  regimental  adjutant 
in  Bengal  and  the  north-west  provinces, 
and  was  present  in  1857  with  Havelock's 
column  in  the  actions  of  Fatehpur  (12  July), 
Aong  (15  July),  Pandu  Nadi  (15  July), 
Cawnpur  (16  July),  Unao  (29  July),  Bashi- 
ratganj  (29  July),  andBithiir  (16  Aug.)  He 
was  deputy-assistant  adjutant-general  on 
Havelock's  staff  during  the  advance  to  Luck-  | 
now,  was  mentioned  in  the  despatches,  and  | 
received  the  thanks  of  the  governor-general 
in  council.  He  served  as  adjutant  of  the 
64th  foot  during  the  defence  of  Cawnpur, 
and  at  the  defeat  of  the  Gwalior  mutineers, 
and  was  present  in  the  action  of  Kali  Nadi 
(2  Jan.  1858)  and  Kankar  (17  April)  as  well 
as  at  the  capture  of  Bareilly  (May).  He  was 
attached  to  Brigadier  Taylor's  brigade  as 
brigade-major  in  the  actions  at  Burnai, 
Mohamdi,  and  Shahabad.  For  his  services 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain  in 
the  43rd  light  infantry  on  23  July  1858, 
received  a  medal  with  a  clasp,  and  was 
allowed  a  year's  service  for  Lucknow.  On 
22  March  1864  he  received  the  brevet  rank 
of  major. 

.  In  the  Abyssinian  campaign  of  1867-8  he 
was  second  in  command  of  the  21st  Bengal 
native  infantry.  He  was  mentioned  in  the 
•despatches  and  received  a  medal.  On 
13  June  1870  he  received  the  brevet  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel,  and  on  11  April  1873  at- 
tained the  regimental  rank  of  major.  On 
1  Oct.  1877  he  obtained  the  brevet  rank  of 
colonel. 

He  commanded  the  28th  Bengal  native 
infantry  throughout  the  Afghan  war  of 
1878-80,  was  present  during  the  operations 


Hughes 


in  the  Khost,  including  the  affair  at  Matoon, 
and  was  twice  mentioned  in  the  despatches. 
On  22  April  1879  he  attained  the  regimental 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  with 
Sir  Frederick  (afterwards  Earl)  Roberts's 
division  in  the  advance  on  Kabul  in  1879, 
and  with  Brigadier-general  (Sir)  Herbert 
Macpherson's  brigade  in  the  rear-guard  at  the 
engagement  at  Charasiah  on  6  Oct.  1879.  For 
his  services  at  Charasiah  he  was  mentioned  in 
the  despatches.  During  the  operations  round 
Kabul  in  December  he  commanded  the  out- 
post at  Lataband,  and  was  mentioned  in  the 
despatches  for  sallying  out  and  dispersing  a 
hostile  force  which  threatened  to  invest  the 
garrison.  He  received  a  medal  with  two 
clasps,  and  in  1881  was  nominated  C.B. 
He  commanded  the  British  troops  occupying 
the  Khaibar  Pass  from  January  1881  until 
that  force  was  withdrawn. 

In  1885  Hudson  commanded  the  Indian 
contingent  in  the  Soudan  campaign,  \vas 
mentioned  in  the  despatches,  received  a 
medal  with  a  clasp  and  the  Khedive's  star, 
and  was  nominated  K.C.B.  On  his  return 
to  India  he  commanded  a  brigade  of  the 
Bengal  army  from  1886  to  1888.  He  at- 
tained the  rank  of  major-general  on  2  Aug. 
1887,  and  from  1888  to  1889  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  Quetta  division  of  the  Indian 
army.  From  1889  to  1892  he  commanded  a 
first-class  division  of  the  Bengal  army.  On 
13  Jan.  1892  he  became  a  lieutenant-general, 
and  early  in  1893  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  in  Bombay.  He  was  killed  at 
Poona  on  9  June  1893  by  a  fall  from  his 
horse,  and  was  buried  there  on  the  following 
day.  On  7  April  1859  at  Allahabad  he 
married  Isabel  Muir,  second  daughter  of 
Major-general  Charles  Frederick  Havelock 
(d.  14  May  1868)  of  the  imperial  Ottoman 
army,  and  niece  of  Sir  Henry  Havelock 
[q.v.] 

[Hart's  Army  Lists  ;  Times,  10, 12  June  1893  ; 
Burke's  Peerage;  Gent.  Mag.  1859,  ii.  78; 
Roberts's  Forty-one  Years  iu  India,  1897,  ii. 
1GO,  287,  299.J  E.  I.  C. 

HUGESSEN,  EDWARD  HUGESSEN 
KXATCHBULL-  (1829-1893),  first  BAKOH 
BKABOTJRNE.  [See  KNATCHBUXL-HUGESSEN.] 

HUGHES,  DAVID  EDWARD  (1830- 
1900),  electrician  and  inventor,  was  born  in 
London  on  16  May  1830.  His  father,  David 
Hughes,  was  the  son  of  Robert  Hughes,  boot- 
maker, of  London  and  Bala,  Merionethshire, 
In  1837  the  family  went  out  to  Virginia, 
and  David  received  his  education  at  St. 
Joseph's  College,  Bardstown,  Kentucky.  At 
an  early  age  he  displayed  a  talent  for  music, 
inherited  probably  from  his  father,  and  in 


Hughes 


1849  became  professor  of  music  at  the  col- 
lege. His  great  interest  in  experimental 
science  led  to  his  undertaking  the  teaching 
of  natural  philosophy,  and  during  the  tenure 
of  his  double  oflice  the  idea  of  his  type- 
printing  t  elegraph  occurred  to  him.  Although 
(Sir)  Charles  Wheatstone  [q.  v.]  had  ex- 
hibited a  type-printer  at  the  Royal  Poly- 
technic Institution,  London,  in  1841,  the 
first  instrument  available  for  practical  use 
was  that  invented  by  House,  of  Vermont, 
and  adopted  by  the  American  Telegraph 
Company  in  1847.  In  it  the  motion  of  the 
wheel  carrying  the  type  at  the  receiving 
station  was  produced  step  by  step,  by  the 
teeth  of  a  wheel  at  the  transmitting  end 
making  and  breaking  the  electrical  circuit 
as  it  was  rotated.  Hughes  proposed  to  pro- 
duce these  synchronous  rotations  mechani- 
cally, and  only  to  use  the  electric  current 
once  for  each  letter  printed. 

He  resigned  his  position  at  Bardstown, 
and  spent  two  years  working  out  the  details 
of  his  instrument,  which  he  completed  and 
patented  in  1856.  Next  year  it  was  adopted 
by  the  American  Telegraph  Company,  and 
many  of  its  features  are  present  in  the  Phelps 
instruments  now  used  by  them. 

In  1857  Hughes  brought  the  instrument 
to  this  country,  and,  on  its  not  meeting  with 
the  reception  he  expected,  proceeded  to 
France,  where  it  was  purchased  by  the 
government  in  1860  and  installed  on  their 
lines.  During  the  next  ten  years  it  was 
adopted  by  most  of  the  continental  govern- 
ments, and  its  inventor  was  the  recipient  of 
many  decorations  and  honours.  In  1872, 
while  resident  in  Paris,  he  was  elected  a 
foreign  member  of  the  newly  founded  So- 
ciety of  Telegraph  Engineers,  now  the  In- 
stitution of  Electrical  Engineers.  In  1877 
he  settled  in  London,  and  devoted  much  of 
his  time  to  experimental  electrical  work, 
with  apparatus  constructed  by  himself. 

The  telephone,  invented  by  Reiss  in  1861, 
had  been  rendered  a  practical  instrument  by 
Bell  in  1876,  but  his  transmitter  was  still 
unsatisfactory,  even  after  the  introduction  of 
the  carbon  button  into  it  in  1877.  Further 
improvement  was  rendered  possible  by  the 
invention  of  the  'microphone'  in  1878, 
almost  simultaneously  by  Liidtpe  ('  universal 
telephone,'  German  patent,  12  Jan.  1878), 
and  by  Hughes  (Proc.  Royal  Soc.  London, 
8  May  1878).  It  owes  its  action,  as  the 
latter  explained,  to  the  great  variation  of 
electrical  resistance  of  aloose  contact  between 
two  conductors,  on  the  slightest  relative 
motion  of  the  two  parts. 

In  April  1878  D'Arsonval,  in  a  communi- 
cation to  the  Academic  des  Sciences  (Comptes 


Rendus,  Ixxxvi.  832),  called  attention  to  the 
telephone  as  a  sensitive  detector  of  varying 
electric  currents,  and  in  May  1879  Hughes 
exhibited  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
(Proc,  Royal  Soc.  xxix.  56)  a  new '  induction 
balance,'  in  which  a  telephone  replaced  the 
galvanometer  and  current  rectifier  of  Felici 
(Ann.  de  Chim.  et  de  Phys.  xxxiv.  65,  68^ 
1852),  and  with  it  repeated  and  extended  the 
results  obtained  by  Dove  with  his  original 
balance  (Ann.  der  Physik,  xlix.  77,  1840). 

In  1880  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  in  1885  received  the 
society's  gold  medal  '  for  experimental  re- 
search in  electricity  and  magnetism,  and  for 
the  invention  of  the  microphone  and  in- 
duction balance.'  He  had  ceased  to  be  a 
foreign  and  become  an  ordinary  member 
of  the  Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers  in 
1879,  and  after  being  successively  a  member 
of  the  council  (1880)  and  vice-president 
(1882),  he  was  in  1886  elected  president  of 
the  society.  In  his  inaugural  address  he 
gave  an  account  of  his  experiments  on  '  the 
self-induction  of  an  electric  current,'  &c. 
(Journal  Tel.  Eng.  xv.  6),  and  succeeded 
in  arousing  general  interest  in  the  laws  of 
distribution  of  alternating  electric  currents 
in  conductors,  which  had  been  investigated 
mathematically  by  Heaviside  and  others. 

During  the  interval  1879-86  Hughes 
appears  from  his  letters  to  have  convinced 
himself  by  experiment  of  the  existence  of 
electric  waves  in  the  air  surrounding  an 
electric  spark,  and  to  have  discovered  the 
efficacy  of  a  microphone  contact  (coherer) 
in  series  with  a  telephone  or  galvanometer 
and  a  voltaic  cell,  as  a  detector  of  them. 
Unfortunately  these  early  experiments  on 
aerial  telegraphy  were  not  made  public,  and 
it  was  left  for  Hertz  to  demonstrate  the  ex- 
istence of  electric  waves  in  1887,  for  Branly 
to  re-invent  the  coherer  as  a  detector  in 
1891,  and  for  Marconi  to  combine  the  two 
into  a  system  of  wireless  telegraphy  in  1896. 

He  continued  for  the  rest  of  his  life  to 
take  an  interest  in  electrical  matters,  and 
occasionally  took  part  in  the  discussion  of 
papers  read  before  the  Institution  of  Electrical 
Engineers.  In  1889  he  was  elected  a  ma- 
nager, and  in  1891  vice-president,  of  the 
Royal  Institution.  In  1898  the  Society  of 
Arts  conferred  the  Albert  medal  on  him  for 
'  his  numerous  inventions,  especially  the 
printing  telegraph  and  the  microphone.' 

About  this  time  he  began  to  be  troubled 
with  paralysis,  and  died  at  40  Langham 
Street,  W.,  on  22  Jan.  1900,  after  an  attack 
of  influenza.  He  was  interred  at  Highgate 
cemetery.  Leaving  no  issue,  he  bequeathed 
between  300,000/.  and  400,000/.  to  four 


Hughes 


London  hospitals,  and  12,0001.  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  the  Academiedes  Sciences 
of  Paris,  the  Institution  of  Electrical  En- 
gineers, and  the  Societ6  Internationale  des 
Electriciens,  for  the  foundation  of  scholar- 
ships and  prizes  to  be  awarded  for  work  in 
physical  science. 

He  married  Anna,  daughter  of  Dr.  Thomas 
Chadbourne. 

In  person  he  was  fair,  and  rather  below 
the  middle  height;  he  'was  simple  in  his 
tastes,' '  a  most  genial  companion,'  and  pos- 
sessed '  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  informa- 
tion' (CooKE).  Portraits  appeared  in  '  Elec- 
trician,' xliv.  457,  and  the  '  Electrical  Re- 
view,' xlvi.  185,  186. 

[Royal  Soc.  Cat.  of  Scientific  Papers ;  Hughes's 
Papers  in  Comptes  Rendus,  Proc.  Royal  Soc. 
London,  Telegr.  Eng.  Journ.  &c. ;  obituary  no- 
tices by  Cooke,  Journ.  Inst.  Electr.  Eng.  xxix. 
951,  and  by  Munro,  Electr.  Review,  xlvi.  185; 
Rosenberger,  Geschichte  der  Physik  passim; 
Wiedemann,  Elektricitat  passim ;  Prescott's 
Electricity  and  the  Electric  Telegraph,  7th  edit, 
ii.  603  et  seq. ;  Preece  and  Sivewright's  Tele- 
graphy passim  ;  Preece  and  Stubbs's  Telephone 
passim;  Gerard's  Electricite,  vol.  ii.  passim; 
Lodge's  Signalling  through  Space,  3rd  edit.  p. 
88  et  seq. ;  Fahie's  Hist,  of  Wireless  Telegraphy, 
p.  289;  Electrician,  Electrical  Review,  and 
Electrical  Engineer  passim ;  private  informa- 
tion.] C.  H.  L. 

HUGHES,  THOMAS  (1822-1896),  the 
author  of  '  Tom  Brown's  School  Days,'  was 
born  at  Uffington,  a  country  parish  near 
Faringdon  in  Berkshire,  on  20  Oct.  1822. 
His  father  was  John  Hughes  (1790-1857) 
[q.  v.]  His  brother  George  Edward  (1821- 
1872),  who  is  the  subject  of  Tom  Hughes's 
'Memoir  of  a  Brother,' was  thirteen  months 
Tom's  senior ;  he  was  educated  at  Rugby 
and  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  stroked  the  Oxford 
crew  of  1843,  entered  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1848, 
and  practised  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts ; 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Pen  and  Pencil 
Club,  a  skilful  player  on  the  violoncello,  and 
died  at  Hoy  lake,  Cheshire,  on  2  May  1872. 

Tom  spent  almost  all  his  years  up  to  early 
manhood  in  the  closest  companionship  with 
this  elder  brother.  They  went  together  in 
the  autumn  of  1830  to  a  private  school  at 
Twyford,  near  Winchester,  where  they  had 
Charles  Blachford  Mansfield  [q.  v.l  as  their 
schoolfellow.  Tom  Hughes  describes  this 
school  as  being  before  its  time  in  the  culti- 
vation of  athletic  exercises,  for  success  in 
which  prizes  were  regularly  given.  In  Fe- 
bruary 1834  the  two  brothers  were  sent  to 
Rugby,  Tom  being  then  eleven  years  old. 
Their  father  had  been  at  Oriel  with  Dr. 
Arnold,  and  though  he  had  no  sympathy 


with  his  politics  he  admired  his  character 
and  abilities,  and  he  sent  his  sons  to  Rugby 
to  be  under  Arnold. 

The  Rugby  of  that  time  is  described  in 
'Tom  Brown's  School  Days.'  It  has  been 
almost  inevitable  that  readers  should  see 
Hughes  himself  in  Tom  Brown.  But  in  the 
preface  to  '  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford  '  he  com- 
plains of  this  identification.  '  I  must  take 
this  my  first  and  last  chance  of  saying  that 
he  is  not  I,  either  as  boy  or  man.  .  .  .  When 
I  first  resolved  to  write  the  book  I  tried  to 
realise  to  myself  what  the  commonest  type 
of  English  boy  of  the  upper  middle  class 
was,  so  far  as  my  experience  went ;  and  to 
that  type  I  have  throughout  adhered,  trying 
simply  to  give  a  good  specimen  of  the  genus. 
I  certainly  have  placed  him  in  the  country 
scenes  which  I  know  best  myself,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  I  knew  them  better  than 
any  others,  and  therefore  was  less  likely  to 
blunder  in  writing  about  them.'  Readers 
are  bound  to  respect  this  protest.  But  the 
sentiments  and  doings  ascribed  to  Tom 
Brown  were  by  Hughes's  account  those  of 
the  kind  of  boy  that  Hughes  was.  Tom 
Hughes  did  not  become  much  of  a  scholar ; 
in  academical  attainments  he  was  below  his 
brother  George,  both  at  school  and  at  college. 
But  he  rose  high  enough  in  the  school  to 
come  into  that  close  contact  with  Dr.  Arnold 
which  never  failed  to  draw  boys  of  any 
thoughtfulness  into  reverence  for  him.  Tom 
stayed  a  year  at  Rugby  behind  his  brother 
George,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  year  he 
played  for  Rugby  at  Lord's  in  the  annual 
match  against  a  Marylebone  club  eleven. 
Then  in  the  spring  of  1842,  having  matri- 
culated on  2  Dec.  1841,  he  followed  his 
brother  to  Oxford  and  Oriel,  carrying  with 
him  at  least  a  great  cricketing  reputation, 
for  he  played  in  the  June  of  his  first  year  in 
the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  match  at  Lord's. 
The  two  brothers  had  rooms  on  the  same 
staircase,  and  the  genuine  though  unobtru- 
sive seriousness  of  Tom's  character  was  no 
doubt  fostered  by  his  intimacy  with  George. 
But  neither  of  them  seems  to  have  been  at 
all  affected  by  the  religious  movement  of 
their  Oxford  days.  They  associated  with 
their  distinguished  schoolfellows,  Matthew 
Arnold,  Clough,  Walrond,  and  others.  Tom 
Hughes  records  that  in  the  year  before  he 
took  his  degree  he  made  a  tour  with  a  pupil 
in  the  north  of  England  and  Scotland 
(Memoir  of  a  Brother,  p.  88).  He  did 
this  by  the  special  request  of  the  pupil's 
father,  who  was  a  neighbour  and  friend  of 
the  Hughes  family.  Hughes  says  that  he 
frequented  commercial  hotels,  and  heard  the 
corn-law  question  vigorously  discussed,  and 


Hughes 


3 


came  back  from  the  north  '  an  ardent  free- 
trader.' In  other  respects,  he  adds,  •  I  was 
rapidly  falling  away  from  the  political  faith 
in  which  we  had  been  brought  up.  .  .  .  The 
noble  side  of  democracy  was  carrying  me 
away.'  He  was  thus  early  showing  himself 
to  be  the  generous,  teachable,  and  courageous 
Englishman  that  he  was  known  to  be  in 
after  life. 

Having  graduated  B.A.  in  1845,  he  went 
up  to  London  to  read  for  the  bar.  He  had 
been  admitted  at  Lincoln's  Inn  on  21  Jan. 
1845,  but  migrated  to  the  Inner  Temple  on 
18  Jan.  1848,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  ten 
days  later.  He  never  became  a  great  lawyer, 
but  he  studied  diligently,  and  was  able  to 
acquit  himself  creditably  in  professional  busi- 
ness. He  became  Q.C.  in  1869,  and  bencher 
of  his  inn  in  1870.  It  was  through  his  resi- 
dence in  Lincoln's  Inn  that  he  came  under 
the  great  influence  of  his  life.  F.  D.  Maurice 
was  then  chaplain  of  the  Inn,  and,  whilst  his 
personal  character  won  the  reverence  of  the 
young  student,  his  teaching  came  home  to 
his  needs  and  aspirations  and  deepest  convic- 
tions, and  completely  mastered  him.  Maurice 
had  no  more  devoted  disciple  than  Toin 
Hughes.  It  was  the  work  of  his  life  to  put 
in  practice  what  he  learnt  from  Maurice. 
In  the  latter  part  of  1848  he  offered  himself 
as  a  fellow-worker  to  the  little  band  of 
Christian  socialists  who  had  gathered  round 
Maurice,  in  which  Mr.  John  M.  Ludlow,  for 
many  years  Hughes's  closest  friend  and  ally, 
and  Charles  Kingsley,  and  his  old  school- 
fellow Charles  Mansfield,  were  already  en- 
rolled. The  practical  part  of  Christian  so- 
cialism was  the  co-operative  movement,  espe- 
cially in  its '  productive '  form.  This  branch 
of  it  has  been  overshadowed  by  the  vast 
store  system ;  but  it  was  co-operative  pro- 
duction that  had  the  sympathy  and  advocacy 
of  Hughes  and  the  more  enthusiastic  pro- 
moters of  co-operation.  In  his  later  years 
Hughes  was  accustomed  to  denounce  with 
some  vehemence  what  he  regarded  as  a  de- 
sertion of  the  true  co-operative  principle  by 
those  who  cared  only  for  the  stores,  and  who 
gave  no  share  in  the  business  to  the  employes 
of  the  store  and  the  factory.  The  early  busi- 
nesses set  up  by  the  Christian  socialists  did 
not  prosper,  but  Hughes  never  despaired  of 
the  cause.  He  was  one  of  the  most  diligent 
and  ardent  of  its  promoters,  attending  con- 
ferences, giving  legal  advice,  and  going  on 
missionary  tours.  He  contributed  to  the 
'  Christian  Socialist '  and  the  '  Tracts  on 
Christian  Socialism,'  and  acted  for  some 
months  as  editor  of  the '  Journal  of  Associa- 
tion.' By  giving  evidence  in  1850  before  the 
House  of  Commons  committee  on  the  savings 


Hughes 

of  the  middle  and  working  classes,  and  by 
other  persevering  efforts,  he  aided  the  passing 
of  the  Industrial  and  Provident  Societies  Act 
(56-7  Victoria,  c.  39)  in  1893. 

Hughes  had  married  in  1848  Frances, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  James  Ford,  and  niece 
of  Richard  Ford  [q.  v.l,  author  of  the  famous 
'  Handbook  of  Spain,  and  near  the  end  of 
1849  his  brother  George  became  once  more 
for  a  short  time  his  companion,  having  joined 
the  young  couple  in  a  small  house  in  Upper 
Berkeley  Street.  Tom  had  chambers  in 
common  with  Mr.  J.  M.  Ludlow  at  No.  3  Old 
Buildings,  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  in  1853  the 
two  friends  agreed  to  build  and  occupy  a  joint 
house  at  Wimbledon.  '  Our  communistic 
experiment,'  says  Mr.  Ludlow  {Economic 
Review,  July  1896,  p.  305), '  was  entirely  suc- 
cessful while  it  lasted,'  which  was  for  four 
years.  It  was  in  this  Wimbledon  house  that 
'  Tom  Brown's  School  Days '  was  written. 
Mr.  Ludlow  records  (ib.  pp.  306,  307)  how 
Hughes  put  into  his  hands  one  night  a  portion 
of  his  manuscript,  and  with  what  surprise  he 
became  aware,  as  he  read,  of  the  quality  of 
the  book.  It  was  shown  without  delay  to 
Alexander  Macmillan  [see  under  MACMILLAN, 
DANIEL],  who  promptly  undertook  to  publish 
it.  Its  completion  was  delayed  by  a  do- 
mestic grief,  the  death  of  Hughes's  eldest 
daughter  ;  but  it  appeared  anonymously  in 
April  1857.  Its  success  was  rapid,  five  edi- 
tions being  issued  in  nine  months. 

This  book  is  Hughes's  chief  title  to  dis- 
tinction. His  object  in  writing  it  was  to  do 
good.  He  had  had  no  literary  ambition,  and 
no  friend  of  his  had  ever  thought  of  him  as 
an  author.  '  Tom  Brown's  School  Days '  is  a 
piece  of  life,  simply  and  modestly  presented, 
with  a  rare  humour  playing  all  over  it,  and 
penetrated  by  the  best  sort  of  English  re- 
ligious feeling.  And  the  life  was  that  which 
is  peculiarly  delightful  to  the  whole  English* 
speaking  race — that  of  rural  sport  and  the 
public  school.  The  picture  was  none  the  less 
welcome,  and  is  none  the  less  interesting 
now,  because  there  was  a  good  deal  that  was 
beginning  to  pass  away  in  the  life  that  it 
depicts.  The  book  was  written  expressly  for 
boys,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  measure 
the  good  influence  which  it  has  exerted  upon 
innumerable  boys  by  its  power  to  enter  into 
their  ways  and  prejudices,  and  to  appeal  to 
their  better  instincts;  but  it  has  commended 
I  itself  to  readers  of  all  ages,  classes,  and 
j  characters.  The  author  was  naturally  in- 
I  duced  to  go  on  writing,  and  his  subsequent 
books,  such  as  '  The  Scouring  of  the  White 
Horse '  (1859)  and  '  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford ' 
(1861)  are  not  without  the  qualities  of  which 
the  '  School  Days '  had  given  evidence ;  but 


Hughes 


it  was  the  conjunction  of  the  subject  and 
the  author's  gifts  that  made  the  first  book 
unique. 

In  January  18o4,  at  a  meeting  of  the  pro- 
moters of  associations,  it  was  resolved,  on  a 
motion  made  by  Hughes,  '  That  it  be  re- 
ferred to  the  committee  of  teaching  and 
publications  to  frame  and,  so  far  as  they 
think  fit,  to  carry  out  a  plan  for  the  esta- 
blishment of  a  people's  college  in  connection 
with  the  metropolitan  associations.'  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  Working  Men's 
College  in  Great  Ormond  Street,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  to  the  end  of  his  life  one  of 
Hughes's  chief  interests.  He  was  not  able 
to  do  much  in  it  as  a  teacher,  but  he  took 
an  active  part  in  carrying  on  its  social  work, 
commanded  its  volunteer  corps,  and  was 
principal  of  the  college  for  ten  years,  from 
1872  to  1883.  He  delighted  the  students  by 
his  geniality,  but  he  never  concealed  from 
them  his  earnest  religious  faith.  One  of  his 
books,  '  The  Manliness  of  Christ '  (1879), 
grew  out  of  what  he  taught  in  a  bible-class 
at  the  college.  In  an  earlier  year,  1861,  he 
had  written  the  first  of  a  series  of  '  Tracts 
for  Priests  and  People,'  issued  by  Maurice 
and  his  friends.  His  tract  was  entitled 
'  Religio  Laici,'  or,  in  a  subsequent  edition 
of  it,  'A  Layman's  Faith'  (1868).  His 
theology  was  Maurice's,  transfused  through 
his  own  Simple  and  devout  mind.  In  all 
that  he  wrote  or  spoke  or  did,  he  was  sincere, 
straightforward,  intolerant  of  deceit  or  mean- 
ness. He  interested  himself  ardently  in 
church  reform,  and  was  a  hearty  member  of 
a  '  church  reform  union,'  when  it  was  origi- 
nated in  1870,  and  again  when  it  had  a  brief 
resuscitation  through  Arnold  Toynbee's 
efforts  in  1886.  His  position  was  that  of  a 
liberal  churchman,  supporting  a  national 
church  with  enthusiasm,  but  desiring  to  make 
it  as  acceptable  and  inoffensive  as  possible  to 
nonconformists.  When  he  became  known 
as  a  social  reformer,  it  was  natural  that  he 
should  be  urged  to  seek  entrance  to  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  he  was  elected  for 
Lambeth  in  1865.  In  1868  he  was  glad  to 
exchange  this  unwieldy  and  unmanageable 
constituency  for  the  borough  of  Frome,  for 
which  he  was  returned  at  the  general  elec- 
tion; he  relinquished  his  candidature  for 
Frome  at  the  general  election  in  February 
1874  (the  seat  was  won  for  the  conservatives 
by  Henry  Charles,  afterwards  Lord  Lopes 

£\.  v.j),  and  was  nominated  for  Marylebone, 
ut  retired  the  day  before  the  poll.  In  the 
House  of  Commons  the  line  he  took  was  defi- 
nitely that  of  a  reformer,  and  especially  of  a 
friend  of  the  working  classes ;  a  trades  union 
bill  he  introduced  was  read  a  second  time 


on  7  July  1869,  but  made  no  further  pro- 
gress. He  was  not  a  very  successful  speaker, 
and,  though  greatly  liked  and  respected,  he 
would  not  have  been  able  to  reach  the  front 
rank  in  politics.  When  Gladstone  went 
over  to  home  rule  for  Ireland,  Hughes's 
opposition  to  that  policy  was  touched  with 
indignation,  and  he  became  a  vehement 
liberal  unionist.  In  1869  he  was  chairman 
of  the  first  co-operative  congress,  and  spoke 
against  the  tendency  to  shelve  '  productive ' 
co-operation,  which  he  never  ceased  to  de- 
nounce. 

The  first  of  three  visits  to  America  was 
made  by  Hughes  in  1870.  One  of  his 
strongest  ties  to  the  United  States  was  his 
admiration  of  Lowell's  '  Poems,'  which  was 
most  fervent.  Mr.  Ludlow  describes  (Eco- 
nomic Review,  July  1896,  p.  309)  how,  being 
asked  by  Triibner  in  1859  to  write  an  in- 
troduction to  an  edition  of  the  'Biglow 
Papers,'  Hughes,  in  his  self-distrustful  way, 
begged  help  from  him,  and  the  introduction 
was  a  joint  composition.  Two  separate 
essays  on  American  history  by  the  same 
authors  were  combined  in  a  volume  published 
in  1862.  One  of  Hughes's  objects  in  going 
to  America  was  to  make  Lowell's  personal 
acquaintance.  He  had  been  warmly  on  the 
side  of  the  north  in  the  civil  war,  and  this, 
added  to  the  fame  of  '  Tom  Brown's  School 
Days,'  made  him  very  popular  in  the  States. 
In  the  course  of  this  visit  he  gave  two 
lectures — one  at  Boston  entitled  '  John  to 
Jonathan,'  another  at  New  York  on  the 
labour  question.  His  subsequent  visits  to 
America  were  connected  with  a  project, 
commenced  in  1879,  which  at  first  awakened 
all  his  enthusiasm,  and  afterwards  caused 
him  much  anxiety  and  considerable  pecuniary 
loss.  His  sanguine,  unsuspicious  temper 
was  not  favourable  to  success  in  business. 
In  conjunction  with  friends  he  bought  a 
large  estate  in  Tennessee,  on  which  a  model 
community  was  to  be  established.  The  place 
was  named  Rugby.  The  purchasers  had 
been  misled  as  to  the  productive  value  of 
the  estate,  and  the  early  settlers  underwent 
a  rather  bitter  disappointment.  Tom  Hughes 
drew  out  of  the  enterprise,  but  his  mother 
went  to  live  at  the  new  Rugby  with  her 
youngest  son,  Hastings  Hughes,  and  after 
ten  years'  residence  died  there  at  a  very 
advanced  age. 

In  July  1882  Hughes  was  appointed  a 
county-court  judge,  and  went  to  live  at 
Chester.  There  he  built  himself  a  house, 
which  he  named  after  his  birthplace,  Uffing- 
ton,  and  he  {pew  old  happily  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  judicial  duties.  His  health 
at  last  gave  way  to  infirmities,  and  he  died 


Huish 


10 


Hulke 


at  Brighton  on  22  March  1896.  In  accord- 
ance with  his  known  wishes  his  funeral 
was  strictly  private,  and  he  was  buried  in  the 
Brighton  cemetery.  Besides  his  wife  he 
left  six  surviving  children,  three  sons  and 
three  daughters.  Two  died  in  childhood, 
and  a  son,  who  was  a  soldier,  died  some  years 
before  his  father  after  military  experience  in 
South  Africa.  A  fine  statue  of  Tom  Hughes 
by  Brock  has  been  erected  in  the  school 
grounds  at  llugby. 

There  are  two  original  portraits,  both  by 
Lowes   Dickinson — one  painted   when   he 
was  a  little  over  forty  years  of  age,  in  the 
possession  of  his  daughter,  Mrs.  Cornish; 
the   other  when  he  was   seventy,  in  the  | 
possession  of  Mrs.  Hughes.     An  addition 
that  is  about  to  be  made  to  the  buildings  of  ! 
the  Working  Men's  College   is  to    be    a 
memorial  of  his  principalship  and  to  bear 
his  name. 

In  addition  to  the  books  which  have  been 
mentioned — '  Tom  Brown's  School  Days,' 
'  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford,'  '  The  Scouring  of 
the  White  Horse,' '  The  Memoir  of  a  Brother/ 
'  The  Manliness  of  Christ ' — Hughes  wrote 
Lives  of  Bishop  Fraser  (1887),  of  Daniel 
Macmillan  (1882),  of  Livingstone  (1889), 
and  of  Alfred  the  Great  (1869), '  The  Old 
Church'  (1878), '  Rugby,  Tennessee '  (1881), 
'Gone  to  Texas'  (1884).  Many  of  his 
addresses  and  shorter  compositions  were 
printed  in  pamphlet  form.  A  series  of  his 
letters  to  the  'Spectator'  were  published 
in  his  lifetime  by  his  daughter,  Mrs.  Cornish, 
under  the  title  of '  Vacation  Rambles '  (1895). 
A  short  fragment  of  autobiography,  which 
has  been  privately  printed,  contains  some 
memories  of  his  early  youth  and  manhood. 

[Personal  knowledge  and  information  given 
by  friends ;  Hughes's  Memoir  of  a  Brother ;  an 
article  by  J.  M.  Ludlow,  '  Thomas  Hughes  and 
Septimus  Hansard,'  in  the  Economic  Review, 
July  1896  ;  Life  of  F.  D.  Maurice;  Brit.  Mus. 
Cat. ;  Off.  Ret.  Members  of  Parl. ;  Lincoln's 
Inn  Records;  Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1715- 
1886,  and  Men  at  the  Bar;  Men  of  the  Time, 
13th  ed.]  J.  LL.  D. 

HUISH,  ROBERT  (1777-1850),  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  son  of  Mark  Huish  of 
Nottingham,  was  born  there  in  1777.  He 
appears  to  have  begun  his  literary  career  by 
writing  a  readable  little  treatise  on  bee- 
culture,  which  was  afterwards  expanded  and 
issued  in  various  forms.  This  was  the  one  sub- 
ject on  which  he  may  perhaps  be  termed  an 
expert.  His  other  works  are  nearly  all  poor 
examples  of  anecdotal,  quasi-historical  book- 
making.  Thev  occasionally  embellish  a 
blank  space  in  biography  with  a  great 
quantity  of  loose  and  fragmentary  gossip, 


but  the  'Quarterly  Review'  spoke  of  him 
with  no  great  injustice  as  an  obscure  and 
unscrupulous  scribbler.  His  fecundity  was 
remarkable,  as  witnessed  by  his  voluminous 
compilations  during  1835-6.  He  executed 
a  few  translations  from  the  German,  and  in 
his  later  years  some  novels  of  a  very  low 
type.  He  died  in  Camberwell  in  April 
1850. 

His  works  comprise :  1.  '  A  Treatise  on 
the  Nature,  Economy,  and  Practical 
Management  of  Bees,'  London,  1815,  8vo. 

2.  '  Memoirs  of  her  late  Royal    Highness 
Princess  Charlotte  Augusta,'  1818, 8vo,  with 
a     separately     issued     supplement,     1818. 

3.  '  The  Public  and  Private  Life  of  George 
III,'  1821,  4to.     4.  'An  Authentic  History 
of   the   Coronation   of    George  IV,'   1821. 
5.  *  Memoirs  of  Caroline,  Queen  of  Great 
Britain,'  1821,  2  vols.  12mo.     6. '  Authentic 
Memoir  of  ...    Frederick,  Duke  of  York 
and  Albany,'   1827,   8vo.     7.  '  Memoirs  of 
George  IV,r  London,  1830,  2  vols.     8.  '  The 
Historical  Galleries    of    Celebrated    Men' 
(authentic  portraits),  1830 ;  only  one  volume 
published.     9.  '  The  Wonders  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom,'  London,  1830.     10.  'The  Last 
Voyage  of  Captain  Sir  John  Ross  ...  to 
the  Arctic  Regions   in   1829-33,'  London, 
1835.      11.  'The   Travels  of  Richard   and 
John    Lander  .  .  .  into     the     interior    of 
Africa,'   1836   (with  a  resume  of  previous 
African  travel).     12.  'A   Narrative  of  the 
Voyages   of  ...  Captain    Beechey  to   the 
Pacific  and  Behring's  Straits,'  London,  1836. 
13.  '  The  History  of  the  Private  and  Political 
Life  of  Henry  Hunt,  Esq.,  his  Times  and 
Co-temporaries,'    1836.      14.    'Memoirs   of 
William    Cobbett,     Esq.,'     1836,    2    vols. 
15.  '  The  Memoirs,  Private  and  Political,  of 
Daniel  O'Connell,'  1836.     16.  '  The  History 
of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  William  IV,  the 
Reform  Monarch  of  England,'  1837.  17. '  The 
Natural  History  and  General  Management 
of  Bees,'  1844.    18.  '  The  Progress  of  Crime  ; 
or,  Authentic  Memoirs  of  Marie  Manning,' 
1849,  8vo.     Nearly  all  his  books  exhibit  vio- 
lent anti-Tory  prejudices. 

[Gent.  Mag.  1850,  i.  681 ;  Quarterly  Review, 
liv.  5;  Athenaeum,  1842,  p.  583;  Brit.  Mus. 
Cat.]  T.  S. 

HULKE,  JOHN  WHITAKER  (1830- 
1895),  surgeon,  born  on  6  Nov.  1830,  was 
fourth  son  of  William  Hulke,  surgeon,  living 
at  Deal  in  Kent.  He  was  from  1843  to  1845 
educated  at  the  Moravian  College,  Neuwied. 
Here  he  gained  his  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  German  language  and  the  groundwork 
of  his  acquaintance  with  natural  history; 
here,  too,  in  the  Eifel  district,  his  interest 


Hulke  i 

in  geology  was  first  awakened.  Returning 
to  England  he  attended  King's  College  school 
during  1846-7,  and  in  1849  he  entered  the 
medical  department  of  King's  College,  Lon- 
don. He  served  as  a  dresser  to  Sir  William 
Bowman  [q.v.  Suppl.]  at  King's  College  Hos- 
pital, and  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England  on 
16  July  1852.  He  then  returned  to  Deal, 
where  he  acted  as  assistant  to  his  father  dur- 
ing his  attendance  on  the  fatal  illness  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  in  September  1852,  and 
he  afterwards  served  the  office  of  house-sur- 
geon to  Sir  William  Fergusson  [q.  v.]  at 
King's  College  Hospital. 

In  1855  Hulke  was  attached  to  the  medi- 
cal staff  of  the  general  hospital  in  the  Crimea, 
and  in  March  of  that  year  he  was  doing 
duty  in  the  English  hospital  at  Smyrna.  In 
September  he  left  Smyrna  for  the  camp  be- 
fore Sebastopol,  where  he  spent  the  winter 
of  1855-6.  He  then  returned  to  England, 
and  after  examination  was  elected  a  fel- 
low of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  on 
23  May  1857.  He  acted  for  a  short  time  as 
tutor  at  King's  College  Hospital,  where  he 
was  elected  assistant  surgeon  in  1857  for  a 
term  of  five  years.  In  1862  he  was  appointed 
assistant  surgeon  to  the  Middlesex  Hospital, 
becoming  full  surgeon  in  1870.  In  1858  he 
was  elected  assistant  surgeon  at  the  Royal 
London  Ophthalmic  Hospital,  Moorfields, 
where  he  became  full  surgeon  in  1868  and 
consulting  surgeon  in  1890. 

At  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Eng- 
land Hulke  filled  in  succession  every  office 
open  to  him,  and  died  during  his  second  year 
as  president.  Winning  the  Jacksonian  prize 
in  1859  with  an  essay  upon  the  morbid 
changes  of  the  retina,  he  was  appointed 
Arris  and  Gale  lecturer  upon  anatomy  and 
physiology  (1868-71),  an  examiner  on  the 
board  of  anatomy  and  physiology  (1876-80), 
on  the  court  (1880-89)/and  on  the  dental 
board  (1883-9).  He  served  as  a  member  of 
the  council  from  1881  to  189o,  a  vice-president 
in  1^8  and  1891,  Bradshaw  lecturer  in  1891, 
president  from  1893  to  1895,  and  his  Hunte- 
rian  oration  was  read  for  him  on  14  Feb.  1895, 
while  he  lay  dying  of  pneumonia. 

He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety in  1867,  his  claim  being  based  exclu- 
sively on  researches  relating  to  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  the  retina  in  man  and  the 
lower  animals,  particularly  the  reptiles.  He 
served  on  the  council  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1879-80  and  again  in  1888-9.  Elected  a 
member  of  the  Geological  Society  in  1868, 
he  became  president  from  1882  to  1884,  and  in 
1887  he  was  presented  with  the  Wollaston 
medal,  the  greatest  honour  it  is  in  the  power  of 


Humphry 


the  society  to  bestow.  In  1891  he  was  ap- 
pointed foreign  secretary,  a  position  he  held 
until  he  died. 

In  February  1862  he  was  elected  an 
honorary  fellow  of  King's  College,  and  in 
1878  he  became  a  corresponding  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Phila- 
delphia, and  in  1884  an  honorary  member  of 
the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society.  He 
was  president  of  the  Pathological  Society  of 
London  from  1883  to  1885,  president  of  the 
Ophthalmological  Society  of  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1886-7,  and  president  of  the 
Clinical  Society  in  1893-4. 

He  died  in  London  on  19  Feb.  1895,  and 
is  buried  in  the  cemetery  at  Deal.  He  mar- 
ried, 1  Oct.  1858,  Julia,  daughter  of  Samuel 
Ridley,  but  they  had  no  children. 

Hulke's  name  is  not  associated  with  any 
brilliant  departure  in  surgery,  but  he  was 
wise  and  quick  to  see  what  surgical  move- 
ments would  stand  the  test  of  time ;  an  early 
supporter  of  aseptic  methods,  and,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  a  pioneer  in  cerebral  surgery. 
He  was  highly  skilled  too  in  the  special 
branch  of  ophthalmic  surgery ;  he  was  an 
excellent  pathologist,  and  his  Hunterian 
oration  showed  him  to  be  a  first-rate  botanist. 
A  natural  talent,  aided  by  opportunity,  en- 
abled him  to  make  important  additions  to 
palaeontology,  more  especially  in  connection 
with  the  great  extinct  land  reptiles  (Dino- 
sauria)  of  the  secondary  period.  His  investi- 
gations were  made  in  the  Kimmeridge  clay 
of  the  Dorset  cliffs  and  upon  the  Wealden 
reptiles  of  the  cliffs  of  Brook  and  its  neigh- 
bourhood in  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

[Personal  knowledge  ;  private  information  ; 
British  Medical  Journal,  1895,  ii.  451  ;  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Koyal  Society,  vol.  Iviii.  1895.1 

D'A.  P. 

HUMPHRY,  SIE  GEORGE  MURRAY 
(1820-1896),  surgeon,  born  at  Sudbury  in 
j  Suffolk  on  18  July  1820,  was  third  son  of 
William  Wood  Humphry,  barrister-at-law 
and  distributor  of  stamps  for  Suffolk.  He 
was  educated  at  the  grammar  schools  of  Sud- 
bury and  Dedham,  and  in  1836  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  J.  G.  Crosse,  surgeon  to  the 
Norfolk  and  Norwich  Hospital.  In  1839  he 
left  Norwich  and  entered  as  a  student  at  St. 
Bartholomew's  Hospital  in  London,  where 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Peter  Mere 
Latham  [q.v.],  William  Lawrence  [q.  v.],  and 
(Sir)  James  Paget  [q.v.  Suppl.]  He  passed 
the  first  M.B.  examination  at  the  London 
University  in  1840,  obtaining  the  gold  medal 
in  anatomy  and  physiology,  but  he  never  pre- 
sented himself  for  the  final  examination.  He 
was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons  of  England  on  19  Nov.  1841, 


Humphry 


and  on  12  May  1842  be  became  a  licentiate 
of  tbe  Society  of  Apothecaries.  In  tbe  same 
year  tbree  of  the  surgeons  at  Adden- 
brooke's  Hospital,  Cambridge,  resigned  their 
office,  and  on  31  Oct.  1842  'Mr.  Humfrey' 
was  placed  third  out  of  six  candidates  in  a 
contested  election  for  the  vacant  posts.  This 
appointment  made  him  the  youngest  hos- 
pital surgeon  in  England,  and  he  at  once 
began  to  give  clinical  lectures  and  systematic 
teaching  in  surgery.  In  1847  he  was  invited 
to  act  as  deputy  to  the  professor  of  anatomy, 
and  he  gave  the  lectures  and  demonstrations 
upon  human  anatomy  from  1847  to  1866. 
He  entered  himself  a  fellow-commoner  at 
Downing  College  in  1847,  graduating  M.B. 
in  1852  and  M.D.  in  1859.  On  the  death  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  William  Clark,  the  professor  of 
human  and  comparative  anatomy,  in  1866, 
the  duties  of  the  chair  were  recast,  and 
Humphry  was  elected  professor  of  human 
anatomy  in  the  university.  He  held  this 
office  until  1883,  when  he  resigned  it  for  the 
newly  founded  but  unpaid  professorship  of 
surgery.  In  1869  he  succeeded  Professor 
(afterwards  Sir)  George  Edward  Paget  [q.v.], 
who  was  then  elected  president  of  the  coun- 
jcil,  as  the  representative  of  the  university  of 
Cambridge  on  the  General  Medical  Council. 
In  1880  he  delivered  the  Rede  lecture  before 
the  university  of  Cambridge,  taking  '  Man, 
Past,  Present,  and  Future'  as  the  subject  of 
his  address.  He  served  on  the  council  of 
the  senate  of  the  university,  he  was  an  hono- 
rary fellow  of  Downing,  and  in  1884  he  was 
elected  a  professorial  fellow  of  King's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

At  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Eng- 
land Humphry  filled  all  the  offices  which  his 
physical  strength  and  his  devotion  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  would  permit.  Elected 
a  fellow  on  26  Aug.  1844,  when  he  was  still 
a  year  below  the  statutory  age,  he  served  as 
a  member  of  the  council  from  1864  to  1884, 
was  Arris  and  Gale  lecturer  on  anatomy  and 
physiology  from  1871  to  1873,  a  member  of  the 
court  of  examiners  from  1877  to  1887,  and 
Hunterian  orator  in  1879.  He  declined  to  be 
nominated  for  the  offices  of  vice-president 
and  president. 

He  was  elected  a  F.R.S.  in  1859,  and  he 
served  on  the  council  of  this  society  1870-1. 
He  was  long  a  member  of  the  British  Medi- 
cal Association,  acting  first  as  secretary  and 
afterwards  as  president  of  the  Cambridge 
and  Huntingdon  branch.  He  delivered  the 
address  in  surgery  at  the  general  meeting 
held  at  Cambridge  in  1856,  presided  in  the 
section  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  the 
"Worcester  meeting  in  1882,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  whole  association  at  the  Cam- 


bridge meeting  in  1881.  In  1867  he  presided  : 
over  the  physiological  section  of  the  British  i 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  ; 
and  in  1870  he  gave  six  lectures  on  the  ] 
architecture  of  the  human  body  as  a  part 
of  the  Fullerian  course  at  the  Royal  Insti-  i 
tution  of  London.     He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  formation  of  the  Cambridge  Medical 
Society,  and  for  some  time  was  president. 
He  presided  at  the  annual  meetings  of  the 
Sanitary  Society  of  Great  Britain,  held  in ' 
London  in  1882  and  in  Glasgow  in  1883. 
In  1887  he  was  the  first  president  of  the ! 
Anatomical  Society  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  and  he  served  as  president  of  the 
Pathological  Society  of  London  during  the 
years  1891-3.    He  was  knighted  in  1891. 

Humphry  died  at  his  residence,  Grove) 
Lodge,  on  24  Sept.  1896, and  is  buried  at  the] 
Mill  Road  cemetery,  Cambridge.  A  bust  by 
Wiles  was  presented  to  Addenbrooke's  Hos- 
pital by  the  vice-chancellor  of  the  university. 
A  portrait  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Ouless,  R.A.,  hangs 
in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  and  has  been  en- ' 
graved.  A  portrait  by  Miss  K.  M.  Humphry, ! 
painted  on  the  occasion  of  the  enrolment  of  i 
Professor  Humphry  as  a  freeman  of  his  native  i 
town,  is  in  the  public  hall  at  Sudbury,  Suf- 
folk. 

He  married,  in  September  1849,  Mary, 
daughter  of  Daniel  Robert  McXab,  surgeon, 
of  Epping,  by  whom  he  had  a  daughter  and 
one  son,  Air.  Alfred  Paget  Humphry,  senior 
esquire  bedell  of  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge. 

Beginning  as  a  general  practitioner  with- 
out a  practice,  poor  and  without  influence, 
Humphry  became  the  most  influential  man 
in  the  university  of  Cambridge,  and  con- 
verted its  insignificant  medical  school  into 
one  which  is  world-renowned.  Before  all 
things  he  was  a  scientific  man  and  a  col-; 
lector.  The  Museum  of  Anatomy  and  Sur- 
gical Pathology  engrossed  much  of  his  at- 
tention, and  many  of  his  holidays  were! 
spent  in  journeys  designed  expressly  to 
secure  specimens  to  fill  its  shelves.  As  an 
anatomist  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  workers 
who  attempted  to  bring  human  anatomy 
into  line  with  the  growing  science  of  mor- 
phology. He  was  a  good  and  successful 
surgeon,  though  a  great  operation  was  a: 
severe  trial  to  him.  He  was  the  first  in 
England  to  remove  successfully  a  tumour 
from  the  male  bladder,  and  one  of  the  first 
to  advocate  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  the  suprapubic  method.  He  had  no 
amusements  and  was  sparing  in  all  that  con- 
cerned his  own  indulgence,  but  he  was  most 
hospitable  and  in  large  matters  profusely 
generous.  Having  begun  poor,  he  ended 


rich.  He  was  full  of  research  and  resource, 
and  generally  succeeded  in  getting  his  own 
way,  but  his  aims  were  unselfish  and  were 
always  directed  to  the  improvement  of  his 
profession. 

Humphry's  works  were :  1.  '  A  Treatise 
on  the  Human  Skeleton,  including  the 
Joints,' Cambridge,  1858, 8vo;  an  important 
work  containing  the  results  of  original  re- 
search in  several  directions.  The  excellent 
plates  by  which  the  book  is  illustrated  were 
irawn  by  his  wife.  2.  'On  the  Coagula- 
tion of  the  Blood  in  the  Venous  System 
during  Life,'  Cambridge,  1859,  8vo ;  of  this 
subject  he  had  had  painful  experience  dur- 
ing his  own  illnesses.  3.  '  The  Human  Foot 
and  the  Human  Hand,'  Cambridge  and 
London,  1861,  12mo.  4.  'Observations  in 
Myology,'  Cambridge  and  London,  1872, 
3vo.  5. '  Cambridge :  the  Town,  University, 
and  Colleges,'  Cambridge,  1880,  12mo ;  a 
very  excellent  little  guide  book.  7.  '  Old 
Age :  the  Results  of  Information  received 
respecting  nearly  Nine  Hundred  Persons 
who  had  attained  the  Age  of  Eighty  Years, 
Including  Seventy-four  Centenarians,'  Cam- 
bridge, 1889.  Humphry  was  also  founder 
and  co-editor  (with  Sir  William  Turner, 
M.D.)  of  the  '  Journal  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology,'  Cambridge  and  London,  1866. 

[Personal  knowledge  ;  private  information  ; 
Trans.  Royal  Med.  and  Chirurg.  Soc.  1897,  vol. 
Izxx. ;  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports, 
1896,  vol.  xxxii.]  D'A.  P. 

HUNGERFORD,  MRS.  MARGARET 
WOLFE  (1855?-! 897),  novelist,  eldest 
daughter  of  Canon  Fitzjohn  Stannus  Hamil- 
ton, vicar-choral  of  Ross  Cathedral  and  rector 
of  Ross,  co.  Cork,  was  born  about  1855,  and 
educated  in  Ireland.  Her  early  home  was  at 
St.  Brenda's,  co.  Cork.  She  married,  first, 
Edward  Argles,  a  Dublin  solicitor,  by  whom 
she  had  three  daughters;  and,  secondly, 
Mr.  Thomas  H.  Hungerford,  by  whom  she 
bad  two  sons  and  one  daughter.  She  died 
of  typhoid  fever  at  Bandon  on  24  Jan. 
1897. 

Mrs.  Hungerford  wrote  over  thirty  novels 
dealing  with  the  more  frivolous  aspects  of 
modern  society.  They  had  a  great  vogue  in 
their  day.  The  first,  '  Phyllis,'  appeared  in 
1877  ;  the  most  popular  of  all  was  perhaps 
'  Molly  Bawn  '  (1878).  Most  of  the  books 
appeared  anonymously,  but  a  few  bore  the 
pseudonym  '  The  Duchess.'  Her  plots  are 
poor  and  conventional,  but  she  possessed  the 
Faculty  of  reproducing  faithfully  the  tone  of 
contemporary  society. 

[Allibone's  Diet.,  Suppl.  ii.  872;  Times, 
25  Jan.  1897.]  E.  L. 


3  Hunt 

HUNT,  ALFRED  WILLIAM  (1830- 
1896),  landscape  painter,  born  at  Liverpool 
on  15  Nov.  1830,  was  the  seventh  child,  and 
the  only  son  who  survived  infancy,  of  the 
painter  Andrew  Hunt  [q.  v.J,  by  his  marriage 
with  Sarah  Sanderson.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Liverpool  collegiate  school,  and  gained 
a  scholarship  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Ox- 
ford, in  1848.  In  1851  he  won  the  Newdi- 
gate  prize  for  English  verse,  the  subject  being 
'  Nineveh,'  and  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1852. 
In  1853  he  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  at  his 
college,  which  he  resigned  on  his  marriage  in 
1861 .  In  1882  the  college  paid  him  the  com- 
pliment of  electing  him  an  honorary  fellow. 
He  had  painted  since  the  age  of  eight 
under  his  father's  instruction,  and  had  spent 
his  vacations  during  his  school  and  college 
days  in  sketching  from  nature  in  Scotland, 
Cumberland,  Wales,  and  Devonshire,  and 
in  1850  on  the  Rhine.  He  had  exhibited 
drawings  at  a  very  early  age  at  the  Liver- 
pool Academy,  of  which  he  became  a  member 
in  1850,  and  later  at  the  Portland  Gallery 
in  London.  At  Oxford  he  was  deeply  im- 
pressed by  the  writings  of  John  Ruskin  and 
by  the  art  of  Turner.  James  Wyatt,  the 
well-known  print-seller  in  the  High  Street, 
purchased  his  drawings,  though  not  on  a 
liberal  scale  of  remuneration,  and  encouraged 
him  to  adopt  painting  as  a  profession.  Hunt 
hesitated  for  a  time  between  an  academic 
and  an  artistic  career.  He  was  a  good 
scholar,  a  clear  and  ready  speaker,  and  took 
much  interest  in  politics  as  well  as  litera- 
ture ;  but  he  was  first  and  foremost  an  artist, 
and  Wyatt  turned  the  scale  in  1854  by 
giving  him  a  commission  to  go  to  Wales  and 
paint  as  much  as  he  could.  In  that  year  he 
exhibited  a  picture, '  Wastdale  Head  from 
Styhead  Pass,  Cumberland,'  at  the  Royal 

1  Academy,  and  two  years  later  a  small  oil- 
painting  by  him,  '  Llyn  Idwal,  Carnarvon- 
shire,' was  hung  on  the  line.  It  was  much 
praised  by  Ruskin,  and  was  followed  by 

I  other  landscapes.  These,  however,  were  too 
much  in  the  pre-Raphaelite  manner  to  find 
favour  with  the  hanging  committee.  In 

1857  his  pictures  were  badly  hung,  and  in 

1858  an  elaborate  work,  '  The  Track  of  an 
Old- World  Glacier,'  was  refused.     Ruskin 
protested  vehemently  in  his  notes  on  the 
Academy  against  the  treatment  of  Hunt,  but 
his  combative  championship  did  the  painter 
little  good  in  official  circles.     Hunt  was  at 
this  time   in    close    touch   with  the    pre- 
Raphaelites,  though  not  a  member  of  the 
brotherhood,  and  he  was  one  of  the  original 
members  of  the  Hogarth  Club.  He  exhibited 
at  the  Academy  each  year  from  1859  to  1862, 
but  his  pictures  were  badly  hung,  and  after 


Hunt 


Hunter 


that  time  persistently  refused,  till  he  ceased 
to  send  them  in.  This  discouragement 
caused  him  almost  to  abandon  oil-painting, 
though  he  was  no  less  gifted  in  the  use  of 
oils  than  in  that  of  water-colours.  In  1862 
he  was  unanimously  elected  an  associate  of 
the  Old  Water-colour  Society,  to  which  he 
became  a  regular  contributor.  He  was 
elected  a  full  member  in  1864.  For  about 
seven  years  he  worked  in  water-colours  only, 
but  in  1870  he  again  exhibited  an  oil-painting 
at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  continued  to 
do  so  occasionally  till  within  a  few  years  of 
his  death.  His  contributions  amounted  in 
all  to  thirty-seven.  At  the  gallery  in  Pall 
Mall  East  he  exhibited  more  than  three 
hundred  water-colours,  and  these  represent 
only  a  small  proportion  of  his  life's  work, 
for  he  was  a  rapid  though  a  very  careful 
worker.  He  devoted  much  time  and  energy 
to  the  service  of  the  Royal  Water-colour 
Society,  as  it  has  been  called  since  1881 ; 
this  advance  and  the  prosperity  which  the 
society  has  enjoyed  in  recent  years  were  due 
in  some  measure  to  Hunt's  exertions.  He 
was  a  trustee  of  the  society  from  1879  on- 
wards, and  acted  as  deputy-president  in  1888. 
He  was  largely  instrumental  in  organising 
the  Art  Club,  for  social  meetings  and  tem- 
porary loan  exhibitions,  in  connection  with 
the  society,  which  was  formed  in  1883. 

After  his  marriage  in  1861  Hunt  lived 
for  a  time  at  Durham,  but  in  1865  he  came 
to  London  and  took  a  house,  1  Tor  Villas 
(afterwards  called  10  Tor  Gardens),  Camp- 
den  Hill,  Kensington,  which  had  been  occu- 
pied previously  by  Mr.  James  Clarke  Hook 
and  Mr.  Holman  Hunt.  This  was  his  resi- 
dence during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and 
he  died  there  on  3  May  1896.  A  fine  and 
representative  loan  collection  of  his  works 
was  exhibited  in  the  following  year  at  the 
private  gallery  of  the  Burlington  Fine  Arts 
Club.  Exhibitions  had  been  held  in  his 
lifetime  at  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  and  in 
the  rooms  of  the  Fine  Art  Society  in  New 
Bond  Street  (1884). 

On  16  Nov.  1861  Hunt  married  Margaret, 
second  daughter  of  James  Raine  [q.  v.]  Mrs. 
Hunt,  who,  with  three  daughters,  survives 
him,  is  the  authoress  of  several  novels. 

Hunt  painted  much  at  Durham,  on  the 
Tees,  and  at  Whitby  and  other  places  on  the 
north-east  coast  of  England,  but  also  on  the 
Thames  (Sonning,  Pangbourne,  Windsor, 
&c.),  in  Scotland  and  Wales,  in  Switzerland, 
on  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  and  in  Italy,  Sicily, 
and  Greece,  during  a  tour  of  nine  months 
in  1869-70.  He  visited  America  and  painted 
the  Falls  of  Niagara  in  a  season  of  exceptional 
drought.  He  was  a  devoted  disciple,  but  by 


no  means  a  mere  imitator,  of  Turner.  Like 
Turner,  he  was  a  painter  of  the  sky,  of 
cloud,  sunshine,  and  mist.  He  used  water- 
colour  with  an  exquisite  purity  and  delicacy, 
and  was  no  less  diligent  m  the  exact  study 
of  nature  than  in  acquiring  mastery  over  the 
technicalities  of  his  art.  He  took  a  very 
high  view  of  the  function  of  the  artist,  and 
had  a  deep  and  reverent  love  for  the  beauty 
of  the  world  as  a  manifestation  of  the  divine. 
His  sincere  and  modest  work,  inspired  by 
an  aim  so  spiritual,  did  not  show  to  advan- 
tage in  a  mixed  exhibition,  and  failed  to 
attract  the  attention  it  deserved,  especially 
at  the  Academy ;  but  his  reputation  witli 
collectors  and  good  judges  of  art  stands 
high,  and  is  certain  to  increase.  Most  of 
his  pictures  are  in  private  hands ;  '  Windsor 
Castle' (1889)  is  in  the  Tate  Gallery,  and 
'Working  Late'  (exhibited  in  1873)  is  in 
the  Walker  Art  Gallery,  Liverpool. 

[Times,  5  May  1896;  Daily  Graphic,  7  May 
1896;  Illustrated  London  News,  16  May  1896, 
with  portrait ;  Athenaeum,  9  May  1896;  Cata- 
logue of  Exhibition  at  Burlington  Fine  Arts 
Club,  with  introduction  by  Cosmo  Monkhouse  ; 
other  exhibition  catalogues ;  Graves's  Diet,  of 
Artists ;  private  information.]  C.  D. 

HUNTER,  ROBERT  (1823-1897),  lexi- 
cographer, theologian,  and  missionary,  born 
at  Newburgh,  Fifeshire,  on  3  Sept.  1823,  was 
son  of  John  M.  Hunter,  a  native  of  Wig- 
townshire, and  Agnes  Strickland  of  Ulvers- 
ton,  Lancashire.  His  father  was  a  collector 
in  her  majesty's  excise.  Hunter  attended  at 
the  university  of  Aberdeen,  where  he  gra- 
duated in  1840.  He  received  an  appoint- 
ment in  connection  with  education  in  Ber- 
muda and  resided  there  for  two  years.  On 
account  of  his  work  as  a  naturalist  while 
in  Bermuda  he  attracted  the  attention  and 
elicited  the  warm  commendation  of  Sir 
William  Jackson  Hooker  [q .  v.]  of  Kew,  and 
of  Sir  Richard  Owen  [q.  v.j,  both  of  whom 
advised  him  to  devote  himself  to  branches 
of  natural  science.  Hunter,  however,  pre- 
ferred to  continue  his  studies  for  the  mini- 
stry of  the  free  church  of  Scotland,  and, 
having  attended  the  requisite  theological 
classes  in  Edinburgh,  he  was  licensed  as  a 
preacher  of  the  free  church.  On  22  Oct. 
1846  he  was  ordained  colleague  of  Stephen 
Hislop  [q.v.]  of  the  free  church  mission  at 
Nagpore,  Central  India.  He  gave  nine  years 
of  distinguished  service  to  the  educational 
and  evangelistic  advancement  of  that  popu- 
lous district,  and  while  doing  so  made  several 
important  discoveries  in  geological  science. 
But  failure  of  health  compelled  him  in  1855 
to  return  home.  He  subsequently  assisted 
Alexander  Duff  [q.v.]  in  forming  missionary 


Hunter 


associations  in  the  free  church,  and  from 
1864  to  1866  he  was  resident  tutor  in  the 
theological  college  of  the  presbyterian  church 
of  England  in  London. 

The  remainder  of  Hunter's  life  was  de- 
voted mainly  to  literary  work.     For  seven- 
teen years  he  was  engaged  in  editing  the 
'Encyclopaedic    Dictionary,'    published     in 
1889,  and  reissued  in  1895  by  the  proprietor 
of  the  '  Daily  Chronicle  '  as  '  Lloyd's  Ency- 
clopaedic  Dictionary.'      Sir  Richard   Owen  i 
called  it  '  a  colossal  work.'    It  is  a  monu-  j 
nient  of  wide  knowledge,  clear  arrangement, 
and  judicious  condensation.     He  also  pub-  I 
lished  the  '  Sunday  School  Teacher's  Bible  , 
Manual '   (1893),   now  known   as  Cassell's 
'  Concise  Bible  Dictionary'  (1894),  and  was 
a  frequent  contributor  to  the  '  British  and 
Foreign  Evangelical  Review  '  and  other  reli- 
gious journals  and  periodicals  of  the  day. 

AVhile  engaged  in  literary  work  Hunter 
also  continued  to  render  good  service  in 
evangelistic  work  in  London.  He  founded 
the  Victoria  Docks  Sunday  school  and 
church  in  connection  with  the  presbyterian 
church  of  England,  and  for  over  twenty 
years  conducted  religious  services  at  Seward- 
stone,  near  Tottenham. 

The  university  of  Aberdeen  conferred  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  upon  Hunter  in  1883.  He 
was  also  a  fellow  of  the  Geological  Society, 
a  member  of  the  British  Archaeological  So- 
ciety, and  was  connected  with  other  learned 
bodies.  He  was  a  man  of  vast  learning,  of 
extensive  scientific  attainments,  and  of  great 
application — a  man,  too,  of  a  humble,  gentle, 
and  retiring  disposition  and  of  genuine  piety. 
He  died  on  25  Feb.  1897  at  his  residence  in 
Epping  Forest.  An  earnest  preacher  of  the 
gospel  and  a  devoted  missionary,  he  will 
be  specially  remembered  as  an  experienced 
scientist  and  a  skilful  lexicographer. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned, 
Hunter  published:  1.  'History  of  India,' 
1863.  2.  '  History  of  the  Missions  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  in  India  and  Africa,' 
1873. 

[Information  chiefly  from  the  Eev.  "W.  Hume 
Elliot,  Ramsbottom,  by  whom  a  memoir  of 
Hunter  is  to  be  published  shortly  ;  in  the  Brit. 
Mus.  Cat.  Hunter's  works  are  ascribed  to  two 
different  persons.]  T.  B.  J. 

HUNTER,  WILLIAM  ALEXANDER 
(1844-1898),  lawyer,  born  in  Aberdeen  on 
8  May  1844,  was  the  eldest  son  of  James 
Hunter,  granite  merchant,  by  his  wife,  Mar- 
garet Boddie  of  Aberdeen.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  grammar  school  and  university 
(King's  College)  of  Aberdeen,  entering 
college  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  with  a  high 
place  in  the  bursary  competition.  In  1862- 


1863  he  was  first  prizeman  in  logic,  moral 
philosophy,  Christian  evidences,  botany, 
and  chemistry,  and  in  1864  graduated  as 
M.  A.  with  '  the  highest  honours '  in  mental 
philosophy  and  in  natural  science.  Be- 
sides several  prizes  he  gained  the  Ferguson 
scholarship  in  mental  philosophy,  and  the 
Murray  scholarship  awarded  by  the  univer- 
sity after  a  competitive  examination  in  all  the 
subjects  of  the  arts  curriculum.  With 
this  successful  record  he  was  encouraged  to 
read  for  the  bar,  and  entered  the  Middle 
Temple  in  1865.  After  taking  numerous 
exhibitions  awarded  by  the  council  of  legal 
education,  and  passing  his  examinations 
with  first-class  honours,  he  was  called  to 
the  English  bar  in  1867,  and  joined  the 
south-eastern  circuit. 

For  some  years  Hunter's  work  was  almost 
entirely  educational.  In  1868  he  gained 
the  '  proxime  accessit  Shaw  fellowship ' 
in  philosophy,  which,  like  the  Ferguson, 
is  open  to  graduates  of  all  Scottish  univer- 
sities. Shortly  afterwards  he  took  the 
Blackwell  prize  for  the  best  essay  on  the 
philosophy  of  Leibnitz,  and  on  7  Aug.  1869 
was  appointed  professor  of  Roman  law  at 
University  College,  London.  His  class  was 
never  large,  but  he  devoted  much  time  to 
the  preparation  of  his  lectures,  and  elabo- 
rated a  logical  arrangement  of  the  subject, 
which  afterwards  appeared  in  his  text- 
books. In  1878  he  resigned  the  chair  of 
Roman  law,  and  on  2  Nov.  was  appointed 
professor  of  jurisprudence  in  the  same 
college.  His  lectures  on  this  subject  during 
the  four  years  he  held  the  chair  contained 
much  valuable  criticism  of  Austen  and 
other  writers,  but  the  matter  was  not  pub- 
lished except  in  a  few  magazine  articles. 
L'nder  the  influence  of  John  Stuart  Mill  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  agitation  for  the 
political  enfranchisement  of  women,  and 
aided  in  obtaining  for  them  opportunities  of 
higher  education.  In  1875,  following  the 
example  of  Professor  John  Eliot  Cairnes 
[q.  v.],  he  admitted  women  to  his  class  in 
Roman  law,  and  extended  to  them  the  same 
privilege  when  he  afterwards  became  pro- 
lessor  of  jurisprudence.  In  1882  he  resigned 
his  chair  of  jurisprudence  at  University 
College,  and  in  the  same  year  received  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  university  of 
Aberdeen.  While  professor  at  University 
College  Hunter  acted  from  time  to  time  as 
examiner  in  Roman  law  and  jurisprudence  at 
the  university  of  London,  and  he  wrote  on 
social  and  political  subjects  in  the  '  Ex- 
aminer '  and  other  newspapers.  He  was  for 
five  years  editor  of  the  '  Weekly  Dispatch.' 
In  1875  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  on  the '  Law  of 


Hunter 


16 


Hunter 


Master  and  Servant,'  and  gave  much  atten- 
tion to  the  interpretation  of  the  law  as  it 
affected  labour  disputes.  On  retiring  from 
his  chair  at  University  College  in  1882 
Hunter  gave  whatever  time  was  not  occupied 
in  professional  pursuits  to  political  contro- 
versy. In  conjunction  with  his  friend, 
James  Barclay,  M.P.  for  Forfarshire,  he  took 
part  in  the  attempts  then  being  made  by 
English  and  Scottish  tenant  farmers  to  ob- 
tain compensation  for  improvements.  He 
also  took  up  in  the  same  interest  the  question 
of  railway  rates,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining 
important  improvements  in  restrictions  on 
charges  and  in  the  classification  of  goods 
and  rates.  He  collected  some  materials  for 
a  work  on  private  bill  legislation,  but  this 
was  never  completed. 

In  1885  Hunter  was  elected  member  of 
parliament  for  the  north  division  of  Aber- 
deen by  a  majority  of  3,900  over  the  con- 
servative candidate.  His  friendship  with 
Charles  Bradlaugh  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  and  his 
intimate  acquaintance  with  natives  from  In- 
dia who  had  passed  through  his  hands  as  law 
students  had  familiarised  him  with  Indian 
questions,  and  on  21  Jan.  1886  he  began  his 
career  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  moving 
an  amendment  to  the  address  expressing  re- 
gret that  the  revenues  of  India  had  been 
applied  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  military 
operations  in  Ava  without  the  consent  of 
parliament.  This  was  withdrawn  at  Glad- 
stone's suggestion. 

At  the  general  election  in  the  same  year 
Hunter  declared  himself  in  favour  of  home 
rule,  and  was  returned  for  North  Aberdeen 
unopposed.  In  1888  he  was  appointed  by 
thecouncil  of  legal  education  reader  in  Roman 
law,  international  law,  and  jurisprudence. 
Next  year  the  government,  when  legislating 
on  local  government  in  Scotland,  appro- 
priated probate  duty  to  the  payment  of  the 
fees  of  children  taking  the  three  lowest  stan- 
dards in  elementary  schools.  In  1 890  Hunter 
saw  the  chance  of  completely  freeing  ele- 
mentary education  from  the  payment  of  fees, 
and  urged  that  the  increase  in  the  duties, 
which  the  government  then  imposed  on 
spirits,  should  pay  the  fees  in  elementary 
schools  on  the  standards  above  the  three 
lowest.  This  he  succeeded  in  carrying,  and 
thus  secured  wholly  free  elementary  educa- 
tion for  Scotland.  For  this  service  he  re- 
ceived the  freedom  of  his  native  city  in  1890. 
On  27  Jan,  1891  Hunter  moved  that  the 
resolution  refusing  permission  to  Bradlaugh 
to  take  the  oath  or  make  affirmation  should 
be  expunged  from  the  records  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  this  was  carried  without 
a  division.  He  had  always  been  interested 


in  old  age  pensions,  which  he  was  the  first 
to  press  upon  the  attention  of  parliament, 
and  gave  valuable  assistance  to  those  at- 
tempting to  bring  forward  a  feasible  scheme. 
But  his  health  was  rapidly  failing,  and  he 
seldom  intervened  in  debate  during  his  re- 
maining years  in  parliament.  In  1895  he 
was  re-elected  as  member  for  North  Aber- 
deen by  a  majority  of  3,548,  but  retired  from 
parliament  in  the  following  year  owing  to 
the  state  of  his  health.  On  the  recommen- 
dation of  Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour  he  was  awarded 
a  civil  list  pension  of  200/.  He  died  on 
21  July  1898  at  Cults  in  Aberdeenshire. 

Hunter's  most  important  work  was  'A 
Systematic  and  Historical  Exposition  of 
Roman  Law  in  the  order  of  a  Code  embody- 
ing the  Institutes  of  Gaius  and  of  Justinian, 
translated  into  English  by  J.  A.  Cross,'  Lon- 
don, 1876 ;  2nd  edit,  enlarged,  1885.  The 
chief  characteristic  of  this  work  was  its 
order  of  arrangement,  which  was  based  on 
that  recommended  by  Bentham  for  a  civil 
code.  Under  the  head  of  '  contracts '  some 
important  criticisms  of  Maine's  theory  of  the 
origin  of  Stipulatio  are  given,  and  under 
'  ownership '  a  new  theory  respecting  bona 
fidePossessio  is  put  forward  entirely  opposed 
to  that  of  Savigny.  The  'Introduction  to 
Roman  Law,'  which  appeared  in  1880  (3rd 
ed.  1885),  was  a  smaller  work  containing 
such  parts  of  the  subject  as  students  required 
for  pass  examinations. 

Besides  the  above  works  Hunter  pub- 
lished '  The  Trial  of  Muluk  Chand  for  the 
Murder  of  his  own  Child :  a  Romance  of 
Criminal  Administration  in  Bengal.  With 
an  Introduction  by  W.  A.  Hunter,  LL.D., 
M.P.,'  1888. 

[Personal  knowledge."]  E.  0. 

HUNTER,  SIB  WILLIAM  WILSON 
(1840-1900),  Indian  civilian,  historian,  and 
publicist,  was  born  on  15  July  1840.  His 
father  was  Andrew  Galloway  Hunter,  a 
Glasgow  manufacturer,  who  came  from  Den- 
holm  in  Roxburghshire.  His  mother,  Isa- 
bella, was  a  younger  sister  of  James  Wilson 
(1805-1860)  [q.  v.],  and  he  was  thus  con- 
nected with  Walter  Bagehot  [q.  v.],  who 
married  a  daughter  of  James  Wilson.  He 
was  educated  at  Glasgow,  first  at  the  aca- 
demy and  afterwards  at  the  university,  where 
he  graduated  B.A.  in  1860.  He  then  spent 
some  months  in  study  at  Paris  and  Bonn, 
acquiring  (among  other  things)  a  useful 
knowledge  of  Sanskrit.  At  the  open  com- 
petition for  the  Indian  civil  service  in  1861, 
he  came  out  at  the  head  of  the  list. 

On  arriving  in  India  in  November  1862 
Hunter  was  posted  to  the  lower  provinces  of 


Hunter 

Bengal.  His  first  appointment  was  that  of 
assistant  magistrate  and  collector  in  the  re- 
mote district  of  Birbhum.  Here,  in  addition 
to  his  official  duties,  he  ransacked  old  records 
and  collected  local  traditions,  in  order  to  "ob- 
tain materials  for  publication.  It  is  charac- 
teristic alike  of  his  industry  and  his  ambition 
that  his  first  literary  venture  took  the  form, 
not  of  a  slight  magazine  article,  but  of  a 
considerable  historical  work,  intended  to  be 
the  precursor  of  a  series,  entitled '  The  Annals 
of  Rural  Bengal.'  On  its  publication  in 
1868,  this  was  received  with  universal 
eulogy,  for  it  was  immediately  recognised 
that  India  had  now  found  a  voice  to  make 
the  dry  details  of  administration  not  only 
intelligible  but  attractive.  The  book  has 
since  passed  through  six  editions.  In  1872 
followed  a  yet  more  important  work,  in  two 
volumes,  on  '  Orissa,'  a  province  which  will 
always  be  interesting  for  its  far-famed  temple 
of  Jagannath,  and  which  at  that  time  had 
drawn  special  notice  as  the  scene  of  a  disas- 
trous famine.  Another  publication  of  these 
early  days  was  '  A  Comparative  Dictionary 
of  the  Non- Aryan  Languages  of  India  and 
High  Asia'  (1868),  being  a  glossary  of  139 
dialects  based  mainly  upon  the  collections 
formed  by  Brian  Houghton  Hodgson  [q.  v. 
Suppl.],  with  a  political  dissertation  on  the 
relations  of  the  Indian  government  with  the 
aboriginal  tribes.  Of  this  work  it  should 
be  observed  that  the  author  subsequently 
withdrew  some  of  the  linguistic  inductions, 
and  went  so  far  as  to  describe  it  as  one  '  for 
which  my  opportunities  and  my  knowledge 
were  then  inadequate.' 

Meanwhile,  Hunter  had  been  selected  by 
Lord  Mayo  to  organise  perhaps  the  most 
gigantic  literary  enterprise  that  has  ever 
been  undertaken  by  any  government — a  sta- 
tistical survey  of  the  Indian  empire,  such 
as  Sir  John  Sinclair  [q.  v.]  attempted  one 
hundred  years  ago  for  Scotland.  At  this 
distance  of  time  it  is  difficult  to  realise  the 
density  of  the  ignorance  that  then  prevailed 
with  regard  to  the  fundamental  facts  upon 
which  good  administration  must  be  based. 
No  general  census  had  been  taken,  and  the 
wildest  estimates  of  population  found  ac- 
ceptance. Each  of  the  provinces  remained 
isolated  in  respect  of  its  knowledge  of  the 
rest,  and  the  supreme  government  possessed 
no  information  to  enable  it  to  exercise  the 
duty  of  supervision  or  (if  need  should  arise 
in  case  of  famine)  of  assistance.  So  far  back 
as  1867  the  government  had  resolved  that  a 
gazetteer  should  be  prepared  for  each  of  the 
twelve  great  provinces  of  India.  But  there 
was  no  guarantee  for  uniformity  in  the  exe- 
cution of  the  work.  In  July  1869  Lord 

TOL.  III. — SUP. 


r  Hunter 

Mayo  placed  Hunter  on  special  duty  '  to 
submit  a  comprehensive  scheme  for  utilising 
the  information  already  collected,  for  pre- 
scribing the  principles  according  to  which 
all  local  gazetteers  are  in  future  to  be  pre- 
pared, and  for  the  consolidation  into  one 
work  of  the  whole  of  the  materials  that 
may  be  available.'  This  task  occupied  the 
next  twelve  years  of  Hunter's  life.  His  first 
duty  was  to  travel  over  the  whole  of  India, 
so  as  to  put  himself  into  communication 
with  the  local  officials,  and  see  things  with 
his  own  eyes.  These  tours,  often  repeated, 
gave  him  an  acquaintance  with  every  corner 
of  the  peninsula  such  as  few  others  could 
boast.  As  was  to  be  expected,  he  encoun- 
tered some  opposition  and  not  a  little  per- 
sonal criticism,  directed  chiefly  against  the 
uniform  system  of  spelling  place-names  which 
it  was  necessary  to  introduce.  But  his  en- 
thusiasm and  diplomacy  finally  triumphed 
over  all  obstacles.  The  Hunterian  com- 
promise, based  upon  a  transliteration  of  ver- 
nacular names,  without  any  diacritical  marks 
but  with  a  concession  to  the  old  spelling  of 
places  that  have  become  historical,  has  gra- 
dually won  acceptance  even  in  English  news- 
papers. 

In  September  1871  the  new  post  of 
director-general  of  statistics  to  the  govern- 
ment of  India  was  created  for  Hunter,  who 
was  further  privileged  to  spend  long  periods 
in  England  for  the  greater  convenience  of 
the  work.  In  addition  to  supervising  the 
local  editors  and  drawing  up  the  scheme  of 
the  '  Imperial  Gazetteer,'  he  took  upon  him- 
self Bengal,  the  largest  and  least  known 
province  in  India,  and  also  Assam,  whicli 
then  formed  an  integral  part  of  Bengal. 
'  The  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal '  was 
published  in  twenty  volumes  between  1875 
and  1877.  The  city  of  Calcutta  is  omitted, 
but  the  last  volume  contains  a  valuable 
appendix  on  fishes  and  plants.  'The  Sta- 
tistical Account  of  Assam'  followed,  in  two 
volumes,  in  1879.  The  other  local  gazetteers 
compiled  in  India  raise  the  total  number  of 
volumes  to  128,  aggregating  60,000  pages. 
Meanwhile  the  task  of  condensing  this 
enormous  mass  of  material  into  '  The  Im- 
perial Gazetteer  of  India '  was  going  on  apace. 
The  first  edition,  in  nine  volumes,  appeared 
in  1881 ;  and  a  second  edition,  which  was 
augmented  to  fourteen  volumes,  incorpo- 
rating the  latest  statistics  and  the  results  of 
the  census  of  1881,  appeared  in  1885-7.  It 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  this  will  rank 
among  the  monumental  works  of  reference 
which  our  generation  has  produced.  Hunter, 
of  course,  did  not  accomplish  all  this  single- 
handed.  Among  his  many  gifts  was  that 

C 


Hunter 


18 


Hunter 


of  getting  their  best  work  out  of  his  assis- 
tants, who  were  content  to  merge  them- 
selves in  his  identity.  But  his  was  the 
mind  that  planned  the  whole,  and  his  the 
energy  that  caused  it  to  appear  with  such 
promptitude.  The  stamp  of  his  own  special 
handiwork  may  be  found  in  the  article  on 
'  India,'  which  was  reissued  in  1895  in  a 
revised  form  under  the  title  of  '  The  Indian 
Empire :  its  Peoples,  History,  and  Pro- 
ducts,' forming  a  volume  of  852  pages. 
Here  he  has  given  a  summary  of  his  opinions 
about  many  vexed  questions  in  the  ethnical 
and  religious  history  of  early  India,  which 
he  had  at  one  time  hoped  to  treat  at  greater 
length.  Specially  valuable  is  the  account 

Slven  from  original  sources  of  the  growth  of 
hristianity  in  Southern  India.  A  conden- 
sation of  this  important  work  for  school 
use,  entitled  '  A  Brief  History  of  the  Indian 
Peoples '  (1880),  has  sold  to  the  number  of 
nearly  ninety  thousand  copies,  and  has  been 
translated  into  five  vernacular  languages. 

In  1881,  after  the  first  edition  of  the 
'  Imperial  Gazetteer'  had  passed  through 
the  press,  Hunter  returned  to  India  as  an 
additional  member  of  the  governor-general's 
council.  This  appointment,  which  is  equi- 
valent to  a  seat  in  the  legislature,  was  twice 
renewed,  making  a  term  of  six  years.  Dur- 
ing this  period  his  most  important  duty  was 
to  preside  over  the  commission  on  educa- 
tion, appointed  in  1882  to  regulate  the  diver- 
gent systems  that  had  grown  up  in  the 
several  provinces.  The  report  of  the  com- 
mission, drafted  by  Hunter's  hand  and  almost 
wholly  accepted  by  the  government,  marks 
a  new  departure  in  the  increased  attention 
paid  to  the  elementary  instruction  of  the 
masses,  and  in  the  recognition  of  private  en- 
terprise, whether  displayed  by  missionaries 
or  by  the  people  themselves.  All  subsequent 
improvement  in  education  has  been  upon  the 
lines  of  this  report.  Hunter  was  also  a 
member  of  the  commission  on  finance  that 
sat  in  1886,  and  he  was  sent  to  England 
in  1884  to  give  evidence  before  a  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons  on  Indian  rail- 
ways. Another  post  that  he  filled  was  that 
of  vice-chancellor  of  the  university  of  Cal- 
cutta (1886). 

In  1887  Hunter  finally  retired  from  the 
service  at  the  early  age  of  forty-seven,  to 
devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  working 
up  the  materials  he  had  accumulated  for  a 
great  history  of  India.  During  his  previous 
visits  to  Great  Britain  he  had  resided  at 
Edinburgh,  where  he  went  so  far  as  to  build 
himself  a  house,  which  afterwards  passed 
into  the  occupation  of  Professor  John  Stuart 
Blackie  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  He  now  resolved  to 


settle  at  Oxford.  After  spending  a  few  years 
in  the  city  and  being  initiated  into  aca- 
demical life,  he  bought  a  plot  of  ground 
about  three  miles  out  on  the  Eynsham  road, 
on  the  slope  of  the  Witham  Woods,  com- 
manding a  view  over  the  Valley  of  the  White 
Horse.  Here  he  built  a  comfortable  house, 
which  he  called  Oaken  Holt,  with  accom- 
modation for  his  library  and  also  for  his 
horses  and  his  dogs.  The  superabundance 
of  his  energy  found  vent  in  many  forms, 
especially  in  travel ;  but  he  never  allowed 
pleasure  to  interfere  with  work.  In  former 
times  he  had  written  much  for  the  '  Calcutta 
Englishman.'  He  now  became  a  regular 
contributor  to  the 'Times,' where  his  weekly 
articles  on  Indian  affairs  exercised  great  in- 
fluence. One  of  the  first  things  that  he  did 
after  settling  at  Oxford  was  to  arrange  with 
the  delegates  of  the  Clarendon  Press  for  the 
publication  of  a  series  of  little  volumes  called 
'  The  Rulers  of  India.'  These  were  intended 
as  historical  retrospects  rather  than  personal 
biographies,  their  object  being  to  awaken 
popular  interest  in  the  spectacle  afforded  by 
the  gradual  growth  of  our  eastern  empire. 
He  opened  the  series,  which  now  consists  of 
twenty-eight  volumes,  with  a  model  memoir 
on  the  administration  of  Lord  Dalhousie 
(1890),  and  followed  it  up  with '  Lord  Mayo,' 
condensed  from  a  full-length  biography  which 
he  had  previously  written  in  two  volumes 
(1875).  That  biography  of  Lord  Mayo  is 
notable  for  containing  an  admirable  analysis 
of  the  machinery  of  the  supreme  government 
in  India  which  controls  the  local  administra- 
tions. In  a  book  entitled  '  Bombay,  1885  to 
1890 '  (1892),  Hunter  supplemented  this  by 
a  detailed  examination  of  the  administration 
of  the  Western  Presidency,  under  the  go- 
vernorship of  Lord  Reay.  He  had  at  one 
time  hoped  to  write  the  life  of  Sir  Bartle 
Frere  [q.v.],  the  greatest  of  recent  governors 
of  Bombay ;  but  this  project  fell  through. 
Instead,  he  took  up  the  biography  of  Brian 
Houghton  Hodgson,  the  veteran  orientalist, 
who  had  first  aroused  his  interest  in  the  races 
and  languages  of  India.  Other  publications 
of  this  period  were  '  The  Old  Missionary ' 
(1895),  an  idyll  which  makes  one  regret  that 
he  did  not  more  often  indulge  his  lighter 
vein ;  and  '  The  Thackerays  in  India  '  (1897), 
which  is  worthy  of  its  subject.  He  also  com- 
piled a  bibliography  of  books  about  India, 
Avhich,  out  of  the  abundance  of  his  own 
library,  he  contributed  to  James  Samuelson's 
'  India  Past  and  Present '  (1890). 

All  these  books,  and  not  a  few  others, 
might  be  called  '  Chips  from  an  Anglo- 
Indian  Workshop.'  They  represent  the 
overflow  of  his  literary  activity,  while  his 


Hunter 


Hutton 


,inind  was  none  the  less  bent  on  executing 
the  project  of  a  history  of  India,  which  he 
had  formed  long  ago  during  his  first  years 
of  service  in  Birbhum.  How  thorough 
were  his  early  researches  may  be  seen  from 
the  three  volumes  of  '  Bengal  MS.  Records,' 
which  he  calendared  at  that  time,  though 
he  did  not  publish  them  till  1894,  with  a 
dissertation  on  the  permanent  settlement. 
He  also  compiled  a  catalogue  of  380  historical 
manuscripts  in  the  library  of  the  India 
office.  Hunter  was  not  destined  to  carry 
his  original  design  to  completion.  He  was 
reluctantly  compelled  to  realise  that  no 
individual,  however  laborious,  could  compass 
the  entire  field.  He  therefore  abandoned 
the  early  period  of  Hindu  and  Muhammadan 
dynasties,  and  devoted  himself  to  tracing 
the  growth  of  British  dominion.  This 
limited  design,  on  the  scale  sketched  out  by  j 
the  author,  would  have  filled  five  volumes. 
Only  one  appeared  in  his  lifetime  (1899), 
which  barely  opens  the  subject,  for  it  stops 
with  the  massacre  of  Amboyna  in  1623, 
before  the  English  company  had  founded  its 
first  settlements  on  the  mainland  of  India. 
A  second  volume,  continuing  the  narrative 
to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was 
published  in  November  1900.  The  sample  j 
given  is  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  realise  i 
what  the  bulk  would  have  been,  and  how 
great  the  loss  caused  by  the  author's  prema- 
ture death.  By  his  painstaking  investigation 
of  contemporary  documents,  often  hidden  in 
Portuguese  and  Dutch  archives,  Hunter 
satisfied  the  most  austere  standard  of  an 
historian's  duty.  By  his  wide  generalisations 
and  his  recognition  of  the  influence  exercised 
by  national  character  and  sea  power,  he  j 
shows  himself  a  representative  of  the  modern 
school  of  historical  writing.  The  vigour 
and  picturesqueness  of  his  literary  style  are 
all  his  own. 

In  the  winter  of  1898-9  Hunter  was  called 
upon    to    undertake    the    tedious    railway 
journey  across  Europe  to  Baku  on  the  Cas- 
pian, to  sit  by  the  sick-bed  of  a  son.     On  his 
return  influenza  seized  him,  and  ultimately  i 
affected  his  heart.     He  died  at  Oaken  Holt  j 
on   G  Feb.  1900.     He  was   buried   in  the 
churchyard   of  Cumnor,  his  funeral   being 
attended  by  representatives  of  the  university  ' 
of  Oxford,  by   many  distinguished  Anglo-  j 
Indian  friends,  and  by  a  crowd  of  villagers 
who  mourned  their  benefactor. 

Hunterwasappointed  C.I.E.  in  1878,  C.S.I, 
in  1884,  and  K. C.S.I,  on  his  retirement  from 
India  in  1887.  In  1869  his  own  university 
of  Glasgow  gave  him  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
When  he  first  settled  at  Oxford,  in  1889, 
the  university  conferred  upon  him  the  ex- 


ceptional distinction  of  M.A.  by  decree  of 
convocation,  which  carried  with  it  full  rights 
of  suffrage.  Cambridge  made  him  an  honorary 
LL.D.  in  1887.  He  was  a  vice-president  of 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  and  member  of 
many  learned  bodies  both  in  England  and  on 
the  continent.  He  was  also  proud  of  being 
elected  by  his  neighbours  as  county  coun- 
cillor for  the  Cumnor  division  of  Berkshire. 
On  4  Dec.  1863  Hunter  married  Jessie, 
daughter  of  Thomas  Murray  (1792-1872) 

Ec[.  v.]  She  accompanied  him  in  many  of 
is  journeys,  and  shared  his  literary  toils. 
She  survives  him,  together  with  two  sons, 
of  whom  the  elder  is  a  captain  in  the  army. 

[Private  information.  An  authorised  bio- 
graphy of  Sir  W.  W.  Hunter  is  being  written  by 
F.  H.  B.  Skrine,  formerly  of  the  Bengal  Civil 
Service.]  J.  S.  C. 

HUTTON,  RICHARD  HOLT  (1826- 
1897),  theologian,  journalist,  and  man  of 
letters,  born  at  Leeds  on  2  June  1826,  was 
the  grandson  of  Joseph  Hutton  (1765-1856), 
Unitarian  minister  of  Eustace  Street  congre- 
gation, Dublin,  and  the  third  son  of  Joseph 
Hutton  (1790-1860),  Unitarian  minister  at 
Mill  Hill  chapel,  Leeds.  His  mother  was 
Susannah  Grindal,  eldest  daughter  of  John 
Holt  of  Nottingham.  In  1835  his  father  re- 
moved to  London  to  become  the  minister  of 
the  congregation  at  Carter  Lane.  Richard 
was  educated  at  University  College  School 
and  at  University  College,  under  Augustus  De 
Morgan  [q.  v.],  graduating  B.A.  in  1845  and 
M.A.  in  1849,  and  obtaining  the  gold  medal 
for  philosophy  besides  high  distinction  in 
mathematics.  At  University  College  he  be- 
came intimate  with  Walter  Bagehot  [q.  v.l, 
when  neither  was  more  then  seventeen. 
They  both  delighted  in  discussing  their  sub- 
jects of  study,  and  Hutton  relates  how  on 
one  occasion  they  '  wandered  up  and  down 
Regent  Street  for  something  like  two  hours  in 
the  vain  attempt  to  find  Oxford  Street,'  so 
absorbed  were  they  in  debating  •'  whether  the 
so-called  logical  principle  of  identity  (A  is 
A)  was  entitled  to  rank  as  a  law  of  thought 
or  only  as  a  postulate  of  language.' 

After  spending  two  semesters  at  German 
universities,  first  at  Heidelberg  in  1841  and 
then  at  Berlin,  he  entered  Manchester  New 
College  in  1847  to  prepare  for  the  Unitarian 
ministry.  There  he  studied  under  James 
Martineau  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  and  John  James 
Tayler  Tq.  v.J  His  intention  of  entering  the 
ministry,  however,  came  to  nothing ;  for 
though  he  preached  occasionally,  he  received 
no  call  to  a  permanent  charge,  his  intellec- 
tual discourses,  adorned  by  no  grace  of  de- 
livery, failing  to  secure  appreciation.  For  a 
short  time  he  filled  the  office  of  principal  of 

c2 


Hutton 

University  Hall  in  London,  then  an  impor- 
tant centre  of  nonconformist  education.  In 
1851  he  married,  and  accepted  the  post  of 
editor  of  the  Unitarian  magazine,  '  The  In- 
quirer,' which  was  offered  him  by  the  pro- 
prietor, R.  Kinder.  John  Langton  Sanford 
[q.  v.]  was  associated  with  him  in  the  editor- 
ship in  1852,  and  among  the  contributors 
were  his  brother-in-law,  William  Caldwell 
Roscoe  [q.  v.],  and  Bagehot.  At  a  time 
when  the  traditions  of  Priestley  and  Thomas 
Belsham  were  still  dominant  among  the 
Unitarians,  Hutton  advocated  many  innova- 
tions, and  in  consequence  aroused  the  disap- 
proval of  the  more  conservative.  He  '  at- 
tempted to  prove  that  the  laity  ought  to 
have  the  protection  of  a  litany  against  the 
arbitrary  prayers  of  the  minister,  and  that 
at  least  the  great  majority  of  the  sermons 
ought  to  be  suppressed,  and  the  habit  of  de- 
livering them  discontinued  altogether.'  These 
counsels  of  perfection  were  urged  with  so 
much  ardour  that  Hutton  himself  playfully 
acknowledged,  long  after,  that '  only  a  deno- 
mination of  just  men  made  all  but  "perfect" 
would  have  tolerated  it  at  all.'  In  fact  the 
measure  of  tolerance  he  received  was  not 
large,  his  views  on  doctrine  alienating  those 
who  might  have  disregarded  his  innovations 
in  practice.  His  theology  was  coloured  by 
the  opinions  of  John  Hamilton  Thorn  fq.  v.] 
and  James  Martineau,  when  Martineau's 
name  was  a  word  of  fear  in  quiet  households. 
Kinder  was  repeatedly  requested  to  get  rid 
of  his  young  editors  ;  a  formal  vote  of  cen- 
sure on  them  was  moved  at  the  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  London  district  society,  and  it 
was  even  proposed  to  start  another  paper  on 
more  orthodox  lines.  Under  such  conditions 
Hutton's  tenure  of  office  could  hardly  have 
been  long  continued,  but  in  1853  the  com- 
plete breakdown  of  his  health  compelled  him 
to  relinquish  both  his  editorship  and  his  ap- 
pointment at  University  Hall.  He  found 
himself  threatened  with  consumption,  and 
was  ordered  to  the  West  Indies.  He  re- 
turned from  Barbados  in  better  health  but 
a  widower,  his  wife  having  died  there  of 
yellow  fever. 

Hutton,  finding  his  theological  course  be- 
set with  difficulties,  turned  to  the  study  of 
the  law,  in  which,  however,  he  did  not  long 
persevere.  He  settled  in  chambers  in  Lin- 
coln's Inn,  began  to  read  for  the  bar,  and 
wrote  in  the  'Prospective  Review.'  In 
1855  he  and  Bagehot  became  joint  editors  of 
a  new  magazine,  'The  National  Review,' 
which,  it  is  said,  was  financed  by  Lady 
Byron.  This  journal  they  continued  to 
direct  until  its  cessation  towards  the  close 
of  1864.  During  the  first  four  years  of  its 


20 


Hutton 


existence  they  were  aided  by  Roscoe,  who 
did  some  of  his  best  critical  work  on  this 
paper.  On  his  death  in  1859  Hutton  under- 
took to  edit  his  writings,  which  were  pub- 
lished in  1860  with  a  memoir,  under  the 
title  of  Poems  and  Essays '  (London,  2  vols. 
8vo).  Hutton  was  professor  of  mathematics 
from  1856  to  1865  at  Bedford  College,  Lon- 
don, and  from  1858  to  1860  he  acted  as 
assistant-editor  of  the  'Economist'  [see 
WILSON,  JAMES,  1805-1860]. 

During  this  time  Hutton,  though  writing 
on  many  and  various  subjects,  had  never 
ceased  to  make  theology  his  chief  interest. 
He  had  definitely  abandoned  the  Unitarian 
creed,  and  had  accepted  the  main  principles 
and  beliefs  of  the  English  church.  He  was 
early  drawn  in  this  direction  by  his  friend- 
ship with  Frederick  William  Robertson 
[q.  v.],  whose  acquaintance  he  made  in  1846 
while  Robertson  was  officiating  at  the  Eng- 
lish church  at  Heidelberg.  From  Robertson 
he  received  a  new  conception  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  incarnation,  in  which  he  was  after- 
wards confirmed  by  his  intercourse  with 
Frederick  Denison  Maurice  [q.  v.]  Bagehot 
took  him  to  hear  Maurice  preach  in  Lincoln's 
Inn  chapel,  and  he  was  permanently  im- 
pressed by  his  voice  and  manner.  In  1853 
Maurice  was  so  pleased  with  a  review  of  his 
'  Theological  Essays  '  by  Hutton  in  the  '  Pro- 
spective Review '  that  he  sought  an  intro- 
duction to  him  through  Mr.  Henry  Solly. 
The  acquaintance  rapidly  ripened  into  friend- 
ship, and  Hutton  zealously  assisted  Maurice 
in  his  social  work  in  London.  The  progress 
of  Hutton's  views  on  the  subject  of  the  in- 
carnation is  marked  by  the  publication,  in 
1862,  of  his  '  Incarnation  and  Principles  of 
Evidence/  which  formed  No.  14  of  '  Tracts 
for  Priests  and  People.'  A  doubtful  passage 
in  this  treatise  on  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
birth  was  omitted  on  its  republication  in 
1871  in  his  '  Theological  Essays.' 

In  1861  Hutton  obtained  a  unique  oppor- 
tunity for  placing  his  theological  and  literary 
opinions  before  the  public.  Early  in  the 
year  Mr.  Meredith  Townsend,  who  had  just 
returned  from  India  after  giving  up  the 
'  Friend  of  India,'  purchased  the  '  Spectator,' 
the  well-known  weekly  liberal  paper  which 
had  been  founded  by  Robert  Stephen  Rintoul 
[q.  v.]  in  1828.  Hutton  was  offered  a  half- 
share  in  the  concern,  and  in  June  he  became 
joint  editor  and  part  proprietor.  The  pro- 
posal was  made  by  Mr.  Townsend  at  a  first 
interview,  by  an  afterthought,  when  Hutton 
had  taken  his  leave  and  was  on  his  way 
downstairs ;  but  the  partnership  remained 
unbroken  until  a  few  months  before  Hutton's 
death.  It  was  arranged  that  while  Towns- 


Hutton 


21 


Hutton 


end  attended  to  the  politics,  Hutton  should 
take  charge  of  the  department  of  literature. 
The  position  of  the  journal  was  not  satisfac- 
tory, and  at  the  commencement  of  the  part- 
nership Hutton  and  Mr.  Meredith  further  im- 
paired its  popularity  by  resolutely  espousing 
the  cause  of  the  Northern  States  in  the 
American  civil  war.  Public  feeling  in  Eng- 
land ran  strongly  in  favour  of  the  confede- 
rates, and  it  was  not  until  the  collapse  of 
the  south  in  1865  that  the  courage  of  the 
editors  obtained  its  reward.  The  change  in 
public  opinion  towards  the  close  of  the  war 
gained  the  journal  a  hearing,  and  the  general 
worth  of  its  contents  insured  it  success.  Its 
form  and  character  were  in  many  respects 
novel,  the  '  Saturday  Review '  being  the  only 
similar  journal  in  existence,  for  the  '  Exami- 
ner,' under  Albany  Fonblanque  [q.  v.],  which 
has  been  suggested  as  the  source  of  Hutton's 
inspiration,  was  different  in  character.  The 
editors  consistently  supported  the  liberal 
party  until  its  division  in  1886,  when,  though 
reluctant  to  withdraw  their  allegiance  to 
Gladstone,  they  felt  compelled  to  oppose 
home  rule.  To  Hutton  the  breach  with 
Gladstone  was  especially  painful,  for  the 
two  men  had  long  been  united  by  ties  of 
personal  friendship  and  by  a  remarkable 
similarity  in  their  views  of  life  and  of  the 
relative  importance  of  things  and  causes. 

In  the  'Spectator'  Hutton  found  a  pulpit 
from  which  he  could  speak  on  subjects  nearest 
his  heart,  as  well  as  on  books  and  events  of 
the  day.  In  theological  questions  he  first 
made  his  mark  as  the  champion  of  Chris- 
tianity against  agnostic  and  rationalistic 
teachers.  For  this  task  Hutton  was  qualified 
by  the  breadth  of  his  mind,  the  accuracy  of 
his  understanding,  and  his  profound  know- 
ledge of  current  religious  thought.  Pre- 
eminently catholic  in  spirit  he  was  removed 
from  lesser  party  differences,  and  was  able 
to  comprehend  and  reconcile  many  posi- 
tions which  to  smaller  men  seemed  hope- 
lessly antagonistic.  While  it  would  be 
idle  to  regard  him  as  standing  in  the  first 
rank  of  theologians,  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  any  of  his  contemporaries  influenced 
public  opinion  more  widely.  This  influence 
was  exercised  both  through  the  'Spectator' 
and  by  means  of  the  vast  correspondence  he 
kept  up  with  private  persons  on  matters  of 
religious  controversy.  As  time  advanced 
his  sympathy  with  the  high  Anglican  and 
Roman  positions  increased,  and  while  never 
identifying  himself  with  either  party,  his 
later  friends,  including  William  George 
Ward,  Dean  Church,  and  Canon  Liddon,  were 
drawn  from  both.  For  Cardinal  Newman 
also  he  had  a  great  admiration,  regarding 


the  spiritual  character  of  his  life  as  standing 
in  strange  contrast '  to  the  eager  and  agitated 
turmoil  of  confused  passions,  hesitating 
ideals,  tentative  virtues,  and  grasping  philan- 
thropies amid  which  it  has  been  lived.'  He 
contributed  a  memoir  of  '  Cardinal  New- 
man' in  1891  to  the  series  entitled  'English 
Leaders  of  Religion/ 

Hutton's  later  literary  labours  were  some- 
what overshadowed  by  his  theological  writ- 
ings, but  they  were  not  without  importance. 
His  literary  interests  were  especially  directed 
to  the  great  writers  of  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  and  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Although  in  such  a  field 
he  could  reveal  little  hitherto  unknown,  his 
intense  sympathy  rendered  his  studies  of 
such  writers  as  Scott,  Shelley,  and  Browning 
of  much  value.  On  the  critical  side  his 
work  is  less  satisfactory,  his  keen  apprecia- 
tion of  the  merits  of  his  favourites  frequently 
rendering  him  incapable  of  considering  their 
defects.  In  writers  of  the  late  nineteenth 
century  he  took  less  interest,  and  perhaps  in 
the  '  Spectator '  he  underestimated  the  lite- 
rary value  of  their  work.  In  1865,  on  the 
foundation  of  the  '  Pall  Mall  Gazette,'  Hut- 
ton  was  recommended  to  the  proprietor,  Mr. 
George  Smith,  by  Mr.  Frederick  Greenwood 
for  the  post  of  editor.  Although  Mr.  Smith 
preferred  to  appoint  Greenwood  himself, 
Hutton  became  a  contributor,  and  in  1866 
published  '  Studies  in  Parliament '  (London, 
8vo),  a  series  of  sketches  of  leading  poli- 
ticians, which  had  appeared  in  the  'Pall  * 
Mall  Gazette,'  and  which  are  among  his 
happiest  writings.  In  1871  he  issued  his 
'  Essays,  Theological  and  Literary '  (London, 
2  vols.  8vo).  They  appeared  again,  largely 
recast,  in  1877,  and  in  the  third  edition  of 
1888  the  essays  on  Shelley  and  on  Browning 
were  further  revised.  In  1877  Hutton  lost 
his  early  friend  Bagehot,  and  undertook  to 
edit  his  writings.  This  he  accomplished  in 
three  series.  In  1879  appeared  '  Bagehot's 
Literary  Studies,'  with  a  prefatory  memoir, 
in  1880  his  'Economic  Studies,'  and  in  1881 
his  'Biographical  Studies.'  Each  of  these 
collections  went  through  several  editions, 
the  latest  appearing  in  1895.  To  the  second 
volume  of  this  'Dictionary'  Hutton  contri- 
buted a  notice  of  his  friend. 

Hutton  was  an  original  member  of  the 
Metaphysical  Society,  founded  in  April  1869, 
and  in  August  1885  published  an  article  in 
which  he  gave  a  graphic  sketch  of  the  society 
and  its  chief  members  in  the  'Nineteenth 
Century,'  whose  editor,  Mr.  James  Knowles, 
was  the  founder  of  the  society.  Under  the 
form  of  an  imaginary  debate  on  a  paper  by 
William  George  Ward,  he  reproduced  the 


Hutton 


22 


Huxley 


opinions  and  expressions  of  the  leading  mem- 
bers of  the  society  with  striking  fidelity. 

Hutton  was  a  strong  opponent  of  vivisec- 
tion, and  frequently  attacked  the  practice  in 
the  '  Spectator.'  In  1875  he  served  on  a 
royal  commission  on  the  subject.  The  re- 
port was  unfavourable  to  the  practice,  and 
in  consequence  in  1876  an  act  of  parliament 
was  passed  by  which  persons  experimenting 
on  living  animals  were  required  to  hold  a 
license  from  the  home  secretary. 

From  1886  Button  lived  at  Twickenham 
in  much  retirement,  owing  chiefly  to  his 
second  wife's  long  illness,  giving  up  all 
society,  even  that  of  his  closest  friends. 
His  wife  died  early  in  1897,  and  he  did  not 
long  survive  her.  He  died  on  9  Sept.  1897 
at  his  residence,  Crossdepe,  and  was  buried 
in  Twickenham  parish  cemetery  on  14  Sept. 
'  Round  his  grave  were  grouped  Anglicans, 
Roman  catholics,  and  Unitarians,  in  about 
equal  numbers  and  in  equal  grief.'  He  was 
twice  married  :  first,  in  1851,  to  his  cousin, 
Anne  Mary  (d.  1853),  daughter  of  William 
Stanley  Roscoe  (1782-1843) ;  and  secondly, 
in  1858,  to  Eliza  (d.  1897),  daughter  of 
Robert  Roscoe.  Both  ladies  were  grand- 
daughters of  William  Roscoe  [q.  v.]  the  his- 
torian. He  left  no  children. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned, 
Hutton  Avas  the  author  of :  1.  'The  relative 
Value  of  Studies  and  Accomplishments  in 
the  Education  of  Women,'  London,  1862, 
8vo.  2.  '  Sir  Walter  Scott,'  London,  1878, 
8vo  (Morley's  '  English  Men  of  Letters'). 
3.  '  Essays  on  some  of  the  Modern  Guides 
of  English  Thought  in  matters  of  Faith,' 
London,  1887,  8vo.  4.  '  Criticisms  on  Con- 
temporary Thought  and  Thinkers,'  London, 
1894,  8vo.  He  contributed  '  The  Political 
Character  of  the  Working  Class'  to  'Essays 
on  Reform'  (London,  1867,  8vo),  and  'Re- 
ciprocity '  to  a  volume  of  '  Lectures  on 
Economic  Science,'  published  by  the  Xa- 
tional  Association  for  the  Promotion  of 
Social  Science  (London,  1870,  8vo).  In 
1899  a  volume  of  selections  from  Hutton's 
writings  in  the  '  Spectator,'  entitled  '  Aspects 
of  Religious  and  Scientific  Thought,'  was, 
published  under  the  editorship  of  his  niece,  [ 
Miss  Elizabeth  Mary  Roscoe.  William 
Watson's  '  Lachrymae  Musarum  and  other 
Poems'  (London,  1893,  8vo)  was  dedicated 
to  Hutton  and  Townsend. 

[This  article  is  based  on  a  sketch  of  Hutton's 
career  kindly  supplied  by  Mr.  D.  C.  Lathbury. 
See  also  Hog  ben's  Richard  Holt  Huttoa  of  the 
Spectator,  1900  ;  Academy,  18  Sept.  1897, 
22  April  1899 ;  Inquirer,  18  and  25  Sept.,  2  and 
9  Oct.  1897:  Watson's  Excursions  in  Criticism, 
1893,  pp.  113-20;  Contemporary  Review,  Octo- 


ber 1 897  (by  Miss  Julia  Wedgwood) ;  Bookman, 
October  1897;  Primitive  Methodist  Quarterly, 
January  1898  (by  Robert  Hind)  ;  Wilfrid 
Ward's  W.  G.  Ward  and  the  Catholic  Revival, 
1893  ;  L.  Huxley's  Life  of  Huxley,  1900,  i.  439  ; 
Jackson's  James  Mart iiieau,  1900,  pp.  80,  192-3.] 

HUXLEY,  THOMAS  HENRY  (1825- 
1895),  man  of  science,  was  born  at  Baling 
on  4  May  1825.  His  father,  George  Huxley, 
was  senior  assistant  master  in  a  school  at 
Baling,  which  had  at  that  time  a  considerable 
reputation  under  the  head-mastership  of 
Dr.  Nicholas.  Huxley  was  the  seventh 
child  of  his  parents,  and  the  youngest  of 
those  who  survived  infancy.  His  mother's 
maiden  name  was  Rachel  Withers.  He  says 
of  himself :  '  Physically  and  mentally  I  am 
the  son  of  my  mother  so  completely — even 
down  to  peculiar  movements  of  the  hands, 
which  made  their  appearance  in  me  as  I 
reached  the  age  she  had  when  I  noticed 
them — that  I  can  hardly  find  a  trace  of  my 
father  in  myself,  except  an  inborn  faculty 
for  drawing,  which  unfortunately,  in  my 
case,  has  never  been  cultivated,  a  hot  temper, 
and  that  amount  of  tenacity  of  purpose 
which  unfriendly  observers  sometimes  call 
obstinacy.' 

When  Huxley  was  eight  years  old  he  was 
sent  to  the  school  in  which  hiis father  worked; 
but  the  death  of  the  head-master  led  to  a 
change  in  the  character  of  the  school,  and 
George  Huxley  left  it,  taking  his  family  to 
his  native  town  of  Coventry.  From  this 
time  Huxley  received  little  or  no  systematic 
education,  and  his  reading  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  guided  by  any  definite  plan.  He 
did,  however,  earnestly  and  thoroughly  read 
books  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  At 
fourteen  he  had  read  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
'  Logic,'  and  under  the  influence  of  Carlyle's 
writings  he  had  begun  to  learn  German. 

In  1839  his  two  sisters  married,  and  each 
married  a  doctor.  This  circumstance  seems 
to  have  determined  the  choice  of  a  profession 
for  Huxley  himself,  although  he  tells  us 
that  his  own  wish  at  the  time  was  to  become 
a  mechanical  engineer.  One  brother-in-law, 
Dr.  Cooke  of  Coventry,  strongly  excited  his 
interest  in  human  anatomy,  and  in  1841  he 
went  to  London  as  apprentice  to  the  other, 
Dr.  J.  G.  Scott.  At  the  first  post-mortem 
examination  he  attended  he  was  in  some 
Avay  poisoned ;  a  serious  illness  resulted,  and 
after  the  immediate  effects  had  passed  away 
a  form  of  chronic  dyspepsia  remained,  which 
was  a  source  of  serious  trouble  throughout 
his  after  life. 

In  1842  he  matriculated  at  London  Uni- 
versity, attended  Lindley's  lectures  on 
botany  at  Chelsea,  and  endeavoured,  in  spite 


Huxley 


of  a  still  imperfect  knowledge  of  German,  to 
read  the  great  work  of  Schleiden.  In  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year  he  and  his  elder 
brother  James  obtained  scholarships  at  the 
Charing  Cross  hospital,  where  Huxley  first 
felt  the  influence  of  daily  intercourse  with  a 
really  able  teacher.  He  says  :  '  No  doubt  it 
was  very  largely  my  own  fault,  but  the  only 
instruction  from  which  I  ever  obtained  the 
proper  effect  of  education  was  that  which  I 
received  from  Mr.  Wharton  Jones,  who  Avas 
the  lecturer  on  physiology  at  the  Charing 
Cross  school  of  medicine.  ...  I  do  not  know 
that  I  have  ever  felt  so  much  respect  for  any- 
body as  a  teacher  before  or  since.'  During  the 
next  three  years  he  must  have  accomplished 
an  enormous  amount  of  work.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  ordinary  subjects  of 
professional  study,  but  in  addition  to  this  he 
acquired  in  some  way  or  other  a  remarkably 
thorough  knowledge  of  comparative  anatomy, 
and  a  wide  acquaintance  with  the  writings 
of  the  great  biologists.  In  1845  he  announced 
his  discovery  of  that  layer  of  cells  in  the 
root-sheath  of  hair  which  now  bears  his 
name.  Any  one  who  will  try  to  demonstrate 
the  existence  of  this  layer  by  the  methods  at 
Huxley's  command  will  appreciate  the  power 
of  observation  shown  by  the  discovery. 

He  graduated  M.B.  in  London  University 
in  1845,  winning  a  gold  medal  for  anatomy 
and  physiology.  In  1846,  being  qualified  to 
practise  his  profession,  he  applied  for  an  ap- 
pointment in  the  royal  navy.  An  application 
to  the  director-general,  suggested  by  a  fellow- 
student,  was  successful,  and  he  was  sent  to 
Haslar  hospital  on  the  books  of  Nelson's  ship 
Victory.  Sir  John  Richardson  [q.  v.],  who 
was  Huxley's  chief  at  Haslar,  quickly  recog- 
nised his  qualities,  and  resolved  to  find  him 
an  appointment  which  should  enable  him  to 
prove  his  worth.  Accordingly,  when  Cap- 
tain Owen  Stanley  asked  for  an  assistant 
surgeon  to  be  appointed  to  H.M.S.  Rattle- 
snake, then  about  to  start  on  a  surveying 
cruise  in  the  seas  between  Australia  and 
the  Great  Barrier  Eeef,  Huxley  was  recom- 
mended and  accepted. 

The  Rattlesnake  left  England  on  3  Dec. 
1846,  and  was  paid  off  at  Chatham,  on  her 
return,  on  9  Nov.  1850.  During  the  voyage 
Huxley  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study 
of  animals  which  could  not  be  adequately 
preserved,  for  examination  at  home,  by  any 
methods  then  in  use.  Accordingly  the  first 
results  of  his  work  are  described  in  a  series 
of  memoirs  on  those  delicate  hydrozoa, 
tunicates,  and  mollusca,  which  float  near 
the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  can  be  caught  in 
abundance  from  the  deck  of  a  sailing  vessel 
in  calm  weather.  The  value  of  these  me- 


3 Huxley 

moirs  is  due  as  much  to  the  method  of  mor- 
phological analysis  adopted  as  to  the  very 
large  amount  of  new  anatomical  information 
they  contain.  The  conception  of  a  morpho- 
logical type,  which  was  then  supported  in 
England  by  the  great  influence  of  (Sir)  Richard 
Owen  [q.  v.],  may  be  understood  from  his  de- 
finition of  homology,  Avhich  he  interprets  '  as 
signifying  that  essential  character  of  a  part 
which  belongs  to  it  in  its  relation  to  a  pre- 
determined pattern,  answering  to  the  "idea" 
of  the  archetypal  world  in  the  Platonic 
cosmogony,  which  archetype  or  primal  pat- 
tern is  the  basis  supporting  all  the  modifica.- 
tions  of  such  part  ...  in  all  animals  pos- 
sessing it '  (OwEN,  On  the  Nature  of  Limbs, 
1849).  The  conception  of  morphological 
type  as  an  '  archetypal  idea,'  which  Owen 
had  derived  from  Laurenz  Oken(  1779-1 851), 
the  German  naturalist,  and  his  followers, 
was  clearly  incapable  of  being  tested  by 
experiment,  and  Huxley  from  the  first  re- 
jected it.  For  him,  as  for  Von  Baer  and 
Johannes  M  tiller,  the  only  useful  '  morpho- 
logical type '  was  a  general  statement  of 
those  structural  characters  common  to  all 
members  of  a  group  of  animals  in  the  em- 
bryonic or  the  adult  state.  Such  conceptions 
could  be  tested  and  corrected  by  observa- 
tion ;  and,  until  the  '  Origin  of  Species  ' 
appeared,  Huxley  regarded  any  hypothesis 
concerning  the  nature  of  the  bond  between 
animals  Avhich  exhibit  the  same  structural 
plan  as  altogether  premature. 

When  the  Rattlesnake  left 'England,  the 
hydrozoa  were  commonly  associated  with 
starfishes,  parasitic  worms,  and  infusoria  in 
Cuvier's  group  '  Radiata.'  In  1847  Huxley 
sent  two  papers,  dealing  Avith  the  structure 
of  a  great  division  of  the  hydrozoa,  to  the 
Linnean  Society ;  in  1848  he  sent  to  the 
Royal  Society  a  memoir  '  On  the  Affinities 
of  the  Family  of  the  Medusae  '  (Phil.  Trans. 
1849),  and  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Edward 
Forbes  [q.  v.],  published  in  1850  (Ann.  Mag. 
Nat.  Hist,  vi.)  In  these  memoirs  the  morpho- 
logical type  common  to  all  the  hydrozoa  is 
clearly  explained,  and  in  the  letter  to  Ed- 
ward Forbes  it  is  shown  that  the  same 
structural  plan  may  be  recognised  in  sea- 
anemones,  corals,  and  their  allies.  It  is 
pointed  out  that  the  plan  common  to  these 
animals  is  not  exhibited  by  the  other  '  Ra- 
diata,' and  it  is  proposed  to  remove  both  sets 
of  animals  from  the  Radiata,  regarding  them 
as  subdivisions  of  a  separate  class,  'Nema- 
tophora.'  The  views  embodied  in  this  sug- 
gestion were  speedily  accepted,  and  Huxley's 
statement  of  the  morphological  plan  common 
to  the  class  is  now  held  to  embody  a  firmly 
established  anatomical  truth. 


Huxley 


Huxley 


In  the  memoir  on  the  medusae  a  compari- 
son was  made  between  the  two  cellular 
'  foundation  layers  '  out  of  which  the  body 
wall  and  the  various  organs  of  a  polyp  or  a 
medusa  are  formed,  and  the  two  primary 
layers  recognised  by  Pander  and  Von  Baer 
in  the  early  embryos  of  vertebrates.  Simi- 
larities between  the  adult  condition  of  lower, 
and  the  embryonic  condition  of  higher  mem- 
bers of  the  same  group  of  animals  had  been 
recognised  by  Meckel,  and  more  fully  by  Von 
Baer ;  but  this  comparison  between  the  early 
embryo  of  the  highest  vertebrates  and  the 
adult  condition  of  the  simplest  multicellular 
animals  then  known  went  far  beyond  any 
previous  suggestion  of  the  kind.  This  com- 
parison paved  the  way  for  the  attempts  in- 
augurated later  by  Haeckel  and  Dr.  Ray 
Lankester,  under  the  influence  of  Darwin,  to 
interpret  the  embryonic  histories  of  the 
higher  animals  as  evidence  of  their  common 
descent  from  a  two-layered  ancestor,  essen- 
tially like  a  hydroid  polyp. 

On  his  return  to  England  in  1850  Huxley 
learnt  that  the  value  of  his  work  on  Medusas 
had  been  fully  recognised.  He  was  elected 
F.R.S.  in  1851,  was  granted  the  society's 
medal  in  185:?,  and  found  the  leading 
biologists  in  London,  especially  Edward 
Forbes,  were  anxious  to  help  him.  With 
their  help,  and  that  of  Sir  John  Richardson, 
he  obtained  from  the  admiralty  an  appoint- 
ment as  assistant  surgeon  to  a  ship  then 
stationed  at  Woolwich,  with  leave  of  absence 
which  enabled  him  to  arrange  the  materials 
amassed  during  his  voyage,  and  to  prepare 
his  notes  for  publication.  Accordingly  in 
1851  he  published  two  memoirs  on  the  As- 
cidians,  in  which  several  aberrant  genera 
(especially  appendicularia  and  doliolum)  nre 
shown  to  be  modifications  of  the  same  mor- 
phological type  as  that  found  in  other  asci- 
dians ;  the  relation  between  salpa  and  other 
ascidians  is  clearly  explained,  while  the 
phenomenon  of  budding,  alternating  with 
sexual  reproduction,  which  had  been  shown 
to  occur  by  Chamisso  and  Eschscholtz,  is 
fully  described.  In  the  paper  '  On  the 
Morphology  of  the  Cephalous  Mollusca' 
(Phil.  Trans.  1853)  a  great  advance  is  made 
upon  all  previous  efforts  to  recognise  the 
structural  plan  common  to  the  various  modi- 
fications of  the  'foot,'  and  the  structure  of 
the  pelagic  '  heteropods '  is  described.  These 
expositions  of  the  morphology  of  three 
widely  different  groups  of  animals  established 
Huxley's  reputation  as  a  scientific  anatomist 
of  the  first  rank;  and  the  success  which 
attended  his  use  of  simple  inductive  gene- 
ralisation as  a  statement  of  morphological 
type  had  great  effect  upon  the  methods  of 


English  biologists.  While  winning  reputa- 
tion and  the  warm  friendship  of  many  among 
the  ablest  men  in  London,  he  was  not  earn- 

!  ing  money ;  and  without  pecuniary  help  of 
some  sort  it  was  impossible  even  to  publish 

!  some  of  his  results.  The  admiralty  felt  un- 
able to  use  funds,  entrusted  to  it  for  other 

•  purposes,  in  assisting  to  publish  anatomical 
works ;  and  not  only  so,  but  in  January 
1854  Huxley's  request  for  further  leave  of 
absence  was  met  by  an  order  to  join  a  ship 
at  once.  Rather  than  obey  this  order  he 
preferred  to  leave  the  service,  and  with  it 
his  only  certain  income,  determined  to  main- 
tain himself  somehow,  by  writing  and  lec- 
turing, until  he  could  gain  an  assured  income 
without  giving  up  all  hope  of  scientific  work. 
Fortunately  a  chance  of  doing  this  soon 
appeared.  In  June  1854  his  friend,  Edward 
Forbes,  who  had  just  commenced  his  course 
of  lectures  at  the  Royal  School  of  Mines  in 
Jermyn  Street,  was  appointed  to  the  pro- 
fessorship of  natural  history  in  Edinburgh. 
Huxley  undertook  to  finish  the  course  in 
London  ;  in  July  he  was  appointed  lecturer 
on  natural  history  at  the  Royal  School  of 
Mines,  and  naturalist  to  the  geological  sur- 
vey in  the  following  year.  The  salary 
attached  to  these  posts  was  small,  but  with 
such  additions  as  he  could  make  to  it  in 
other  ways  he  felt  justified  in  taking  an 
important  step.  During  the  visits  of  the 
Rattlesnake  to  Sydney,  Huxley  had  met  and 
won  the  affection  of  Miss  H.  A.  Heathorn, 
and  he  felt  that  his  position  was  now  so 
secure  that  he  might  ask  her  to  share  it. 
Miss  Heathorn  and  her  parents  set  sail  for 
England  early  in  1855,  reaching  London  in 
May.  The  marriage  took  place  in  July  of 
the  same  year. 

Before  the  end  of  1855  Huxley  had  pub- 
lished more  than  thirty  technical  papers,  and 
he  had  given  a  number  of  lectures  to  unpro- 
fessional audiences.  One  of  these,  '  On  the 
Educational  Value  of  the  Natural  History 
Sciences '  (1854,  Collected  Essays,  vol.  iii.), 
contains  those  statements  concerning  the 
fundamental  unity  of  method  in  all  sciences, 
the  value  of  that  method  in  the  affairs  of 

1  daily  life,  and  its  importance  as  a  moral  and 
intellectual  discipline,  which  form  the 
essence  of  his  popular  teaching  in  later 

1  years. 

From  1855  until  1859  Huxley's  time  was 
largely  occupied  by  the  duties  of  his  new  post. 
In  his  teaching  he  quickly  adopted  a  system 
afterwards  developed  until  it  became  the 
model  which  teachers  of  biology  throughout 
the  country  endeavoured  to  imitate.  In  his 
lectures  he  described  a  small  series  of 
animals,  carefully  chosen  to  illustrate  im- 


H  uxley 


portant  types  of  structure ;  and  his  aim  was 
that  every  student  should  be  enabled  to  test 
general  statements  concerning  a  group  ol 
animals  by  reference  to  one  member  of  the 
group  which  he  had  been  made  to  know 
thoroughly.  Huxley  realised  from  the  first 
that  the  thorough  knowledge  of  representa- 
tive animals,  which  is  the  only  proper 
foundation  for  a  knowledge  of  morphology, 
ought  to  be  acquired  by  direct  observation 
in  the  laboratory ;  this,  however,  was  im- 
possible in  Jermyn  Street,  and  his  ideal  was 
not  completely  realised  until  later.  In  spite 
of  a  certain  distaste  for  public  speaking, 
which  only  time  and  practice  enabled  him  to 
overcome,  he  devoted  much  of  his  most 
strenuous  effort  to  the  work  of  popular  ex- 
position. In  a  letter  dated  1855  he  says, 
'  I  want  the  working  classes  to  understand 
that  science  and  her  ways  are  great  facts  for 
them — that  physical  virtue  is  the  base  of  all 
other,  and  that  they  are  to  be  clean  and 
temperate  and  all  the  rest — not  because 
fellows  in  black  with  white  ties  tell  them 
so,  but  because  these  are  plain  and  patent 
laws  of  nature,  which  they  must  obey  under 
penalties.' 

His  scientific  work  during  this  period  was 
influenced  by  his  official  duties  in  a  museum 
of  palaeontology.  The  monograph  of  the 
oceanic  hydrozoa,  although  published  in 
1859,  had  been  completed  long  before.  Two 
papers,  which  continue  work  begun  on  the 
Rattlesnake,  are  the  memoir  on  Pyrosoma 
(Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  1859),  and  that  on 
Aphis  (1857).  Each  of  these  describes  an 
alternation  of  generation,  and  so  continues 
the  early  work  on  salpa  :  but  with  these  ex- 
ceptions the  greater  part  of  the  work  pub- 
lished between  1855  and  1859  deals  either 
with  fossil  forms  or  with  problems  suggested 
by  them.  Among  the  more  important  of  the 
descriptive  memoirs  (some  twenty  in  num- 
ber) published  before  the  end  of  1859,  we 
must  mention  that  on  cephalaspis  and 
pteraspis  (1858),  in  which  the  truth  of  the 
suggestion  that  pteraspis  is  a  fish  is  finally 
demonstrated ;  the  accounts  of  the  eury- 
pterina  (1856-9) ;  the  descriptions  of 
dicynodon,  rhamphorhynchus,  and  other 
reptiles.  These  studies  of  fossils  seem  to 
have  been  earned  on  simultaneously  with 
that  of  the  living  forms  related  to  them; 
thus  the  work  on  fossil  fishes  (the  main 
results  of  which  were  not  published  until 
1862)  was  accompanied  by  a  study  of  the 
development  of  skull  and  vertebral  column  in 
recent  fishes  (Quart.  Joum.  Micr.  Sci. 
1859),  and  by  the  histological  work  upon 
their  exoskeleton  published  in  Todd's  '  En- 
cyclopaedia of  Anatomy  and  Physiology ' 


;  Huxley 

(article  'Tegumentary  Organs').  The  de- 
scription of  extinct  crocodilia  led  to  an 
investigation  of  the  dermal  skeleton  in  living 
genera  (Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  1860).  The 
most  important  problem,  suggested  by  con- 
tinual work  upon  vertebrates,  whether  re- 
cent or  fossil,  is  that  presented  by  the  com- 
position of  the  skull.  The  doctrine  prevalent 
in  England  was  that  which  Owen  had 
learned  from  Goethe  and  Oken.  According 
to  Owen,  the  archetype  skeleton  of  a  verte- 
brate 'represents  the  idea  of  a  series  of 
essentially  similar  segments  succeeding  each 
other  in  the  axis  of  the  body ;  such  segments 
being  composed  of  parts  similar  in  number 
and  arrangement.'  Attempts  were  made,  in 
accordance  with  this  theory,  to  divide  the 
skull  into  a  series  of  rings,  each  of  which 
was  supposed  to  contain  every  element  pre- 
sent in  a  post-cranial  vertebra.  The  result 
was  a  method  of  description  which  obscured 
the  actual  anatomical  relations  of  the  parts 
described ;  and  the  attempt  to  demonstrate 
an  archetypal  idea  by  anatomical  methods 
reached  its  climax  of  absurdity.  Huxley 
applied  to  the  skull  the  same  method  of 
analysis  as  that  he  had  so  successfully 
applied  to  other  structures.  In  his  essay 
'  On  the  Theory  of  the  Vertebrate  Skull,' 
read  as  the  Croonian  lecture  before  the  Royal 
Society  in  1858,  he  endeavours  to  formulate 
a  morphological  type  of  cranial  structure  in 
an  inductive  statement  of  those  characters 
which  are  common  to  the  skulls  of  a  number 
of  representative  vertebrates  in  the  adult 
and  embryonic  conditions.  The  lecture  is 
based  partly  on  the  embryological  work  of 
Reichert,  Rathke,  and  Remak,  supplemented 
by  observations  of  his  own  upon  fishes  and 
amphibia ;  partly  on  a  careful  study  of  adult 
skulls.  The  result  is  a  statement  of  cranial 
structure  which  has  been  justified  in  all 
essential  points  by  the  work  of  the  last  forty 
years.  The  lecture  on  the  skull  is  admira- 
ble not  only  in  substance  but  in  form.  The 
character  of  the  audience  justified  the  free 
use  of  such  aid  to  concise  statement  as 
technical  terms  afford ;  but  when  this  is  re- 
membered the  lecture  must  be  regarded  as  a 
masterpiece  of  concise  and  lucid  exposition, 
worthy  to  rank  with  the  most  brilliantly 
successful  efforts  of  Huxley's  later  years. 

For  Huxley,  as  for  many  others,  the  most 
important  event  of  1859  was  the  publication 
of  the  '  Origin  of  Species.'  He  had  main- 
tained a  sceptical  attitude  towards  all  pre- 
vious hypotheses  which  involved  the  trans- 
mutation of  species,  and,  in  the  chapter 
written  for  Mr.  Francis  Darwin's  '  Life  and 
Letters  of  Charles  Darwin,'  he  says :  '  I  took 
my  stand  upon  two  grounds :  firstly,  that  up 


Huxley 


Huxley 


to  that  time  the  evidence  in  favour  of  trans- 
mutation was  wholly  insufficient ;  and,  se- 
condly, that  no  suggestion  respecting  the 
causes  of  the  transmutation  assumed,  which 
had  been  made,  was  in  any  way  adequate  to 
explain  the  phenomena.' 

l)ar\vin  rendered  a  belief  in  the  occurrence 
of  transmutation  far  easier  than  it  had  been 
by  his  collection  of  facts  illustrating  the  ex- 
tent   of    variation ;    while    the    theory  of 
natural  selection  provided  a  working  hypo- 
thesis,   adequate    to    explain    the    alleged  j 
phenomena,  and  capable   of  being  experi- 
mentally tested.     The  attempt  to  secure  a  ! 
fair  trial  for   the  new   hypothesis,   which 
Huxley  felt  it  his  duty  to  make,  involved  a 
great  expenditure  of  time  and  strength.  The 
account  of  the  'Origin  of  Species'  written 
for  the  'Times'  in  1859,  and  a  lecture  'On  j 
Kaces,  Species,  and  their  Origin,'  delivered 
in  1860,  mark  the  beginning  of  a  long  effort,  | 
which  only  ceased  as  the  need  for  it  became  j 
gradually  less.     Many  were  the  discussions  ' 
of  this  doctrine  in  which  he  took  part,  and  ! 
especially  important  and  interesting  was  his  ; 
share  in  the  debate  on  the  question  during 
the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  at  Oxford  in 
1860. 

The  consequence  of  Darwin's  theory, 
which  many  persons  found  the  greatest 
difficulty  in  accepting,  was  a  belief  in  the 
gradual  evolution  of  man  from  some  lower 
form ;  and  evidence  which  seemed  to  esta- 
blish a  broad  gap  between  the  structure  of 
man  and  that  of  other  animals  was  wel- 
comed. Great  interest  was  therefore  ex- 
cited by  a  paper  which  Owen  had  read  in 
1857,  and  repeated  with  slight  modification 
as  the  Kede  lecture  before  the  university  of 
Cambridge  in  1859.  Owen  declared  that 
the  human  brain  was  distinguished  from 
that  of  all  other  animals  by  the  backward 
projection  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  so  as 
to  cover  the  cerebellum,  and  by  the  back-  \ 
ward  prolongation  of  the  cavity  of  each  ! 
cerebral  hemisphere  into  a  '  posterior  horn,'  j 
with  an  associated  '  hippocampus  minor.'  j 
It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  an  ana-  j 
tomist  of  Owen's  experience  can  have  made 
these  statements;  and  his  subsequent  ex- 
planations are  equally  unintelligible  (e.g. 
OWEN,  Comparative  Anatomy  of  Vertebrata, 
1866,  vol.  i.  pp.  xix-xx).  In  1861  Huxley 
published  two  essays,  one  '  On  the  Brain  of 
Ateles  Paniscus,'  and  one  '  On  the  Zoologi- 
cal Relations  of  Man  with  the  Lower 
Animals,'  in  which  it  was  clearly  shown  that 
Owen's  statements  were  inaccurate  and  in- 
consistent with  well-known  facts.  Between 
1859  and  1862  he  gave  a  series  of  lectures 


'  On  the  Comparative  Anatomy  of  Man  and  the 
Higher  Apes,'  published  in  book  form  under 
the  title  '  Zoological  Evidences  as  to  Man's 
Place  in  Nature '  (1863,  Collected  Essays, 
vol.  vii.)  There  is  a  sense  in  which  the  publi- 
cation of  this  book  marks  the  beginning  of 
a  new  period  of  his  work ;  because  from  the 
time  of  its  appearance  his  writings  attracted 
greater  attention  and  affected  a  far  greater 
number  of  people  than  before.  This  book 
and  a  series  of  lectures  '  On  the  Causes  of 
the  Phenomena  of  Organic  Xature,'  addressed 
to  working  men  and  printed  in  1863,  were 
widely  read  and  discussed,  and  from  hence- 
forth Huxley  devoted  a  continually  in- 
creasing amount  of  energy  to  popular 
teaching  and  to  the  controversy  arising  in 
connection  with  it.  His  sense  of  the  im- 
portance of  such  work,  and  the  enjoyment 
he  derived  from  it,  may  be  gathered  from 
words  which  seem,  although  he  uses  them 
of  Priestley,  to  give  an  admirable  picture  of 
himself.  He  says : 

'  It  seems  to  have  been  Priestley's  feeling 
that  he  was  a  man  and  a  citizen  before  he 
was  a  philosopher,  and  that  the  duties  of  the 
two  former  positions  are  at  least  as  impera- 
tive as  those  of  the  latter.  However,  there 
are  men  (and  I  think  Priestley  was  one  of 
them)  to  whom  the  satisfaction  of  throwing 
down  a  triumphant  fallacy  is  at  least  as 
great  as  that  which  attends  the  discovery  of 
a  new  truth,  who  feel  better  satisfied  with 
the  government  of  the  world  when  they 
have  been  helping  Providence  by  knocking 
an  imposture  on  the  head,  and  who  care 
even  more  for  freedom  of  thought  than  for 
mere  advancement  of  knowledge.  These 
men  are  the  Carnots  who  organise  victory 
for  truth,  and  they  are  at  least  as  important 
as  the  generals  who  visibly  fight  her  battles 
in  the  field  '  (1874,  Collected  Essays,  vol.  iii.) 

The  freedom  of  thought  for  which  Huxley 
contended  was  freedom  to  approach  any  pro- 
blem whatever  in  the  manner  advocated  by 
Descartes;  andheAvishes  his  more  important 
essays  to  be  regarded  as  setting  forth  '  the 
results  which,  in  my  judgment,  are  attained 
by  an  application  of  the  "  method  "  of  Des- 
cartes to  the  investigation  of  problems  of 
widely  different  kinds,  in  the  right  solution 
of  which  we  are  all  deeply  interested'  (ib. 
vol.  i.  preface).  In  1870,  after  describing 
Descartes's  condition  of  assent  to  any  pro- 
position, he  says  :  '  The  enunciation  of  this 
great  first  commandment  of  science  conse- 
crated doubt.  It  removed  doubt  from  the  seat 
of  penance  among  the  grievous  sins  to  which 
it  had  long  been  condemned,  and  enthroned 
it  in  that  high  place  among  the  primary 
duties  which  is  assigned  to  it  by  the  scien- 


Huxley 


tific  conscience  of  these  latter  days.'  "While 
he  held  doubt  to  be  a  duty,  he  had  no  tole- 
rance for  careless  indifferentisrn  ;  and  he  was 
fond  of  quoting  Goethe's  description  of  a 
healthy  active  doubt:  'Eine  thiitige  Skepsis 
ist  die,  welche  unablassig  bemiiht  ist,  sich 
selbst  zu  iiberwinden.' 

The  fearless  application  of  Cartesian 
criticism  aroused  great  indignation  between 
1860  and  1870,  but  the  essays  and  addresses 
published  during  this  period  did  their  work. 
They  were  certainly  among  the  principal 
agents  in  winning  a  larger  measure  of  tole- 
rance for  the  critical  examination  of  funda- 
mental beliefs,  and  for  the  free  expression  of 
honest  reverent  doubt.  The  best  evidence 
of  the  effect  they  have  produced  is  the  diffi- 
culty with  which  men  of  a  younger  genera- 
tion realise  the  outcry  caused  by  '  Man's 
Place  in  Nature,'  or  by  the  lecture  '  On  the 
Physical  Basis  of  Life  \ib.  vol.  i.  1868).  Two 
passages  from  the  last-named  lecture  may 
be  quoted  as  giving  a  summary  of  Huxley's 
philosophical  position  in  his  own  words : 

'  But  if  it  is  certain  that  we  can  have  no 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  either  matter  or 
spirit,  and  that  the  notion  of  necessity  is 
something  illegitimately  thrust  into  the  per- 
fectly legitimate  conception  of  law,  the 
materialistic  position  that  there  is  nothing 
in  the  world  but  matter,  force,  and  necessity, 
is  as  utterly  devoid  of  justification  as  the 
most  baseless  of  theological  dogmas.  The 
fundamental  doctrines  of  materialism,  like 
those  of  spiritualism  and  most  other  "-isms," 
lie  outside  "  the  limits  of  philosophical  en- 
quiry," and  David  Hume's  great  service  to 
humanity  is  his  irrefragable  demonstration 
of  what  those  limits  are.  .  .  .  Why  trouble 
ourselves  about  matters  of  which,  however 
important  they  may  be,  we  do  know  nothing 
and  can  know  nothing  ?  We  live  in  a  world 
which  is  full  of  misery  and  ignorance,  and 
the  plain  duty  of  each  and  all  of  us  is  to  try 
to  make  the  little  corner  he  can  influence 
somewhat  less  miserable  and  somewhat  less 
ignorant  than  it  was  before  he  entered  it. 
To  do  this  effectually  it  is  necessary  to  be 
fully  possessed  of  only  two  beliefs — the  first, 
that  the  order  of  nature  is  ascertainable  by 
our  faculties  to  an  extent  which  is  prac- 
tically unlimited ;  the  second,  that  our 
volition  counts  for  something  as  a  condition 
of  the  course  of  events.  Each  of  these  beliefs 
can  be  verified  experimentally  as  often  as  we 
like  to  try.  Each,  therefore,  stands  upon 
the  strongest  foundation  upon  which  any 
belief  can  rest,  and  forms  one  of  our  highest 
truths.  If  we  find  that  the  ascertainment 
of  the  order  of  nature  is  facilitated  by  using 
one  terminology,  or  one  set  of  symbols,  rather 


i  Huxley 

than  another,  it  is  our  clear  duty  to  use  the 
former  ;  and  no  harm  can  accrue  so  long  as 
we  bear  in  -mind  that  we  are  dealing  merely 
with  terms  and  symbols.' 

Those  who  '  care  even  more  for  freedom 
of  thought  than  for  mere  advancement  of 
knowledge'  may  well  consider  the  effect 
produced  by  his  lectures  and  essays  upon 
the  minds  of  English-speaking  peoples  to  be 
the  most  important  result  of  Huxley's  work 
between  1860  and  1870.  But  they  repre- 
sent only  a  small  part  of  the  work  he 
actually  did  during  this  period.  He  was  an 
active  member  of  four  royal  commissions  (on 
the  acts  relating  to  trawling  for  herrings  on  the 
coast  of  Scotland,  18G2 ;  on  the  sea-fisheries 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  1864—5;  on  the  Royal 
College  of  Science  for  Ireland,  1866 ;  on 
science  and  art  instruction  in  Ireland,  1868). 
He  was  Hunterian  professor  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  from  1863  to  1869,  and 
Fulleriaii  professor  at  the  Royal  Institution 
from  1863  to  1867 ;  he  undertook  an  in- 
creasing amount  of  administrative  work  in 
connection  with  various  learned  societies, 
especially  the  Royal,  the  Zoological,  and  the 
Ethnological ;  and  he  wrote  frequently  for 
the  reviews,  being  himself  for  a  short  time 
an  editor  of  the  quarterly  'Natural  History 
Review.'  In  spite  of  the  increased  demands 
upon  his  time  and  strength  made  by  all  these 
new  duties,  his  purely  scientific  work  rather 
increased  than  diminished  in  value  and  in 
amount. 

The  papers  on  fossil  fishes,  already  referred 
to,  were  followed  in  1861  by  an  '  Essay  on 
the  Classification  of  Devonian  Fishes.'  Apart 
from  its  great  value  as  an  addition  to  our 
knowledge  of  a  difficult  group  of  fishes,  this 
essay  is  remarkable  because  in  it  Huxley 
drew  attention  to  the  type  of  fin  which  he 
called  'crossopterygian,'  or  fringed,  because 
the  fin-rays  are  borne  on  the  sides  of  a  longer 
or  shorter  central  axis.  The  imperfect  know- 
ledge attainable  from  the  study  of  fossils  did 
not  permit  him  at  this  time  to  describe  the 
structure  of  the  crossoptervgium  very  fully ; 
but  after  the  discovery  of  Ceratodus  the  con- 
ceptions foreshadowed  in  this  essay  acquired 
great  importance  in  connection  with  at- 
tempts to  find  a  common  type  of  limb  from 
which  both  the  fin  of  an  ordinary  fish  and 
the  limb  of  an  air-breathing  vertebrate  might 
conceivably  have  been  derived. 

In  1862  he  delivered  an  address  to  the 
Geological  Society,  in  which  he  attacked  a 
doctrine  then  widely  held.  The  order  in 
which  the  various  forms  of  life  appear,  as  we 
examine  the  fossiliferous  rocks  from  the 
oldest  to  the  most  recent,  is  practically  the 
same  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  This  fact 


Huxley  2 

had  led  many  geologists  to  infer  that  any 
step  in  the  successional  series  must  have  oc- 
curred simultaneously  all  over  the  earth,  so 
that  two  series  of  rocks  containing  the  same 
fossils  were  held  to  be  of  contemporaneous 
origin,  however  distant  from  one  another 
they  might  be.  Huxley  gave  a  forcible  sum- 
mary of  the  evidence  against  this  view,  and 
declared  that  '  neither  physical  geology  nor 
palaeontology  possesses  any  method  by  which 
the  absolute  synchronism  of  two  strata  can 
be  demonstrated.  All  that  geology  can  prove 
is  local  order  of  succession.'  The  justice  of 
this  statement  has  not  been  questioned ;  and 
the  limitation  imposed  by  it  is  one  of  the 
many  difficulties  encountered  when  we  at- 
tempt to  learn  the  ancestral  history  of  animals 
from  the  fossil  records. 

In  1863  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
at  the  College  of  Surgeons  '  On  the  Classifi- 
cation of  Animals,' and  another '  On  the  Verte- 
brate Skull.'  These  lectures  were  published 
together  in  1864.  Other  courses  'On  the 
Comparative  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates'  fol- 
lowed, and  a  condensed  summary  of  these 
was  published  as  a  '  Manual  of  the  Compara- 
tive Anatomy  of  Vertebrated  Animals'  in 
1871.  The  scrupulous  care  with  which  he 
endeavoured  to  verify  by  actual  observation 
every  statement  made  in  his  lectures  rendered 
the  labour  of  preparation  very  great.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Flower  [q.  v.  Suppl.j  describes  the  way 
in  which  he  would  spend  long  evenings  at 
the  College  of  Surgeons,  dissecting  animals 
available  among  the  stores,  or  making  rapid 
notes  and  drawings,  after  a  day's  work  in 
Jermyn  Street.  The  consequences  were 
twofold ;  the  vivid  impression  of  his  own 
recent  experience  was  communicated  to  his 
hearers,  and  the  work  of  preparation  became 
at  once  an  incentive  to  further  research  and 
a  means  of  pursuing  it. 

The  lectures  in  1867  dealt  with  birds, 
and  Professor  Newton  writes  of  them  :  '  It 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  his  many 
engagements  hindered  him  from  publishing 
in  its  entirety  his  elucidation  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  class,  and  the  results  which  he  drew 
from  his  investigations  of  it ;  for  never, 
assuredly,  had  the  subject  been  attacked 
with  greater  skill  and  power,  or,  since  the 
days  of  Buffon,  had  ornithology  been  set 
forth  with  greater  eloquence '  (NEWTON,  A 
Dictionary  of  Birds,  p.  38).  One  great 
result  of  the  work  on  birds,  together  with 
the  study  of  fossil  reptiles,  was  a  recognition 
of  the  fundamental  similarities  between  the 
two,  which  Huxley  expressed  by  uniting 
birds  and  reptiles  in  one  great  group,  the 
Sauropsida.  Other  results  obtained  were 
shortly  summarised  in  an  essay  '  On  the 


Huxley 


Classification  of  Birds'  (Zool.  Soc.  Proc. 
1867),  containing  an  elaborate  account  of 
the  modifications  exhibited  by  the  bones  of 
the  palate.  This  essay  exhibits  in  an  entirely 
new  light  the  problems  which  have  to  be 
solved  before  we  can  establish  a  natural 
classification  of  birds.  The  solution  offered 
has  not  been  accepted  as  final ;  but  there  is  no 
question  about  the  great  value  of  the  essay 
as  a  contribution  to  cranial  morphology. 

The  lectures  on  birds  must  serve  as  ex- 
amples of  others  given  at  the  College  of 
Surgeons;  they  were  probably  the  most 
strikingly  novel  of  any  except  the  first  course 
'  On  the  Classification  of  Animals : '  but  the 
condensed  summary,  published  in  1871, 
shows  that  every  course  of  lectures  must 
have  marked  important  additions  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  animals  with  which  it 
dealt.  One  other  important  problem,  that 
of  the  homologies  of  the  bones  which  con- 
nect the  tympanic  membrane  with  the  ear- 
capsule,  must  be  mentioned  as  treated  in 
these  lectures,  and  more  fully  in  a  paper 
read  before  the  Zoological  Society  (1869). 

Apart  from  the  lectures,  and  from  the 
books  based  on  them,  Huxley  published 
about  fifty  technical  papers  between  1860 
and  1870.  Among  these  are  numerous 
descriptions  of  dinosauria,  including  that 
|  of  hypsilophodon,  the  results  being  sum- 
i  marised  in  the  essay  on  the  classification  of 
I  the  group  (Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  1869), 
|  and  in  the  statements  of  the  relation  be- 
i  tween  reptiles  and  birds,  already  referred  to. 
The  account  of  hyperodapedon  (1869)  is 
of  great  importance  in  connection  with 
another  group  of  reptiles,  and  there  are 
many  valuable  memoirs  on  fossil  amphibia. 
Much  of  his  work  on  systematic  ethnology 
remains  unpublished ;  but  in  1865  he  pub- 
lished an  essay  '  On  the  Methods  and  Results 
of  Ethnology,'  containing  a  scheme  of 
classification  of  the  races  of  mankind,  based 
on  the  characters  of  the  hair,  the  colour  of 
the  skin,  and  the  cranial  index.  He  evi- 
dently contemplated  a  more  complete  study 
of  physical  anthropology ;  for  among  the 
materials  left  in  his  laboratory  are  some 
hundreds  of  photographs  of  various  races  of 
men,  which  he  had  collected  before  1870. 

The  '  Elementary  Lessons  in  Physiology,' 
published  in  1866,  is  probably  better  known 
than  any  elementary  text-book  of  its  kind. 
It  has  been  reprinted  no  less  than  thirty 
times  since  its  first  appearance. 

The  years  from  1870  to  1885  comprise  a 

period   of  constant   activity,  ending  in  an 

almost   complete  withdrawal  from    public 

life,  made  necessary  by  increasing  illness. 

In   1872  the   removal  of  the  School  of 


Huxley 

Mines  from  Jermyn  Street  to  South  Ken- 
sington gave  the  long-desired  opportunity 
of  completing  his  plan  of  instruction,  by 
enabling  every  student  to  examine  for  him- 
self, in  the  laboratory,  the  types  described 
in  the  lectures.  With  the  help  of  his  four 
demonstrators,  Thiselton  Dyer,  Michael 
Foster,  Ray  Lankester,  and  W.  Rutherford, 
the  course  of  laboratory  work  was  perfected, 
and  its  main  features  are  described  in  the 
well-known  text-book  of  '  Elementary  Bio- 
logy' (1875),  written  in  conjunction  with 
Mr.  H.  N.  Martin. 

An  important  characteristic  of  Huxley's 
teaching,  both  in  his  lectures  to  students 
and  in  his  technical  memoirs,  may  here  be 
noticed.  Darwin  had  suggested  an  inter- 
pretation of  the  facts  of  embryology  which 
led  to  the  hope  that  a  fuller  knowledge  of 
development  might  reveal  the  ancestral 
history  of  all  the  great  groups  of  animals, 
at  least  in  its  main  outlines.  This  hope 
was  of  service  as  a  stimulus  to  research, 
but  the  attempt  to  interpret  the  phenomena 
observed  led  to  speculations  which  were 
often  fanciful  and  always  incapable  of  verifi- 
cation. Huxley  was  keenly  sensible  of  the 
danger  attending  the  use  of  a  hypothetical 
explanation,  leading  to  conclusions  which 
cannot  be  experimentally  tested,  and  he 
carefully  avoided  it.  This  is  well  seen  in 
the  important  essay  on  Ceratodus  (1876), 
where  a  discussion  of  the  way  in  which  the 
iaws  are  suspended  from  the  skull  leads  him 
to  divide  all  fishes  into  three  series.  In  one 
series  the  mode  of  suspension  of  the  jaws  is 
identical  with  that  found  in  amphibia  and 
the  higher  vertebrates  ;  and  the  hypothesis 
that  these  '  autostylic '  fishes  resemble  the 
ancestors  of  air-breathing  forms  suggests 
itself  at  once.  Although  this  was  clearly 
present  in  Huxley's  mind,  he  is  careful  to 
confine  himself  to  a  statement  of  demonstrable 
structural  resemblance,  which  must  remain 
true,  whatever  hypothesis  of  its  origin  may 
ultimately  be  found  most  useful.  Again,  in 
the  preface  to  the  '  Manual  of  the  Compara- 
tive Anatomy  of  Invertebrated  Animals ' 
(1877)  he  says  :  '  I  have  abstained  from  dis- 
cussing questions  of  aetiology,  not  because  I 
underestimate  their  importance,  or  am  in- 
sensible to  the  interest  of  the  great  problem 
of  Evolution,  but  because,  to  my  mind,  the 
growing  tendency  to  mix  up  setiological 
speculations  with  morphological  generalisa- 
tions will,  if  unchecked,  throw  Biology 
into  confusion.'  The  only  attempts  to  trace 
the  ancestry  of  particular  forms  which 
Huxley  ever  made  are  based  on  palaeonto- 
logical  evidence,  in  the  few  cases  in  which 
the  evidence  seemed  to  him  sufficiently  com- 


29 


Huxley 


plete.  Such  are  the  essays  on  the  horse 
(Presidential  Address  to  the  Geological  So- 
ciety, 1870;  American  Addresses,  1876; 
Collected  Essays,  vols.  iii.  and  viii.),  and  that 
on  the '  Classification  of  the  Mammalia'  (Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  1880).  The  treatise  on  the  cray- 
fish (1879)  may  be  taken  as  a  statement  of 
his  mature  convictions ;  and  the  discussion 
of  the  evolution  of  crayfishes,  given  in  this 
work,  relates  solely  to  the  evidence  of  their 
modification  since  liassic  times,  which  is 
afforded  by  fossils. 

In  1870  the  school  board  for  London 
was  instituted,  and  Huxley's  interest  in  the 
problem  of  education  led  him  to  become 
one  of  its  first  members.  In  an  essay  on 
the  first  duties  of  the  board  (Contempo- 
rary Review,  1870 ;  Collected  Essays,  vol.  iii.) 
he  lays  stress  on  the  primary  importance  of 
physical  and  moral  culture.  '  The  engage- 
ment of  the  affections  in  favour  of  that 
particular  line  of  conduct  which  we  call 
good,'  he  says, '  seems  to  me  to  be  some- 
thing quite  beyond  mere  science.  And  I 
cannot  but  think  that  it,  together  with  the 
awe  and  reverence  which  have  no  kinship 
with  base  fear,  but  arise  whenever  one  tries 
to  pierce  below  the  surface  of  things,  whether 
they  be  material  or  spiritual,  constitutes  all 
that  has  any  unchangeable  reality  in  religion.' 
This  feeling  can,  in  his  judgment,  be  best 
cultivated  by  a  study  of  the  Bible  '  with 
such  grammatical,  geographical,  and  his- 
torical explanations  by  a  lay  teacher  as  may 
be  needful.'  He  held  that  the  elements  of 
physical  science,  with  drawing,  modelling, 
and  singing,  afforded  the  best  means  of 
intellectual  training  in  such  schools.  Hux- 
ley's influence  upon  the  scheme  of  education 
finally  adopted  was  very  great,  although  he 
left  the  board  in  1872. 

In  speaking  of  the  later  stages  of  educa- 
tion, he  dwelt  upon  the  great  value  of 
literary  training  as  a  means  of  intellectual 
culture,  but  he  never  tired  of  contending 
that  a  perfect  culture,  which  should  '  supply 
a  complete  theory  of  life,  based  upon  a 
clear  knowledge  alike  of  its  possibilities  and 
of  its  limitations,'  could  not  be  acquired 
without  a  training  in  the  methods  of  physi- 
cal science.  At  the  same  time  he  was  care- 
ful to  emphasise  his  horror  of  the  prevalent 
idea  that  a  mere  acquaintance  with  the 
'  useful  '  results  of  scientific  work  has  any 
educational  value.  He  well  knew  that 
educational  discipline  can  only  be  obtained 
by  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  without  regard 
to  its  practical  applications ;  and  he  saw  the 
need  for  sharply  separating  such  educational 
discipline  from  the  preparation  for  a  handi- 
craft or  profession.  Writing  in  1893  to 


Huxley 


Huxley 


one  of  those  engaged  in  the  attempt  to  obtain 
an  adequate  university  for  London,  he  says : 
'  I  would  cut  away  medicine,  law,  and  theo- 
logy as  technical  specialities.  .  .  .  The  uni- 
versity or  universities  should  be  learning  and 
teaching  bodies  devoted  to  art  (literary  and 
other),  history,  philosophy,  and  science,where 
any  one  who  wanted  to  learn  all  that  is 
known  about  these  matters  should  find 
people  who  could  teach  him  and  put  him  in 
the  way  of  learning  for  himself  That  is 
what  the  world  will  want  one  day  or  other, 
as  a  supplement  to  all  manner  of  high 
schools  and  technical  institutions  in  which 
young  people  get  decently  educated  and 
learn  to  earn  their  bread — such  as  our 
present  universities.  It  would  be  a  place 
for  men  to  get  knowledge,  and  not  for  boys 
and  adolescents  to  get  degrees.' 

Between  1870  and  1885  he  published  a 
number  of  essays  on  philosophical  subjects, 
the  most  important  being  his  sketch  of  Hume 
(1879)  in  Mr.  John  Morley's  '  English  Men 
of  Letters '  series.  In  the  chapter  on  the  ob- 
ject and  scope  of  philosophy,  Huxley  adopts 
the  view  that  the  method  of  psychology  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  physical  sciences,  and 
he  points  to  Descartes,  Spinoza,  and  Kant  as 
showing  the  advantage  to  a  philosopher  of  a 
training  in  physical  science.  The  chapter 
dealing  with  volition  and  necessity  is  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  passage  in  the  lecture '  On  the 
Physical  Basis  of  Life  '  already  quoted.  The 
chapter  on  miracles  begins  by  demonstrating 
the  absurdity  of  a  priori  objections  to  belief 
in  miracles  because  they  are  violations  of 
the  '  laws  of  nature  ; '  but  while  it  is  absurd 
to  believe  that  that  which  never  has  hap- 
pened never  can  happen  without  a  violation 
of  the  laws  of  nature,  he  agrees  with  Hume 
in  thinking  that  '  the  more  a  statement  of 
fact  conflicts  with  previous  experience,  the 
more  complete  must  be  the  evidence  which 
is  to  justify  us  in  believing  it.'  The  applica- 
tion of  this  criterion  to  the  history  of  the 
world  as  given  in  the  Pentateuch  and  to 
the  story  of  the  gospels  forms  the  subject  of 
numerous  controversial  essays  and  ad- 
dresses, reprinted  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
volumes  of  the  '  Collected  Essays.' 

In  1871,  on  the  retirement  of  William 
Sharpey  [q.  v.],  Huxley  was  chosen  as  one  of 
the  two  secretaries  of  the  Royal  Society.  The 
duties  of  this  office  were  even  more  severe 
than  usual  during  the  years  through  which 
he  held  it.  The  Royal  Society  was  requested 
by  the  admiralty  to  plan  the  equipment  and  to 
nominate  the  scientific  staff  of  the  Challenger, 
in  preparation  for  her  voyage  round  the  world. 
Later  on,  the  task  of  distributing  her  col- 
lections, and  arranging  for  the  publication  of 


the  monographs  in  which  they  are  described, 
was  also  entrusted  to  the  society;  and  the 
chief  burden  of  the  organisation  fell  upon 
Huxley.  Many  other  matters,  especially 
the  organisation  of  arrangements  lor  ad- 
ministering the  annual  grant  of  4,000/.  made 
by  the  treasury  in  aid  of  scientific  research, 
made  the  duties  of  the  secretary  a  serious  ad- 
dition to  other  demands  upon  him.  In  1881 
he  was  elected  president  of  the  society ;  but 
in  1885  he  was  forced  by  ill-health  to  retire. 
He  received  the  Copley  medal  in  1888,  and 
the  Darwin  medal  in  1894.  From  1870  to 

1884  he  served  upon  the  following  royal  com- 
missions :    upon    the    Administration    and 
Operation  of  the  Contagious  Diseases  Acts 
(1870-1)  ;  on  Scientific  Instruction  and  the 
Advancement  of  Science  (1870-5)  ;  on  the 
Practice  of  subjecting  Live  Animals  to  Ex- 
periments for  Scientific   Purposes   (1876) ; 
to    inquire   into   the  Universities  of  Scot- 
land   (1876-8)  ;    on     the     Medical     Acts 
(1881-2)  :  on  Trawl,  Net,  and  Beam  Trawl 
Fishing  (1884).      He  also  acted  as  an  in- 
spector of  fisheries  from  1881  to  1885. 

In  spite  of  the  immense  amount  of  work  he 
contrived  to  perform,  Huxley  never  enjoyed 
robust  health  after  the  accidental  poisoning 
already  mentioned.  Fresh  air  and  some  daily 
exercise  were  necessary  in  order  to  ward  off 
digestive  difficulties,  accompanied  by  lassi- 
tude and  depression  of  a  severe  kind ;  but 
fresh  air  and  exercise  are  the  most  difficult 
of  all  things  for  a  busy  man  in  London  to 
obtain.  The  evil  effects  of  a  sedentary  life 
had  shown  themselves  at  the  very  beginning 
of  his  work  in  London,  and  they  increased 
year  by  year.  At  the  end  of  1871  he  was 
forced  to  take  a  long  holiday ;  but  this  pro- 
duced only  a  temporary  improvement,  and 
finally  symptoms  of  cardiac  mischief  became 
too  evident  to  be  neglected.  For  this 
reason  he  gave  up  his  public  work  in  1885, 
and  in  1890  he  finally  left  London,  living 
thenceforward  at  Eastbourne. 

The  years  of  comparative    leisure    after 

1885  were  occupied  in  writing  many  of  the 
essays  on  philosophy  and  theology  reprinted 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  volumes  of  his  '  Col- 
lected Essays.'     An   attack  of  pleurisy   in 
1887  caused  grave  anxiety,  and  after  its  oc- 
currence he  suffered  severely  from  influenza, 
so  that  the  work  of  helping  those  teachers 
in   London  in  their   efforts  to   obtain    an 
adequate  university,  which  he  undertook  in 
1892  and  1893,  involved  physical  effort  of  a 
very  severe  kind,  as  did  the  delivery  of  his 
Romanes  lecture  on  'Evolution  and  Ethics ' 
before  the  university  of  Oxford  in  1893.     An 
attack  of  influenza  in  the  winter  of  1894  was 
followed  by  an  affection  of  the  kidneys,  and 


he  died  at  Eastbourne  on  29  June  1895.   He 
was  buried  at  Finchley  on  4  July.     Several 
portraits  of  Huxley  are  given  in  his  '  Life 
and  Letters.'    The  best  is  that  painted  in  i 
1883  by  the  lion.  John  Collier,  now  in  the 
National   Portrait   Gallery,   London.      His 
widow,  with  two  sons,  Leonard  and  Henry, 
and  two  daughters  (Mrs.  Waller  and  the  i 
Hon.  Mrs.  John  Collier),  survived  him ;  a  i 
son  Noel  died  in  1860. 

Huxley  was  rector  of  Aberdeen  University 
from  1872  to  1874,  was  created  hon.  D.C.L. 
of  Oxford  on  17  June  1885,  and  also  received 
honorary  degrees  from  Edinburgh,  Dublin,  ! 
Breslau,    Wiirzburg,  Bologna,   and   Erlan-  ( 
gen.     He  was  elected  member  of  countless  i 
foreign  societies,  and  in  1892  he  accepted  the  i 
oflice  of  privy  councillor,  but  he  cared  little  j 
for  such  honours.      The   only  reward  for  i 
which  he  cared  is  that  freely  given  to  him  ! 
by  earnest    men   of  every  kind,  in   every  | 
country,  who  gratefully  reverence  his  labours  j 
in  furthering  the  noble  objects  which  he  set  j 
before  himself,  '  to  promote  the  increase  of  j 
natural  knowledge  and  to  further  the  appli- 
cation of  scientific  methods  of  investigation  | 


1  Ingelow 

to  all  the  problems  of  life  to  the  best  of  my 
ability,  in  the  conviction  which  has  grown 
with  my  growth  and  strengthened  with  my 
strength,  that  there  is  no  alleviation  for  the 
sufferings  of  mankind  except  veracity  of 
thought  and  action,  and  the  resolute  facing 
of  the  world  as  it  is  when  the  garment  of 
make-believe,  by  which  pious  hands  have 
hidden  its  uglier  features,  is  stripped  off.' 

Those  of  Huxley's  essays  which  he  wished 
to  collect  in  a  final  edition  are  published  in 
nine  volumes  of  Collected  Essays  (Macmil- 
lan,  1893-4).  An  edition  of  his  scientific 
memoirs,  edited  by  Sir  Michael  Foster  and 
Professor  Lankester,  is  in  course  of  publica- 
tion in  four  quarto  volumes  ;  three  have  ap- 
peared. 

[The  Life  and  Letters  of  T.  H.  Huxley,  by  his 
son,  Leonard  Huxley,  2  vols.  1900,  is  the  main 
authority  ;  it  contains  a  full  list  of  his  published 
works.  An  account  of  his  scientific  work  is  given 
in  Thomas  Henry  Huxley,  a  Sketch  of  his  Life 
and  Work,  by  P.  Chalmers  Mitchell,  London  and 
New  York,  1900.  See  also  article  by  Mr.  Leslie 
Stephen  in  Nineteenth  Century, December  1900.1 

W.F.  E.  W. 


INGELOW,  JEAN  (1820-1897),  poetess, 
born  on  17  March  1820  at  Boston,  Lincoln- 
shire, was  the  eldest  child  of  William  Inge- 
low,  a  banker,  and  his  wife,  Jean  Kilgour, 
a  member  of  an  Aberdeenshire  family.  The 
early  years  of  her  life  were  spent  in  Lincoln- 
shire, and  the  effect  of  the  fen  scenery  is 
apparent  in  her  verse.  She  then  lived  at 
Ipswich,  and  before  1863  came  to  London, 
where  she  spent  the  rest  of  her  life.  She 
was  educated  at  home. 

Her  first  volume,  '  A  Rhyming  Chronicle 
of  Incidents  and  Feelings,' published  in  1850, 
attracted  little  attention,  although  Tennyson 
found  some  charming  things  in  it  (cf.  Life 
of  Tennyson,  i.  286-7).  It  was  not  until  the 
publication  of  the  first  series  of  'Poems'  in 
1863  that  the  public  recognised  in  Miss 
Ingelow  a  poet  of  high  merit.  It  contained 
the  verses  entitled  '  High  Tide  on  the  Coast 
of  Lincolnshire,  1571, 'which  for  earnestness 
and  technical  excellence  is  one  of  the  finest 
of  modern  ballads.  The  volume  reached  a 
fourth  edition  in  the  year  of  publication. 
In  1867  an  illustrated  edition,  with  drawings 
by  various  artists,  among  them  Poynter, 
Pinwell,  A.  B.  Houghton,  and  J.  W.  North, 
•  was  brought  out.  By  1879  it  was  in  a 
twenty-third  edition.  A  second  series  of 
poems  appeared  in  1876,  and  both  series  were 


reprinted  in  1879.  A  third  series  was  added 
in  1885.  She  wrote  much  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Wordsworth  and  Tennyson.  Her 
verse  is  mainly  characterised  by  lyrical 
charm,  graceful  fancy,  pathos,  close  and  accu- 
rate observation  of  nature,  and  sympathy 
with  the  common  interests  of  life.  The 
language  is  invariably  clear  and  simple. 
She  is  particularly  successful  in  handling 
anapsestic  measures.  Her  poetry  is  very 
popular  in  America,  where  some  200,000 
copies  of  her  various  works  have  been  sold. 

As  a  novelist  she  does  not  rank  so  high. 
Her  best  long  novel,  '  Off  the  Skelligs,'  ap- 
peared in  1872  in  four  volumes.  The  'Studies 
for  Stories,'  published  in  1864,  are  admirable 
short  stories.  She  depicted  child  life  with 
great  effect,  and  her  best  work  in  that  line 
will  be  found  in  'Stories  told  to  a  Child,' 
published  in  1865.  Between  that  date  and 
1871  she  wrote  numerous  children's  stories. 
Her  books  brought  her  comparatively  large 
sums  of  money,  but  her  fame  rests  on  two 
or  three  poems  in  the  volume  of  1863.  She 
was  acquainted  with  Tennyson,  Ruskin, 
Froude,  Browning,  Christina  Rossetti,  and 
with  most  of  the  poets,  painters,  and  writers 

I  of  her  time.  She  died  at  Kensington  on 
20  July  1897,  and  was  buried  at  Brompton 

I  cemetery  on  the  24th. 


Inglefield 


Inglefield 


A  portrait  of  her  when  a  child  is  in  the 
possession  of  her  brother,  Mr.  B.  Ingelow. 

Other  works  by  Miss  Ingelow  are :  1 .  '  Al- 
lerton  and  Dreux;  or  the  War  of  Opinion,' 
2  vols.  1851.  2.  'Tales  of  Orris,'  1860. 
3.  '  Mopsa,  the  Fairy,'  1869.  4.  '  Fated  to 
be  Free,'  3  vols.  1875;  new  edit.  1876. 
6.  'Sarah  de  Berenger,'  3  vols.  1879;  new 
edit.  1886.  6.  '  Don  John :  a  Story,'  3  vols. 
1881.  7.  'John  Jerome,'  1886.  8.  'The 
little  Wonder-box,'  1887.  9.  '  Very  Young 
and  Quite  another  Story,'  1890.  A  volume 
of  selections  from  her  poems  appeared  in 
1886,  and  a  complete  edition  in  one  volume 
in  1898. 

[Allibone's  Diet.  Suppl.  ii.  885 ;  Athenaeum, 
24  July  1897;  Times,  21  and  26  July  1897; 
Miles's  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the  Century,  vol.  vii. ; 
private  information.]  E.  L. 

INGLEFIELD,  SIR  EDWARD  AU- 
GUSTUS (1820-1894),  admiral,  eldest  son 
of  Rear-admiral  Samuel  Hood  Inglefield 
(1783-1848),  who  died  when  commander-in- 
chief  in  the  East  Indies  and  China,  and 
grandson  of  Captain  John  Nicholson  Ingle- 
field [q.  v.],  was  born  at  Cheltenham  on 
27  March  1820.  He  entered  the  Royal 
Naval  College  at  Portsmouth  in  October 
1832,  and,  passing  out  in  October  1834,  was 
appointed  to  the  Etna,  and  then  to  the 
Actaeon,  from  which  early  in  1835  he  was 
moved  to  the  Dublin,  flagship  of  Sir  Graham 
Eden  Hamond,  on  the  South  American 
station.  In  her,  and  afterwards  in  the 
Imogene  on  the  same  station,  he  continued 
till  1839.  Having  passed  his  examination 
he  was  appointed  in  March  1840  to  the 
Thunderer,  in  which  he  took  part  in  the 
operations  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  the  storm- 
ing of  Sidon,  and  the  reduction  of  Acre. 
He  was  afterwards  for  a  short  time  in  the 
West  Indies  and  in  the  royal  yacht,  from 
which  he  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant  on 
21  Sept.  1842.  From  November  1842  to 
1845  he  was  in  the  Samarang  with  Sir 
Edward  Belcher  [q.  v.]  In  March  1845  he 
joined  the  Eagle  as  flag-lieutenant  to  his 
father,  then  commander-in-chief  on  the 
South  American  station,  and  was  shortly 
afterwards  appointed  to  command  the 
Comus,  in  which  he  took  part  in  the  opera- 
tions in  the  Parana  and  in  forcing  the  passage 
at  Obligado  on  20  Nov.  1845.  In  recogni- 
tion of  his  services  on  this  day  his  acting 
commission  as  commander  was  confirmed 
to  18  Nov.  In  1852  he  commanded  Lady 
Franklin's  private  steamer,  Isabella,  in  a 
summer  expedition  to  the  Arctic,  and  looked 
into  Smith  Sound  for  the  first  time  since  it 
had  been  named  by  William  Baffin  [q.  v.] 
On  his  return  he  pxiblished  'A  Summer 


Search  for  Sir  John  Franklin'  (1853,  8vo)  ; 
was  elected  a  F.R.S.  (2  June  1853),  was 
awarded  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society,  and  the  silver  medal  of 
the  Paris  Geographical  Society,  and  was  pre- 
sented with  a  diamond  snuff-box  by  the  em- 
peror of  the  French.  In  1853  he  went  again 
to  the  Arctic  in  the  Phoenix  with  relief  to 
Sir  Edward  Belcher,  and  in  October  brought 
home  the  news  of  the  discovery  of  the 
north-west  passage  by  (Sir)  Robert  John  Le 
Mesurier  McClure  [q.  v.],  for  which  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain  on  7  Oct. 
1853.  In  1854,  still  in  the  Phoenix,  he  went 
for  the  third  time  to  the  Arctic,  and  brought 
back  the  crews  of  the  Resolute  and  Investi- 
gator. 

In  July  1855  he  was  appointed  to  the 
Firebrand  in  the  Black  Sea,  where  he  took 
part  in  the  capture  of  Kinburn.  In  the  fol- 
lowing March  he  was  moved  into  the  Sidon, 
which  he  brought  home  and  paid  oft'.  From 
1861  to  1864  he  commanded  the  Majestic, 
coastguard  ship  at  Liverpool,  and  from 
1866  to  1868  the  ironclad  Prince  Consort 
in  the  Channel  and  the  Mediterranean.  On 
26  May  1869  he  was  promoted  to  be  rear- 
admiral,  and  on  2  June  he  was  nominated  a 
C.B.  From  August  1872  to  December  1875 
he  was  second  in  command  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  superintendent  of  Malta  dock- 
yard, vacating  the  post  on  promotion  to 
vice-admiral  on  11  Dec.  In  1877  he  was 
knighted,  and  from  April  1878  till  his  pro- 
motion to  the  rank  of  admiral  on  27  Nov. 
1879  he  was  commander-in-chief  on  the  North 
American  station.  On  27  March  1885  he 
was  put  on  the  retired  list;  but  in  1891,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  naval  exhibition  at 
Chelsea,  he  was  chairman  of  the  arts  section, 
to  the  success  of  which  he  materially  con- 
tributed. On  21  June  1887  (the  queen's 
jubilee)  he  was  nominated  a  K.C.B.  He  died 
at  his  house  in  Queen's  Gate  on  5  Sept.  1894. 
He  was  twice  married;  first,  in  1857,  to  Eliza 
Fanny,  daughter  of  Edward  Johnston  of 
Allerton  Hall,  near  Liverpool,  by  whom  he 
had  issue ;  secondly,  in  1893,  to  Beatrice  Mari- 
anne, daughter  of  Colonel  Hodnett  of  the 
Dorsetshire  regiment. 

Inglefield  was  a  man  of  cultivated  taste 
and  mechanical  ingenuity.  In  the  course  of 
his  service  abroad,  and  especially  while  at 
Malta,  he  formed  a  very  considerable  and 
interesting  collection  of  old  Venetian  glass. 
He  was  himself  a  painter  of  exceptional 
merit  as  an  amateur;  some  of  his  pictures — 
among  others  '  The  Last  Cruise  of  the  Last 
of  the  Three-deckers ' — have  been  in  the 
Royal  Academy  ;  several  were  exhibited  at 
Chelsea  in  the  Naval  Exhibition  of  1891 ; 


lonides 


33 


Ireland 


among  them  'H.M.S.  Prince  Consort  in  a 
Gale '  and '  H.M.S.  Bellerophon  and  theWest 
Indian  Squadron.'  He  turned  the  upper  part 
of  his  house  into  a  workshop,  with  lathes, 
benches,  &c.,  with  which  he  occupied  much 
of  his  leisure  to  the  last.  He  was  also  the 
inventor  of  the  hydraulic  steering  gear,  which 
was  highly  thought  of  in  the  navy  till  super- 
seded by  steam,  and  of  the  Inglefield  anchor. 
Besides  the  'Summer  Search'  already  men- 
tioned, he  was  the  author  of  some  pamphlets 
on  naval  subjects. 

[O'Byrne's  Naval  Biogr.  Diet. ;  Times, 
7,  10  Sept.  1894;  Navy  Lists;  Eoyal  Navy 
Lists;  personal  knowledge.]  J.  K.  L. 

IONIDES,  CONSTAXTINE  ALEXAN- 
DER (1833-1900),  public  benefactor,  born 
in  Manchester  on  14  May  1833,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Alexander  Constantine  lonides 
by  Euterpe,  daughter  of  Lucas  Sgonta.  He 
commenced  a  business  career  in  Manchester 
in  1850,  and,  some  five  years  later,  went  out 
to  Bucharest  in  the  wheat  trade.  Subse- 
quently he  returned  to  England,  and  in 
1864  entered  the  London  Stock  Exchange, 
realising  a  considerable  fortune,  and  accu- 
mulating many  superb  pictures  and  articles 
of  vertu  at  his  residence,  8  Holland  Villas 
Road,  Kensington.  In  1882  he  retired  from 
active  business,  and  nine  years  later  he  trans- 
ferred the  whole  of  his  collection  to  his  house, 
23  Second  Avenue,  Brighton,  which  he  had 
bought  in  1884.  He  died  at  Brighton  on 
29  June  1900,  and  was  buried  on  2  July  at 
the  Hove  cemetery.  He  married  in  1860 
Agathonike,  daughter  of  Constantine  Fenerli 
at  Constantinople,  and  left  issue  three  daugh- 
ters and  five  sons.  There  are  two  portraits 
of  lonides  as  a  boy  in  a  group  by  Mr.  G.  F. 
Watts,  a  miniature  by  Ross  dated  1853,  a 
later  portrait  (1880)  by  Mr.  Watts,  and  a 
bronze  portrait  medal  designed  in  1882  by 
A.  Legros. 

lonides  bequeathed  his  pictures,  pastels, 
etchings,  drawings,  and  engravings  to  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  (South  Kensington) 
Museum,  on  condition  that  they  should  be 
kept  together  and  in  no  way  concealed  from 
the  public  view.  The  pictures  include  ex- 
amples of  Botticelli,  Poussin,  Rembrandt, 
Ostade,  Paul  Potter,  Ruysdael,  Terborch, 
Le  Nain,  Delacroix,  Millet,  Corot,  Degas, 
Lhermitte,  Rossetti,  and  a  number  of  por- 
traits by  Mr.  G.  F.  Watts. 

[Times,  23  July  1900;  private  information.] 

T.  S. 

IRELAND,      ALEXANDER     (1810- 
394),  journalist   and  man  of  letters,  was 
born  at   Edinburgh  on   9  May  1810.     His 
VOL.  in. — SUP. 


father  was  engaged  in  business,  and  Ireland 
for  long  followed  pursuits  unconnected  with 
literature;  but  his  literary  interests  and 
studies  procured  him  as  a  young  man  many 
intellectual  friends,  among  them  the  brothers 
Chambers  and  Dr.  John  Gairdner  [q.  v.]  His 
friendship  with  Gairdner  led  to  his  acquaint- 
ance with  Emerson,  who  in  1833  came  to 
Edinburgh  with  an  introduction  to  the  phy- 
sician, whose  extensive  medical  practice 
compelled  him  to  request  Ireland  to  act  as 
cicerone  in  his  stead.  Ireland's  zealous  dis- 
charge of  this  office  was  the  foundation  of  a 
lifelong  friendship  with  the  great  American. 
In  1843  he  removed  to  Manchester  as  re- 
presentative of  a  Huddersfield  firm,  and  in 
the  same  year  received  a  signal  proof  of  the 
confidence  of  Robert  Chambers,  who  not 
only  entrusted  him  with  the  secret  of  the 
authorship  of  '  The  Vestiges  of  Creation,' 
divulged  to  only  three  other  persons,  but 
employed  him  to  avert  suspicion  while  the 
book  was  going  through  the  press.  The 
sheets  were  sent  by  the  London  publisher, 
who  was  himself  in  complete  ignorance,  to 
Ireland  at  Manchester,  and  thence  trans- 
mitted to  Chambers.  The  secret  was  strictly 
kept  until  1884,  when,  every  other  depository 
of  it  being  dead,  Ireland  very  properly  re- 
vealed it  in  a  preface  to  the  twelfth  edition, 
thus  disposing  of  a  host  of  groundless  con- 
jectures. In  1846  Ireland  succeeded  Mr. 
(afterwards  Sir)  Edward  Watkin  as  pub- 
lisher and  business  manager  of  the  'Man- 
chester Examiner,'  a  paper  founded  the 
year  before  by  Watkin,  John  Bright,  and 
William  McKerrow  [q.  v.]  in  opposition  to 
the  '  Guardian,'  too  haughtily  independent 
of  the  anti-cornlaw  league  to  please  the 
'  Manchester  school.'  The  first  editor  was 
Thomas  Ballantyne  [q.  v.]  Ere  long  the 
'  Examiner '  absorbed  the  other  local  expo- 
nent of  advanced  liberalism,  the '  Manchester 
Times'  [see  PRENTICE,  ARCHIBALD],  and  as 
the  '  Manchester  Examiner  and  Times'  held 
the  second  place  in  the  Manchester  press 
for  forty  years.  In  1847  and  1848  occurred 
the  interesting  episode  of  Emerson's  second 
visit  to  England  at  the  instigation  of  Ireland, 
who  was,  in  Carlylean  phrase,  'infinitely  well 
affected  towards  the  man  Emerson.'  All  the 
arrangements  for  Emerson's  lectures  were 
made  by  him  ;  in  his  guest's  words  he  '  ap- 
proved himself  the  king  of  all  friends  and 
helpful  agents;  the  most  active,  unweari- 
able,  imperturbable.' 

Ireland,  after  a  while,  found  himself  able 
to  spare  time  from  journalism  for  the  lite- 
rary pursuits  in  which  he  delighted.  In 
1851  he  was  a  member  of  the  committee 
that  organised  the  Manchester  Free  Library, 


Ireland 


34 


Is  may 


where  many  books  from  his  own  library 
afterwards  came  to  be  deposited.  He  culti- 
vated the  friendship  of  Carlyle  and  Leigh 
Hunt,  for  the  latter  of  whom  he  entertained 
a  warm  aH'ection,  and  upon  whom  he  wrote 
for  this  Dictionary.  He  also  prepared  a  most 
useful  bibliography  of  Hunt  s  writings, 
united  in  the  same  volume  with  a  similar 
list  of  William  Hazlitt's,  and  printed  in  a 
limited  impression  in  1868.  In  1889  he 
edited  a  selection  from  Hazlitt's  works,  pre- 
faced by  an  excellent  memoir.  Upon  Emer- 
son's death  in  1882  he  published  a  biography 
of  him,  necessarily  incomplete,  but  possess- 
ing especial  value  from  his  own  recollec- 
tions ;  it  was  enlarged  and  reissued  within 
the  year  as  '  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson :  his 
Life,  Genius,  and  Writings.'  In  the  same 
year  he  published  at  Manchester  '  Recollec- 
tions of  George  Dawson  and  his  Lectures  in 
Manchester  in  1846-7.'  Perhaps,  however, 
his  best-known  publication  is  'The  Book- 
Lover's  Enchiridion,'  a  collection  of  passages 
in  praise  of  books  selected  from  a  wide  range 
of  authors.  It  Avas  published  in  1882  under 
the  pseudonym  of  '  Philobiblos,'  and  went 
through  five  edit  ions.  He  himself  possessed  a 
fine  library,  especially  rich  in  the  works  of 
early  English  authors,  in  which  he  was  well 
versed.  He  especially  admired  Daniel  and 
Burton,  and  possessed  all  the  seventeenth- 
century  editions  of  thelatter's  'Anatomy  of 
Melancholy.'  Unfortunately,  this  treasured 
collection  had  to  be  sold  owing  to  the  re- 
verse of  fortune  which  overtook  him  in  his 
latter  days  from  the  general  transfer  of 
liberal  support  from  the  '  Examiner  '  to  the 
'Guardian,' upon  the  latter  journal's  recon- 
ciliation with  the  more  advanced  section  of 
the  party  on  occasion  of  Gladstone's  home- 
rule  proposals  in  1886.  The  'Examiner,'  now 
an  unprofitable  property,  passed  into  other 
hands,  and  soon  ceased  to  exist.  Ireland  bore 
his  misfortunes  with  great  dignity  and  forti- 
tude, and,  although  an  octogenarian,  re- 
mained active  to  the  last  as  a  writer  in  the 
press.  He  died  on  7  Dec.  1894  at  Mauldeth 
Road,  Withington. 

Ireland  was  an  excellent  man,  generous, 
hospitable,  full  of  intellectual  interests,  and 
persevering  in  his  aid  of  public  causes  and 
private  friends.  A  medallion  portrait  is  en- 
graved in  '  Threads  from  the  Life  of  John 
Mills,'  1899.  A  collection  of  Ireland's  books, 
rich  in  editions  of  Lamb,  Hazlitt,  Leigh 
Hunt,  and  Carlyle,  was  presented  in  1895  to 
the  Manchester  Free  Reference  Library  by 
Thomas  Read  Wilkinson,  and  a  special  cata- 
logue was  issued  in  1898. 

Ireland  was  twice  married — first,  in 
1839,  to  Eliza  Mary,  daughter  of  Frede- 


rick Blyth   of  Birmingham,  who   died   in 
1842. 

MBS.  ANNIE  IRELAND  (d.  1893),  Ireland's 
second  wife,  whom  he  married  in  1866, 
was  the  sister  of  Henry  Alleyne  Nichol- 
son [q.v.  Suppl.l,  regius  professor  of  natural 
history  at  Aberdeen,  and  was  herself  known 
as  the  biographer  of  Jane  Welsh  Carlyle 
(1891),  and  the  editor  of  her  correspon- 
dence with  Miss  Jewsbury  (1892) ;  her  re- 
collections of  James  Anthony  Froude  [q.  v. 
Suppl.]  were  published  posthumously  in  the 
'  Contemporary  Review.'  She  died  on  4  Oct. 
1893. 

[Manchester  Guardian,  8  Dec.  1894;  Threads 
from  the  Life  of  John  Mills;  personal  know- 
ledge.] E,  G. 

ISMAY,  THOMAS  HENRY  (1837- 
1899),  shipowner,  eldest  son  of  Joseph 
Ismay,  shipbuilder,  of  Marypoint,  Cumber- 
land, was  born  there  on  7  Jan.  1837.  At 
the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
firm  of  shipbrokers  (Imrie  &  Tomlinson)  in 
Liverpool,  and  on  the  expiration  of  his  time 
made  a  voyage  to  South  America,  visiting 
the  several  ports  on  the  west  coast.  Re- 
turning to  Liverpool  he  started  in  business 
on  his  own  account,  and  engaged  especially 
in  the  Australian  trade.  In  1867  he  ac- 
quired the  White  Star  line  of  Australian 
clippers,  and  in  the  following  year,  in 
partnership  with  an  old  friend  and  fellow- 
apprentice,  William  Imrie,  he  formed  the 
Oceanic  Steamship  Company.  In  1870  they 
added  the  American  trade  to  their  other 
ventures,  and  in  1871  began  running  their 
steamers  regularly  between  Liverpool  and 
New  York.  In  co-operation  with  Harland 
and  WTolff  of  Belfast,  the  White  Star  liners 
earned  a  good  reputation  for  safety,  comfort, 
and  speed;  it  is  stated  that  between  1870 
and  1899  they  paid  to  Harland  and  Wolff 
no  less  a  sum  than  7,000,OOOZ.  In  1878  the 
White  Star  line  placed  their  steamers  at 
the  disposal  of  the  government  as  transports 
or  cruisers — an  offer  which  led  to  the 
modern  system  of  subsidising  certain  private 
companies.  At  the  naval  review  at  Spit- 
head  in  1897,  the  Teutonic,  one  of  the 
largest  steamers  then  afloat,  was  sent  by 
Ismay  to  take  part  in  the  national  display. 
I  In  1892  Ismay  retired  from  the  firm  of 
|  Ismay,  Imrie,  &  Co.,  but  retained  the  chair- 
manship of  the  White  Star  Company, 
!  whose  fleet  then  consisted  of  eighteen 
steamers,  of  an  aggregate  of  99,000  tons, 
which  by  1899  was  increased  to  164,000. 
Ismay  was  also  chairman  of  the  Liverpool 
and  London  Steamship  Protection  Associa- 
tion, a  director  of  the  London  and  North- 


Jackson 


35 


Jackson 


Western  Railway  Company,  and  of  many 
other  industrial  enterprises.  In  1884  he 
served  on  Lord  Ravensworth's  admiralty 
committee  on  contract  versus  dockyard 
systems  of  building  ships  ;  in  1888  on  Lord 
Hartington's  royal  commission  on  army  and 
navy  administration,  and  on  several  other 
important  committees.  He  was  a  liberal 
supporter  of  the  Liverpool  Seamen's  Orphan 
Institution ;  and  in  1887  he  contributed 
20,000/.  towards  a  pension  fund  for  worn-out 
Liverpool  sailors.  He  was  for  some  years  a 
J.P.  and  D.L.  of  Cheshire,  and  high  sheriff 
in  1892.  He  died  at  Dawpool,  near  Birken- 


head,  on  23  Nov.  1899,  and  was  buried  on 
the  27th  in  the  churchyard  of  Thurstanton, 
after  a  semi-public  memorial  service  in  St. 
Nicholas's,  Liverpool.  Notwithstanding  his 
liberal  charities,  his  estate,  as  proved,  was 
considerably  over  1 .000,000  J.  Ismay  married 
in  1859  Margaret,  daughter  of  Luke  Bruce, 
and  left  issue  three  sons  and  four  daughters. 
His  portrait  by  Millais  in  1885  was  pre- 
sented to  him  by  the  shareholders  of  the 
White  Star  Company. 

[Times,  24  Nov.   1899;  Who's  Who,   1899; 
Whitaker's  Almanack,  1901,  p.  382.] 

J.  K.  L. 


J 


JACKSON,  BASIL  (1795-1889),  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, born  at  Glasgow  on  27  June 
1795,  was  the  son  of  Major  Basil  Jackson  of 
the  royal  wagon  train,  who  died  on  10  Sept. 
1849  at  the  age  of  ninety-two.  He  entered 
the  Royal  Military  College  in  1808,  obtained 
a  commission  in  the  royal  staff  corps  on 
•11  July  1811,  and  was  promoted  lieutenant 
on  6  May  1813.  He  was  employed  in  the 
Netherlands  in  1814-15,  was  present  at 
Waterloo  as  deputy  assistant  quartermaster- 
general,  and  was  afterwards  sent  to  St. 
Helena,  where  he  remained  till  1819.  He 
served  in  Canada  and  was  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  Rideau  canal.  He  was 
promoted  captain  on  17  Sept.  1825,  and  was 
given  a  half-pay  majority  on  7  Feb.  1834. 

In  February  1835  he  was  made  assistant 
professor  of  fortification  at  the  East  India 
Company's  college  at  Addiscombe.  He  was 
transferred  in  December  1836  to  the  assistant 
professorship  of  military  surveying,  and  held 
that  post  till  30  Dec.  1857,  when  he  retired 
on  a  pension.  He  had  become  lieutenant- 
colonel  on  9  Nov.  1840,  and  had  sold  out  in 
1847.  He  afterwards  lived  at  Glewston 
Court,  near  Ross,  Herefordshire,  till  Sep- 
tember 1874,  and  at  Hillsborough,co.  Down, 
till  his  death  on  23  Oct.  1889.  He  married, 
on  28  March  1828,  the  daughter  of  Colonel 
George  Muttlebury,  C.B. 

He  published :  1.  'A  Course  of  Military 
Surveying'  (1838),  which  passed  through 
several  editions,  and  was  the  text-book  at 
Addiscombe.  2.  (in  conjunction  with  Cap- 
tain C.  R.  Scott,  also  of  the  royal  staff  corps) 
'  The  Military  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton '  (2  vols.  1840),  furnished  with  unusually 
good  plans. 

[Times,  24  Oct.  1889;  Dalton's  Waterloo 
Roll  Call,  1890  ;  Vibart's  Addiscombe.] 

E.  M.  L. 


JACKSON,  CATHERINE  HANNAH 
CHARLOTTE,  LADY  (d.  1891),  authoress, 
was  the  daughter  of  Thomas  Elliott  of  Wake- 
field.  She  became  the  second  wife  of  Sir 
George  Jackson  [q.  v.]  in  1856,  the  marriage 
taking  place  at  St.  Helena.  After  her  hus- 
band's death  in  1861  she  turned  her  attention 
to  literature,  and  began  by  editing  the  diaries 
and  letters  of  her  husband's  early  life.  In 
1872  appeared  in  two  volumes  '  The  Diaries 
and  Letters  of  Sir  George  Jackson,  from  the 
Peace  of  Amiens  to  the  Battle  of  Talavera,' 
and  in  1873,  also  in  two  volumes,  '  The  Bath 
Archives :  a  further  Selection  from  the  Diaries 
and  Letters  of  Sir  George  Jackson,  1809-16.' 
On  19  June  1874  she  was  granted  a  pen- 
sion of  1001.  a  year  from  the  civil  list,  in 
recognition  of  her  husband's  services.  She 
now  took  to  reading  widely  in  French 
memoirs,  and  compiled  from  them  several 
books  on  French  society.  One  of  the  best 
of  them,  '  Old  Paris :  its  Court  and  Literary 
Salons,'  appeared  in  two  volumes  in  1878. 
Lady  Jackson's  works  have  an  interest  for 
the  general  reader,  but  their  inaccuracies  and 
lack  of  perspective  render  them  useless  to 
the  historical  student.  Her  English  style 
cannot  be  commended.  She  died  at  Bath 
on  9  Dec.  1891. 

Other  works  are:  I.  'Fair  Lusitania,' 
1874.  2.  '  The  Old  Regime :  Court,  Salons, 
and  Theatres,'  2  vols.  1880.  3.  '  The  French 
Court  and  Society :  Reign  of  Louis  XVI 
and  First  Empire,'  2  vols.  1881.  4.  'The 
Court  of  the  Tuileries  from  the  Resto- 
ration to  the  Flight  of  Louis  Philippe,' 
2  vols.  1883.  5.  '  The  Court  of  France  in 
the  Sixteenth  Century,  1514—59,'  2  vols. 
1885.  6.  'The  Last  of  the  Valois  and 
Accession  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  1559-89,' 
2  vols.  1888.  7. '  The  First  of  the  Bourbons,' 
2  vols.  1890. 

D2 


Jago 


James 


[Boase's  Modern  English  Biogr.  ii.  29 ;  Times, 
11  Dec.  1891 ;  Colles's  Literature  and  the  Pension 
List;  Allibone's  Diet.  Suppl.  ii.  891.]  E.  L. 

JAGO,  JAMES  (1815-1893),  physician, 
second  son  of  John  Jago,  was  born  on 
18  Dec.  1815  at  the  barton  of  Kigilliack, 
Budock,  near  Falmouth,  once  a  seat  of  the 
bishops  of  Exeter.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Falmouth  classical  and  mathematical  school 
until  about  1833.  After  a  short  period  of 
private  tuition  he  entered  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  in  Easter  term  1835,  and  gra- 
duated B.A.  in  the  mathematical  tripos  of 
1839  as  thirty-second  wrangler.  He  then 
determined  to  adopt  the  medical  profession, 
and  studied  at  various  hospitals  in  London, 
Paris,  and  Dublin.  On  16  Feb.  1843  he  was 
incorporated  at  the  university  of  Oxford 
from  Wadham  College  (GABDINEK,  Reg. 
Wadham,  ii.  414).  He  graduated  M.B.  on 
22  June  1843,  and  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
medicine  was  conferred  upon  him  by  this 
university  on  10  June  1859.  He  then  began 
to  practise  in  Truro,  and  in  1856  he  was  ap- 
pointed physician  to  the  Royal  Cornwall 
Infirmary,  and  he  was  also  connected  profes- 
sionally with  the  Truro  dispensary.  He  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  on 
2  June  1870,  and  he  served  (1873-5)  as 
president  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Corn- 
wall at  Truro,  a  society  of  which  he  had  been 
the  honorary  secretary  for  many  years. 

He  died  on  18  Jan.  1893.  He  married,  in 
1864,  Maria  Jones,  daughter  of  Richard  Pearce 
of  Penzance,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters. 
Dr.  Jago  was  a  voluminous  writer  on 
various  medical  subjects,  the  most  important 
of  which  were  investigations  upon  certain 
physiological  and  pathological  conditions  of 
the  eye,  which  his  mathematical  and  medi- 
cal knowledge  especially  fitted  him  to  dis- 
cuss. He  was  also  interested  in  the  history 
and  progress  of  Cornish  science  and  antiqui- 
ties. His  works  are:  1.  'Ocular  Spectres 
and  Structures  as  Mutual  Exponents,'  Lon- 
don, 1856, 8vo.  This  work  deals  with  various 
optical  defects  of  the  human  eye.  2.  '  Ent- 
optics,  with  its  Uses  in  Physiology  and 
Medicine,'  London,  1864, 8vo.  He  also  con- 
tributed various  papers  to  the  '  London 
Medisal  Gazette,' '  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Society,'  the  '  British  and  Foreign  Medical 
and  Chirurgical  Review,'  and  the  '  Journal 
of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Cornwall.' 

[Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  1893,  vol. 
liv. ;  Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886.] 

D'A.  P. 

JAMES,  DAVID  (1839-1893),  actor, 
whose  real  name  was  BELASCO,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1839,  made  his  first  appearance  in  a 


subordinate  part  at  the  Princess's  theatre 
under  Charles  Kean.    He  is  first  recognisable 
at  the  Royalty,  where  on  28  Sept,  1863  he 
was  the  first  Mercury  in  Mr.  Burnand's  bur- 
lesque of '  Ixion.'    The  foil  owing  year  he  was 
at  the  Strand,  where  he  played  in  burlesque, 
and  on  28  Oct.  was  the  first  Archibald  Goode, 
a  young  lover  in  Craven's  '  Milky  White.' 
Tom  Foxer  in  Craven's  '  One  Tree  Hill '  fol- 
lowed.   In  Mr.  Burnand's  '  Windsor  Castle ' 
he  was  Will  Somers.     Other  parts  of  little 
importance  succeeded,  and  on  15  June  1867 
he  was  the  first  Joseph  in  '  Our  Domestics,' 
('  Nos  Domestiques ').     His  reputation  rose 
with   his   performance  on  5  Feb.  1870  of 
Zekiel  Homespun  in  a  revival  of  the  '  Heir 
at  Law.'    Two  months  later,  in  partnership 
with  Henry  James   Montague   [q.  v.]  and 
Thomas  Thorne,  he  undertook  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Vaudeville,  but  was  unable  to 
appear   in  the   opening  performances.      On 
4  June  1870,  at  the  Vaudeville,  he  played 
Mr.  Jenkins  in  Albery's  '  Two  Roses,'  was 
the  original  John  Tweedie   in   '  Tweedie's 
Rights  '  on  27  May  1871,  and  Bob  Prout  in 
'  Apple  Blossoms  '  on  9  Sept.     He  played 
Sir  Benjamin  Backbite  in  '  School  for  Scan- 
dal '  and  Goldfinch  in  the  '  Road  to  Ruin  ' 
with   brilliant   success,   Sheridan's   master- 
piece being  given  over  four  hundred  times. 
He   was    the    original   Sir   Ball   Brace    in 
Albery's  'Pride'   on   22    April   1874,   and 
'  the  retired  butterman,'  Perkyn  Middlewick, 
in  '  Our  Boys '  on  16  Jan.  1875.     This  was 
his    greatest    success,    and  the    piece   was 
played  for  over  a  thousand  times;  it  was  not 
removed  from  the  playbills  until  18  April 
1879,  and  was  claimed  as  '  the  largest  run 
on  record.'     On  19  April  1879^  he  was  the 
first  Plantagenet  Potter  in  'Our  Girls,'  on 
29  Jan.  1880  the  first  John  Peddington  in 
Mr.  Burnand's  '  Ourselves,'  and  on  8  March 
Smallrib  in  Charles  Wills's '  Cobwebs.'  James 
was   the   first   Edward   Irwin   in  Albery's 
'  Jacks  and  Jills  '  on  29  May,  Macclesfield 
in  E.  G.  Lankester's '  The  Guv'nor '  on  23  June, 
and  Professor  Mistletoe  in  Byron's  '  Punch ' 
on  26  May  1881.      After,  the  partnership 
between  James  and  Thorne  had  come  to  an 
end,  James  played  at  the  Haymarket  Lovi- 
bond  in  the  '  Overland  Route '  and  Eccles 
in    '  Caste.'      In    1885    he    undertook  the 
management  of  the  Opera  Comique,  playing 
Blueskin   in   'Little  Jack   Sheppard,'  and 
Aristides  Cassegrain  in  the '  Excursion  Train.' 
In  1886  he  was  at  the   Criterion  playing 
John  Dory  in  '  Wild  Oats,'  Simon  Ingot  in 
'  David  Garrick,'  Matthew  Pincher  in '  Cyril's 
Success,'  and  his  old  part  in  'Our  Boys.' 
At  the  Criterion  he  was  also  the  first  Townely 
Snell  in  the  '  Circassian '  on  19  Nov.  1887, 


Jenner 


37 


Jenner 


and  Rev.  Dr.  Jeremie  Jackson  in  '  Miss 
Decima '  on  23  July  1891.  He  took  part  in 
1893  in  revivals  at  the  Vaudeville  of  '  Our 
Boys  '  and  '  The  Guv'nor.'  He  was  also  seen 
as  Moses  in  '  School  for  Scandal '  and  Samuel 
Coddle  in  '  Married  Life.'  He  died  on  2  Oct. 
1893. 

James  was  an  admirable  comedian  in 
parts  in  which  ripeness  and  humour  were 
requisite.  In  John  Dory,  Perkyn  Middle- 
wick,  Macclesfield,  and  other  characters  in 
which  cheeriness  and  unction  were  requisite, 
he  had  no  equal,  and  scarcely  a  rival  or  a 
successor.  His  Tweedie  in  '  Tweedie's 
Rights '  was  a  marvellous  piece  of  acting. 

[Personal  recollections;  Pascoe's  Dramatic 
List ;  The  Theatre,  various  years ;  Scott  and 
Howard's  Blanchard  ;  The  Dramatic  Peerage  ; 
Era  Almanack,  various  years ;  Sunday  Times, 
various  years.]  J.  K. 

JENNER,  SIR  WILLIAM,  first  baronet 
(1815-1898),  physician,  born  on  30  Jan.  1815 
at  Chatham,  was  the  fourth  son  of  John  Jen- 
ner, afterwards  of  St.  Margaret's,  Rochester, 
and  of  Elizabeth,  his  wife,  the  only  daughter 
of  George  Terry.  He  received  his  medical 
education  at  University  College,  London, 
and  was  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon  living  in 
Upper  Baker  Street,  Regent's  Park.  He 
was  admitted  a  licentiate  of  the  Society  of 
Apothecaries  on  6  July  1837,  and  a  member 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England 
on  29  Aug.  1837.  He  then  commenced  gene- 
ral practice  at  12  Albany  Street,  Regent's 
Park,  and  graduated  M.D.  at  the  university 
of  London  in  1844. 

At  the  beginning  of  1847  Jenner  began  a 
detailed  study  of  the  cases  of  continued 
fever  admitted  to  the  London  Fever  Hos- 
pital, where  he  made  notes  of  a  thousand 
cases  of  acute  disease.  The  result  of  the 
investigation  of  these  cases  was,  in  his  own  | 
words,  '  to  prove  incontestably,  so  far  as 
induction  can  prove  the  point,  that  the 
specific  causes  of  typhus  and  typhoid  fevers 
are  absolutely  different  from  each  other,  and 
to  render  in  the  highest  degree  probable 
that  the  specific  cause  of  relapsing  fever  is 
different  from  that  of  either  of  the  two 
former.' 

In  1849  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
pathological  anatomy  at  University  College, 
London,  and  later  in  the  same  year  he  became 
an  assistant  physician  to  University  College 
Hospital,  succeeding  to  the  office  of  full 
physician  in  1854.  This  post  he  resigned 
in  1876,  and  he  was  elected  a  consulting 
physician  in  1879.  In  1856  he  was  nomi- 
nated physician  in  charge  of  the  skin  de- 
partment of  University  College  Hospital. 
At  University  College  he  acted  as  substitute 


for  Dr.  Edmund  Alexander  Parkes  [q.  v.],the 
Holme  professor  of  clinical  medicine,  during 
his  absence  at  the  Crimean  war,  1855-6  ;  and 
when  Parkes  was  appointed  professor  of 
hygiene  in  the  army  medical  school,  esta- 
blished at  Fort  Pitt,  Chatham,  in  1860, 
Jenner  was  confirmed  in  the  chair  of  Holme 
professor  at  University  College.  From  1863 
to  1872  he  was  professor  of  the  principles 
and  practice  of  medicine  at  University  Col- 
lege. From  1853  to  1861  he  held  the  office 
of  physician  to  the  London  Fever  Hospital, 
and  from  1852  to  1862  he  was  physician  to 
the  Hospital  for  Sick  Children  in  Great 
Ormoad  Street. 

Jenner  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians  in  1848,  and  a  fellow 
in  1852.  He  delivered  the  Gulstonian 
lectures  in  1853, on'  Acute  Specific  Diseases; ' 
he  was  a  councillor  in  1865-6-7,  censor  in 
1870-1  and  in  1880,  Harveian  orator  (for 
Dr.  Parkes)  in  1876,  and  president  from  March 
1881  to  March  1888.  He  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1864,  and  was  created 
hon.  D.C.L.  Oxford  on  22  June  1870,  hon. 
LL.D.  Cantab.  1880,  and  hon.  LL.D.  Edin. 
1884.  He  was  president  of  the  Epidemic- 
logical  Society  1866-8,  of  the  Pathological 
Society  of  London  1873-5,  and  of  the 
Clinical  Society  in  1875. 

He  was  appointed  physician  extraordinary 
to  Queen  Victoria  in  1861  upon  the  death  of 
Dr.  William  Baly  (1814-1861)  [q.  v.]  In 
1862  Jenner  became  physician  in  ordinary  to 
the  queen,  and  in  1863  he  was  appointed 
physician  in  ordinary  to  the  prince  of  Wales. 
He  attended  the  prince  consort  during  the  at- 
tack of  typhoid  which  caused  his  death  in  De- 
cember 1861,  and  the  prince  of  Wales  during 
an  attack  of  the  same  fever  ten  years  later. 
He  was  created  a  baronet  on  25  Feb.  1868,  a 
K.C.B.  in  1872,  and  a  G.C.B.  (civil)  on 
24  May  1889.  He  was  also  a  commander 
of  the  order  of  Leopold  of  Belgium. 

Jenner  retired  from  practice  in  1890  owing 
to  ill-health,  and  died  at  Greenwood,  near 
Bishop's  Waltham,  Hants,  on  11  Dec.  1898. 
He  is  buried  at  Durley,  a  village  near  his 
residence.  A  three-quarter-length  oil  por- 
trait of  Sir  William  Jenner  in  his  robes  as  pre- 
sident of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
painted  by  Frank  Holl,  R.A.,  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  Lady  Jenner.  A  copy  by  Val 
Prinsep,  R.A.,  hangs  in  the  common  room  ot 
the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  in  Pall  Mall, 
London.  He  married  in  1858  Adela  Lucy 
Leman,  second  daughter  of  Stephen  Adey, 
esq.,  by  whom  he  had  five  sons  and  a  daughter. 

Sir  William  Jenner's  claim  to  recognition 
lies  in  the  fact  that  by  a  rigid  examination, 
clinical  as  well  as  post  mortem,  of  thirty-six 


Jennings 


Jennings 


patients  he  was  able  to  substantiate  the 
suspicion  of  the  great  French  physician  Louis 
that  under  the  name  of  continued  fever  the 
English  physicians  had  long  confounded  two 
entirely  different  diseases,  to  one  of  which 
Louis  gave  the  name  of  typhus,  to  the  other 
typhoid.  The  credit  of  drawing  this  dis- 
tinction belongs,  among  others,  to  Dr.  Ger- 
hard and  Dr.  Shatnaak  in  America,  to  Dr. 
Valleix  in  France,  and  to  Dr.  Alexander 
Patrick  Stewart  [q.v.]  in  Great  Britain,  but 
their  work  was  contested,  while,  since  the 
publication  of  Jenner's  papers,  the  identity 
of  the  two  conditions  has  never  been  seriously 
maintained. 

Jenner's  robust  common  sense,  his  sound 
knowledge  of  his  profession,  his  kindliness 
to  patients,  and  his  somewhat  autocratic 
manner,  made  him  acceptable  to  all  classes, 
and  enabled  him  to  acquire  so  lucrative  a 
practice  that  he  left  behind  him  a  fortune 
of  375,000/.  The  failing  health  of  Sir  James 
Clark  threw  upon  him  the  chief  immediate 
care  of  the  queen's  health  soon  after  his 
appointment  as  physician  in  ordinary,  and 
for  more  than  thirty  years  he  proved  himself 
not  only  a  most  able  physician,  but  a  true 
and  devoted  friend  of  Queen  Victoria,  who 
deeply  mourned  his  loss. 

Jenner's  papers  on  typhoid  and  typhus 
fevers  were  published  in  the  *  Monthly 
Journal  of  Medical  Science '  (Edinburgh  and 
London)  for  1849,  and  in  the  '  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society,' 
1850,  vol.  xxxiii.  The  latter  paper  was  re- 
ceived on  20  Nov.,  and  read  on  11  Dec.  1849, 
the  author  being  introduced  by  Dr.  William 
Sharpey  [q.  v.] 

Jenner  also  published  :  1.  '  On  the  Iden- 
tity and  Non-identity  of  Typhoid  Fever,' 
London,  1850,  8vo  ;  translated  into  French, 
Brussels,  in  two  parts,  1852-3.  2.  (  Diph- 
theria, its  Symptoms  and  Treatment,'  Lon- 
don, 1861,  12mo.  3.  '  Lectures  and  Essays 
on  Fevers  and  Diphtheria,  1849-79,'  London, 
1893,  8vo.  4.  '  Clinical  Lectures  and  Essays 
on  Rickets,  Tuberculosis,  Abdominal  Tu- 
mours, and  other  Subjects,'  London,  1895, 
8vo. 

[British  Medical  Journal,  1898,  ii.  1851  ; 
Transactions  of  the  Boyal  Medical  and  Ckirur- 
gical  Society,  1899,  vol.  Ixxxii. ;  Royal  Society's 
Yearbook,  1900,  p.  183;  private  information.] 

D'A.  P. 

JENNINGS,  LOUIS  JOHN  (1836-1893), 
journalist  and  politician,  son  of  John  Jen- 
nings, a  member  of  an  old  Norfolk  family, 
was  born  on  12  May  1836.  Before  he  was 
twenty-five  he  became  connected  with  the 
'  Times,'  for  which  journal  he  was  sent  to 
India  as  special  correspondent  in  1863.  For 


some  time  he  was  editor  of  the  '  Times  of 
India.'  After  the  civil  war  he  was  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  '  Times '  in  America,  as  suc- 
cessor to  Dr.  Charles  Mackay  [q.  v.]  In  1867 
he  published  '  Eighty  Years  of  Republican 
Government  in  the  United  States,'  London, 
1868,  cr.  Svo,  and  in  the  same  year  he  married 
Madeline,  daughter  of  David  Henriques  of 
New  York.  He  settled  in  New  York  and 
became  the  editor  of  the  '  New  York  Times.' 
The  municipal  government  of  the  city  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Tammany  Ring 
and  '  Boss '  Tweed.  Jennings,  undeterred 
by  threats  of  personal  violence,  and  even  of 
murder,  during  many  months  exposed  the 
malpractices  in  his  newspaper,  and  finally 
had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  corrupt 
organisation  broken  up  through  his  public- 
spirited  and  courageous  efforts,  and  the  ring- 
leaders, who  had  defrauded  their  fellow- 
citizens  of  millions  of  dollars,  punished. 
This  remarkable  achievement  was  commemo- 
rated by  a  testimonial  to  Jennings,  signed  by 
representatives  of  the  best  classes  in  New 
York. 

Jennings  returned  to  London  in  1876  to 
devote  himself  to  literature,  founded  and 
edited  '  The  Week,'  a  newspaper  which  did 
not  meet  with  much  success,  and  became  a 
contributor  to  the  '  Quarterly  Review,'  for 
the  publisher  of  which,  John  Murray,  he 
acted  as  reader.  In  1877  he  had  charge  of 
the  city  article  in  the  '  World.'  He  was  an 
active  pedestrian,  and  published  '  Field  Paths 
and  Green  Lanes :  being  Country  Walks, 
chiefly  in  Surrey  and  Sussex'  (1877  &c.  five 
editions),  followed  by  '  Rambles  among  the 
Hills  in  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire  and  the  South 
Downs '  (1880),  with  some  charming  wood- 
cuts after  sketches  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Hallam 
Murray.  These  volumes  have  nothing  of  the 
formal  character  of  guide-books,  but  are  racy 
descriptions  of  secluded  country  paths  inter- 
spersed with  stories  of  quaint  rural  way- 
farers. In  1882-3  he  wrote  a  novel,  '  The 
Millionaire,'  said  to  depict  Jay  Gould,  the 
American,  which  appeared  in  '  Blackwood's 
Magazine,'  and  was  afterwards  published 
anonymously  (1883,  3  vols.) 

His  most  important  literary  undertaking 
was  to  edit  '  The  Croker  Papers :  the  Cor- 
respondence and  Diaries  of  the  late  Rt. 
Hon.  John  Wilson  Croker,  Secretary  to  the 
Admiralty  from  1809  to  1830'  (London, 
1884,  3  vols.  Svo ;  2nd  edit,  revised,  1885), 
a  duty  which  he  performed  with  much  skill 
and  judgment.  In  November  1885  and  July 
1 886  he  was  elected  M.P.  for  Stockport  in 
the  conservative  interest,  and  became  ab- 
j  sorbed  in  politics.  He  was  a  follower  of 
,  Lord  Randolph  Churchill  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  but 


Jennings 


39 


Jennings 


dissociated  himself  when   Lord   Randolph 
attacked   the  appointment   of  the   Parnell 
commission  in  1889.     His  last  literary  work 
was    to    edit    Lord    Randolph  Churchill's  : 
'  Speeches,  with  Notes   and   Introduction '  ! 
(1889,  2  vols.  8vo).     He  acted  as  London  ! 
correspondent  of  the  '  Xew  York  Herald/  \ 
and   published  '  Mr.  Gladstone  :    a  Study '  i 
(1887,  cr.  8vo,  several  editions),  a  severe 
party  attack  criticised  by  Mr.  II.  J.  Leech 
in  'Mr.  Gladstone  and  his  Reviler,'  1888.  j 
After  two  years'  illness  he  died  on  9  Feb.  j 
1893,  at  Elm  Park  Gardens,  London,  aged  56, 
leaving  a  widow  and  children. 

[Athenaeum,  18  Feb.  1893,  p.  221  ;  Men  and 
Women  of  the  Time,  1891,  13th  edit.  p.  500; 
Supplement  to  Allibone's  Dictionary,  1891,  ii. 
908;  Times,  10  Feb.  p.  5,  and  11  Feb.  1893, 
p.  1.]  H.  K.  T. 

JENNINGS,  SIB  PATRICK  ALFRED 
(1831-1897),  premier  of  Xew  South  Wales, 
was  son  of  Francis  Jennings  of  Xewry,  a 
merchant,  who  came  of  a  family  long  settled 
in  that  part  of  Ireland,  and  his  wife,  Mary 
O'Xeil.  He  was  born  at  Xewry  on  17  March 
1831,  and  educated  in  that  town  till  he  went 
to  the  high  school  at  Exeter.  Intended  for 
the  bar,  he  preferred  engineering,  but  ulti- 
mately began  life  in  a  merchant's  office  ;  he 
emigrated  to  the  goldfields  of  Victoria  in 
1852.  Here  he  was  fairly  successful.  In 
l^Oo  he  settled  at  St.  Arnaud  and  erected 
quartz-crushing  mills. 

Jennings  soon  made  an  impression  in  the 
young  colony.  He  was  asked  to  stand  for 
the  Wimmera  in  the  first  Victorian  assembly 
(1856),  but  resolved  to  devote  himself  for 
the  present  to  his  own  business.  In  1857, 
however,  he  was  made  a  magistrate,  and 
then  chairman  of  the  road  board,  and  after- 
wards of  the  first  municipal  council,  of  St. 
Arnaud. 

In  1863  Jennings  acquired  a  large  pastoral 
property  on  the  Murrumbidgee  in  Xew  South 
Wales,  and,  migrating  to  that  colony,  settled 
at  Warbreccan  in  the  Riverina  district  as  a 
squatter.  Shortly  afterwards  the  agitation 
for  the  separation  of  the  Riverina  district 
and  its  erection  into  a  separate  colony 
reached  its  height.  In  1865  Jennings  was 
asked  to  go  to  England  as  a  delegate  to  re- 
present the  grievances  of  the  separatists, 
but  declined  because  he  expected  the  local 
government  to  tackle  the  question  effec- 
tively. In  1866  James  Martin  [q.v.],  then 
premier  of  Xew  South  Wales,  personally 
visited  the  district  and  nominated  several 
leading  residents  to  the  legislative  council. 
Jennings  accepted  his  nomination  and  entered 
the  council  on  28  March  1867.  He  re- 
signed in  1869,  and  was  elected  to  the 


assembly  as  member  for  the  Murray  district, 
for  which  he  sat  till  1872,  when  he  decided 
to  contest  Mudgee  and  was  beaten,  thus 
losing  his  seat  in  parliament.  In  1875  he 
represented  the  colony  at  the  Melbourne 
exhibition,  and  in  1876  was  commissioner 
for  Xew  South  Wales,  Queensland,  and 
Tasmania  at  the  United  States  centennial 
exhibition  at  Philadelphia.  Here  he  re- 
ceived a  special  medal  from  the  States  and 
was  also  thanked  by  the  British  authorities. 
From  America  he  travelled  to  the  United 
Kingdom  and  Europe,  and  at  Rome  was 
presented  to  the  pope  (Pius  IX)  and  de- 
corated with  the  order  of  St.  Gregory  the 
Great.  In  December  1878  Jennings  was 
offered  by  Sir  John  Robertson  (1816-1891) 
[q.  v.]  a  seat  in  his  projected  cabinet  as 
vice-president  of  the  executive  council  and 
leader  of  the  upper  chamber,  but  the  forma- 
tion of  this  ministry  was  not  completed.  In 
1879  he  was  executive  commissioner  for 
Xew  South  Wales  at  the  international  ex- 
hibition held  at  Sydney,  and  in  connection 
with  this  service  was  made  a  C.M.G.  and  a 
year  later  K. C.M.G.  In  Xovember  1880  he 
once  more  entered  the  assembly  as  member 
for  the  Bogan.  From  5  Jan.  to  31  July 
1883  Jennings  was  vice-president  of  the  exe- 
cutive council  in  Alexander  Stuart's  [q.  v."1 
ministry.  From  10  Oct.  to  21  Dec.  1885 
he  was  colonial  treasurer  under  (Sir)  George 
Dibbs.  The  period  was  a  stormy  one  in 
colonial  politics.  Sir  John  Robertson  came 
into  power  only  to  be  defeated  on  a  vote  of 
censure ;  Sir  Henry  Parkes  [q.v.  Suppl.]  was 
condemning  severely  all  parties  without 
having  strength  to  form  a  government. 
Jennings  was  called  upon  and  attempted  to 
form  a  coalition  ministry  with  Robertson ; 
finally,  on  26  Feb.  1886,  he  became  premier, 
holding  office  as  colonial  treasurer.  The 
questions  with  which  he  had  to  deal  were 
those  of  retrenchment  and  fresh  revenue, 
certain  reforms  in  the  civil  service,  and  the 
amendment  of  the  Land  Act.  His  financial 
proposals  evoked  very  determined  opposi- 
tion ;  Parkes  condemns  them  as  a  protec- 
tionist effort  put  forth  by  a  professed  free- 
trader. They  were  only  carried  by  extra- 
ordinary expedients  and  all-night  sittings. 
His  land  tax  bill  was  lost.  His  colonial  se- 
cretary, Dibbs,  quarrelled  with  him  and  left 
him.  At  the  end  of  the  session  his  position 
was  greatly  weakened,  and  as  he  was  not 
wedded  to  politics,  he  resigned  office  on  19  Jan. 
1887,  partly  perhaps  in  order  that  be  might 
visit  England,  where  he  represented  the 
colony  at  the  colonial  conference  in  London 
in  June  and  July  1887.  After  his  return 
he  practically  eschewed  local  politics ;  he 


Jenyns 


Jervois 


was,  indeed,  appointed  to  the  legislative 
council  in  1890,  and  was  delegate  for  New 
South  Wales  in  the  convention  on  federa- 
tion held  at  Sydney  in  March  1891,  but  that 
was  practically  the  close  of  his  public  life. 
He  died  at  Brisbane  at  a  private  hospital  on 
11  July  1897,  and  was  buried  at  Sydney. 

Jennings  is  described  by  a  contemporary  as 
'  a  clear-headed,  cultured  Irishman '  who 
'  turned  every  honest  opponent  who  came 
into  contact  with  him  into  an  admiring 
friend  '  (Sydney  Mail,  17  July  1897,  p.  115). 
He  did  much  to  promote  the  cultivation  of 
music  in  New  South  Wales,  and  gave  large 
sums  for  the  erection  of  the  organ  at  Sydney 
University,  of  which  he  was  a  member  of 
senate.  He  was  also  a  trustee  of  the  Na- 
tional Art  Gallery.  He  was  a  fellow  of  St. 
John's  (Roman  catholic)  College  in  Sydney, 
a  knight  grand  cross  of  Pius  IX  in  1887, 
and  was  made  LL.D.  of  Dublin  in  1887. 

Jennings  married,  in  1864,  Mary  Anne, 
daughter  of  Martin  Shanahan  of  Marnoo, 
Victoria;  she  died  in  1887.  He  left  two 
sons  and  a  daughter. 

[Sydney  Mail,  17  July  1897;  Heaton's  Aus- 
tralian Dictionary  of  Dates;  Mennell's  Diet, 
of  Australasian  Biogr. ;  Parkes's  Fifty  Years  in 
the  making  of  Australian  History,  vol.  ii.  ;  New 
South  Wales  Blue-books;  New  South  Wales 
Parliamentary  Debates.]  0.  A.  H. 

JENYNS,  LEONARD  (1799-1893), 
writer  and  benefactor  of  Bath.  [See  BLOME- 
PIELD.] 

JERRARD,  GEORGE  BIRCH  (d.  1863), 
mathematician,  was  the  son  of  Major-general 
Joseph  Jerrard  (d.  23  Nov.  1858).  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  gra- 
duated B.A.  in  1827.  He  is  chiefly  known 
for  his  work  in  connection  with  the  theory 
of  equations.  Between  1832  and  1835  he 
published  his  '  Mathematical  Researches' 
(Bristol,  8vo),  in  which  he  made  important 
contributions  towards  the  solution  of  the 
general  quintic  equation.  In  1858  he  pub- 
lished a  further  treatise  on  the  subject,  en- 
titled '  An  Essay  on  the  Resolution  of  Equa- 
tions' (London, 8vo).  The  theory  of  equations 
has  since  undergone  great  development, 
Arthur  Cayley  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  and  Sir  James 
Cockle  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  being  among  those  who 
have  devoted  attention  to  it. 

Jerrard  died  on  23  Nov.  1863  at  Long 
Stratton  rectory  in  Norfolk,  the  residence  of 
his  brother,  Frederick  William  Hill  Jerrard 
(d.  18  Feb.  1884). 

[Boase's  Modern  English  Biogr. ;  Gent.  Mag 
1859  i.  102,  1864  i.  130;  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica,  9th  edit.  viii.  509.]  E.  I.  C. 


JERVOIS,  SIR  WILLIAM  FRANCIS 
DRUMMOND  (1821-1897),  lieutenant- 
general,  colonel-commandant  royal  engineers, 
son  of  General  William  Jervois,  K.H.,  colonel 
of  the  76th  foot,  and  his  wife  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  William  Maitland,  was  born  at 
Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  on  10  Sept.  1821. 
Educated  at  Dr.  Burney's  academy  at  Gos- 
port  and  Mr.  Barry's  school  at  Woolwich, 
he  entered  the  Royal  Military  Academy  at 
Woolwich  in  February  1837,  and  obtained 
a  commission  as  second  lieutenant  in  the 
royal  engineers  on  19  March  1839.  His 
further  commissions  were  dated:  lieutenant 
8  Oct.  1841,  captain  13  Dec.  1847,  brevet 
major  29  Sept.  1854,  brevet  lieutenant- 
colonel  13  Feb.  1861,  lieutenant-colonel 
1  April  1862,  brevet  colonel  1  April  1867, 
colonel  27  Jan.  1872,  major-general  1  Oct. 
1877,  lieutenant-general  7  April  1882, 
colonel-commandant  of  royal  engineers 
28  June  1893. 

After  the  usual  course  of  professional  in- 
struction at  Chatham,  where  his  survey 
sheets  were  framed  as  a  pattern  for  the  sur- 
vey school,  and  after  a  few  months'  duty  at 
Woolwich,  Jervois  embarked  on  26  March 
1841  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He  was 
employed  on  the  eastern  frontier  in  the 
construction  of  defensive  posts  on  the  Fish 
river  to  keep  the  Kaffirs  in  check.  Towards 
the  end  of  1842  he  was  appointed  brigade 
major  to  a  force  of  all  arms,  sent  to  Coles- 
berg  on  the  Orange  river,  under  Colonel 
Hare,  the  lieutenant-governor,  to  control  tho 
Boers.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in 
building  a  bridge  over  the  Fish  river  at  Fort 
Brown,  and  in  making  the  main  road  to 
Fort  Beaufort.  In  1845  he  was  appointed 
adjutant  of  the  royal  sappers  and  miners. 
He  accompanied  Colonel  Piper,  the  com- 
manding royal  engineer,  to  Natal,  and,  on 
his  return  overland  via  Colesberg  to  Cape 
Town,  made  a  rough  survey  of  the  little- 
known  country  through  which  he  passed. 

At  the  beginning  of  1847  he  accompanied 
General  Sir  George  Berkeley,  commanding 
the  troops,  to  Kaffirland,  where  he  made  a 
sketch  survey  of  British  Kaffraria,  extend- 
ing from  the  Keiskama  river  to  the  Kei 
river,  and  from  Fort  Hare  to  the  sea,  some 
two  thousand  square  miles,  of  which  eleven 
liundred  were  surveyed  during  the  war  under 
the  protection  of  military  escorts.  This 
survey  proved  of  considerable  value  in  sub- 
sequent wars,  and  thirty  years  later  was  the 
only  map  with  any  pretension  to  accuracy 
which  Lord  Chelmsford  could  find  for  his 
guidance  in  that  part  of  the  country.  On 
lis  way  home  in  the  Devastation,  in  1848, 
Jervois  connected  the  sketch  sheets  of  the 


Jervois  v 

survey,  which  was  published  by  Arrowsmith.  ' 
Sir  Harry  George  Wakelyn  Smith  [q.  v.j, 
the  governor  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  ' 
recommended  Jervois  to  Lord  Raglan,  the  j 
master-general  of  the  ordnance,  '  as  one  of  ; 
the  most  able,  energetic,  and  zealous  officers  i 
I  have  ever  exacted  more  than  his  share  of  ! 
duty  from.'  For  his  services  in  the  Kaffir  j 
war  Jervois  received  the  war  medal. 

From  1849  to  1852  Jervois  commanded  a 
company  of  royal  sappers   and  miners  at 
AVoolwich  and  Chatham,  and  in  June  1852  j 
took  it  to  Alderney  for  employment  on  the  i 
fortifications   for  the   defence  of  the  new 
harbour  in  course  of  formation.     In  August 
1854  Alderney  was  visited  by  Queen  Victoria 
and  Prince  Albert,  and,  in  accordance  with  j 
custom,  Jervois  received  a  brevet  majority  on  j 
the  occasion.     In  January  1855  he  was  ap- 
pointed commanding  royal  engineer  of  the 
London  military  district,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  a  member  of  the  committee  on 
barracks.     On  7  April  1856  he  was  appointed 
assistant  inspector-general  of  fortifications 
at  the  war  office,  and  commenced  the  work 
by  which  he  is  best  known. 

In  1857,  in  addition  to  his  other  duties, 
Jervois  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  de- 
fence committee  presided  over  by  the  Duke 
of  Cambridge,  commanding-in-chief.  In  the 
following  year  a  violent  French  outburst 
against  England  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Orsini  attempt  on  the  life  of  Napoleon  III 
created  a  war  scare,  and  Jervois  was  spe- 
cially employed  by  General  Jonathan  Peel 
[q.v.],  the  war  minister,  in  preparing  plans 
for  the  defence  of  London  in  case  of  invasion. 
In  1859  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
royal  commission  on  the  defences  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  displayed  great  energy 
and  ability  in  guiding  the  commission.  The 
report,  which  was  mainly  drafted  by  him  and 
fully  accepted  by  the  members  of  the  com- 
mission, was  presented  to  parliament  in  1860, 
and  resulted  in  a  loan  of  7,000,000^.  to  buy 
laud  and  carry  out  the  works  recommended. 

The  death  of  the  prince  consort,  who  took 
an  intelligent  interest  in  the  fortifications, 
was  the  loss  to  Jervois  of  much  kindness 
and  support.  The  designs  of  the  defences  of 
the  dockyards  and  naval  bases  at  home  and 
abroad  were  mostly  made  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  Jervois,  who,  in  the  transition 
state  of  artillery  and  small  arms,  had  great 
difficulties  to  contend  with.  Rifling  was 
beginning  to  be  adopted  for  guns,  but  the 
68-pounder  smoothbore  and  the  rifled  110- 
pounderwere  the  heaviest  guns  then  known, 
and  the  vital  changes  which  were  taking 
place  in  arms  fundamentally  affected  the 
designs  of  defensive  work.  Iron  plates  were 


Jervois 

proposed  both  for  ships  and  forts,  and  Jer- 
vois was  a  member  of  the  special  committee 
on  the  application  of  iron  to  defence. 

On  5  Sept.  1862  he  was  appointed  director 
of  works  for  fortifications,  and  as  such  was 
nominally  in  administrative  charge  of  all 
defences  under  the  inspector-general  of  for- 
tifications, but  in  reality  he  was  the  confi- 
dential adviser  of  successive  secretaries  of 
state  for  wTar  on  all  questions  of  defence. 
In  September  1863  Jervois  was  sent  to 
North  America,  and  reported  upon  the  de- 
fences of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  Bermuda.  He  also  visited  the 
principal  forts  of  the  eastern  seaboard  of  the 
United  States  during  the  war  between  north 
and  south.  On  27  Nov.  1863  he  was  made 
a  companion  of  the  order  of  the  Bath,  civil 
division.  Both  in  1864  and  1865  he  visited 
Canada  and  discussed  defence  questions  with 
the  local  authorities.  His  reports  were  laid 
before  parliament.  Canada  voted  over  a  mil- 
lion sterling  to  carry  out  the  proposals,  but 
the  money  was  ultimately  expended  in 
making  a  railway  to  connect  the  various  pro- 
vinces. 

The  works  in  course  of  construction  at 
home  met  with  plenty  of  criticism,  to  which 
Jervois  replied  with  his  usual  energy  and 
success.  In  1868  he  delivered  a  lecture  at 
the  Royal  United  Service  Institution  on  the 
'Application  of  Iron  to  Fortifications  inspecial 
reference  to  the  Plymouth  Breakwater  Fort.' 
In  the  same  year  the  work  of  the  engineers 
was  attacked  in  the  House  of  Commons  and 
a  committee  appointed  to  examine  the  forti- 
fication works  built  under  the  defence  loan. 
This  committee  approved  both  the  designs 
and  the  execution  of  the  works,  and  testified 
to  the  skill  shown  in  adapting  original 
designs  to  altered  circumstances  and  the 
great  advance  in  the  power  of  rifled  artillery. 

In  1869  Jervois  visited  Halifax,  Bermuda, 
Gibraltar,  and  Malta,  to  inspect  the  works  in 
progress.  In  1871  and  1872,  at  the  request 
of  the  government  of  India,  he  visited 
Aden,  Perim,  Bombay,  Calcutta,  Rangoon, 
and  Moulmein,  reporting  his  proposals  for 
defending  them.  While  engaged  in  this 
work  he  accompanied  Lord  Mayo,  governor- 
general  of  India,  to  the  Andaman  Islands, 
and  was  close  behind  him  when  he  was 
assassinated.  On  28  May  1874  he  was 
created  a  knight  commander  of  the  order  of 
St.  Michael  and  St.  George  in  especial  re- 
cognition of  his  services  to  Canada.  On  the 
winding  up  of  the  defence  loans  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  accounts  showed  a  saving  of 
40,000/.  on  the  voted  sum  of  7,460,000/.,  a 
result  highly  creditable  to  Jervois. 

On  7  April  1875  Jervois  was  appointed 


Jervois 

governor  of  the  Straits  Settlements.  On  ar- 
rival at  Singapore,  he  visited  the  treaty 
states  and  found  Perak  in  a  very  unsettled 
condition — he  and  his  party  were  nearly 
massacred.  He  developed  the  able  policy  of 
his  predecessor,  Sir  Andrew  Clarke,  and  ap- 
pointed commissioners  to  administer  the 
government  in  the  name  of  the  sultan.  The 
murder  of  Mr.  Birch  in  November,  followed 
by  the  repulse  of  a  small  British  force  at 
Passir-Sala,  led  Jervois  to  take  energetic 
measures.  All  available  troops  in  the  Straits 
Settlements  and  at  Hongkong  were  hurried  j 
to  the  spot,  and,  reinforced  by  troops  from 
India,  a  successful  campaign  ensued  and 
the  sultan  was  apprehended.  The  home  go- 
vernment expressed  its  approval  of  Jervois's 
energetic  measures.  He  received  the  Indian 
war  medal  and  clasp  for  his  services  in  the 
Perak  expedition. 

While  at  Singapore  Jervois  made  a  valu- 
able report  upon  the  defences  required  there, 
which  formed  the  basis  of  the  scheme  carried 
out  some  years  later.  In  April  1877  he  was 
appointed  adviser  to  the  various  Australa- 
sian colonies  as  to  the  defence  of  their  chief  ' 
ports,  and  visited  New  South  Wales,  Vic- 
toria, Queensland,  and  South  Australia. 
While  engaged  in  this  duty  he  was  appointed 
on  6  July  to  the  government  of  South 
Australia,  retaining  the  duty  of  defence  ad- 
viser to  the  other  Australasian  colonies,  and, 
after  taking  over  his  government,  visited 
Tasmania  and  New  Zealand.  On  25  May 
1878  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  knight  grand 
cross  of  the  order  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George.  His  recommendations  as  to  the 
defences  of  the  Australasian  colonies  were 
accepted  and  eventually  carried  out,  and  his 
reports  were  of  great  assistance  to  the  royal 
commission,  of  which  Lord  Carnarvon  was 
president  in  1882,  on  the  defence  of  British 
possessions  and  commerce  abroad. 

Jervois  proved  a  good  governor,  and  after 
five  years  in  South  Australia  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  government  of  New  Zealand  in 
1882,  retiring  from  the  military  service  on 
7  April  of  the  same  year.  He  paid  great 
attention  to  the  defence  of  the  principal 
ports  of  New  Zealand,  and  roused  public 
feeling  in  the  colony  by  his  lectures  and 
writings.  He  was  much  aided  in  these  en- 
deavours by  the  war  scare  in  1885,  and  had 
the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  scheme  of  de- 
fence completed  before  the  termination  of 
his  term  of  office.  His  prompt  action  when 
the  king  of  Samoa  made  overtures  to  the 
colony  to  place  his  dominions  under  British 
protection,  and  the  New  Zealand  ministers 
proposed  to  send  an  armed  vessel  to  Samoa, 
saved  a  serious  complication. 


Jervois 

Jervois  differed  from  the  general  opinion 
in  Australasia  on  the  question  of  Chinese 
immigration,  believing  that,  as  half  the 
Australian  continent  lies  within  the  tropics, 
it  can  only  be  fully  developed  by  coloured 
labour,  of  which  the  Chinese  is  the  most 
valuable.  In  1888  Jervois  attended  the 
celebration  at  Sydney  of  the  centenary  of 
New  South  Wales,  and  delivered  a  remark- 
ably able  speech.  He  left  Wellington,  New 
Zealand,  on  the  completion  of  his  term  of 
government  on  18  March  1889,  '  the  best  and 
most  popular  governor  that  New  Zealand  has 
ever  had.' 

In  1890  Jervois  served  on  Edward  Stan- 
hope's consultative  committee  on  coast  de- 
fence duties.  He  had  strongly  advocated, 
on  his  return  home,  both  in  the  press  and 
by  lectures,  that  the  defence  of  naval  bases 
at  home  and  abroad  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  the  navy.  The  navy,  however,  consis- 
tently adhered  to  the  fundamental  principle 
that  its  duty  is  to  fight  the  enemy's  ships, 
and  declined  to  be  hampered  by  any  such 
charge.  This  somewhat  whimsical  proposal, 
which  owed  any  significance  it  possessed  to 
its  advocacy  by  Jervois,  fell  through.  In 
1892  he  revisited  South  Australia,  and  on 
his  return  to  England  lived  at  Virginia 
Water.  He  died  on  16  Aug.  1897,  from  the 
effects  of  a  carriage  accident  at  Bitterne, 
Hampshire,  and  was  buried  at  Virginia 
Water  on  20  Aug. 

He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
(7  June  1888)  and  of  other  learned  and  sci- 
entific societies,  and  an  associate  of  the  In- 
stitution of  Civil  Engineers. 

Jervois  married,  on  19  March  1850,  in 
London,  Lucy  (d.  17  March  1895),  daughter 
of  William  Norsworthy,  by  whom  he  had 
two  sons  and  three  daughters.  Besides  the 
papers  already  mentioned  Jervois  contributed 
to  vol.  ix.  of  the  Royal  Engineers'  Profes- 
sional Papers,  new  series, '  Observations  re- 
lating to  Works  for  the  Defence  of  Naval 
Ports,'  and  the  following  were  separately 
published:  ' The  Defensive  Policy  of  Great 
Britain,'  1871 ;  '  Coast  Defences  of  England,' 
1869;  '  Coast  Defences  and  the  application 
of  Iron  to  Fortification,'  1868  ;  '  Report  on 
the  Defence  of  Canada,'  1 865,  fol. ;  '  The  De- 
fence of  New  Zealand,'  1884,  fol.;  'Anni- 
versary Address  to  the  New  Zealand  Insti- 
tute,' 1883 ;  '  Address  to  South  Australian 
Institute,'  1879. 

Two  portraits  of  Jervois  in  oil,  by  Fisher, 
both  in  uniform — one  as  a  young  lieutenant 
and  the  other  as  a  captain — are  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  family.  An  engraving  of  Jervois 
was  published  about  1860  in  the  '  Drawing- 
room  Portrait  Gallery  of  Eminent  Person- 


Johnson 


43 


Johnson 


ages '  in  connection  with  the  '  Illustrated 
News  of  the  World.' 

[War  Office  Records ;  Royal  Engineers'  Re- 
cords; Despatches  ;  Times,  18  Aug.  1897  ;  Me- 
moir by  Sir  E.  F.  Du  Cane  in  the  Royal  Engi- 
neers Journal ;  Proceedings  of  the  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  cxxx. ;  private  sources.] 

R.  H.  V. 

JOHNSON,  SIR  EDWIN  BEAUMONT 
(1825-1893),  general  and  colonel-com- 
mandant royal  (late  Bengal)  artillery,  fourth 
son  of  Sir  Henry  Allen  Johnson,  bart. 
(d.  27  June  1860),  and  of  his  wife  Charlotte 
Elizabeth  (d.  21  Feb.  1883),  daughter  of 
Frederick  Philipse  of  Philipseburg,  New 
York,  was  born  at  Bath  on  4  July  1825. 
His  father,  a  student  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  was  tutor  there  to  the  prince  of 
Orange,  and,  having  received  a  commission 
in  the  81st  regiment,  accompanied  him  as 
aide-de-camp  to  the  Peninsula,  where  he 
served  under  Wellington  and  was  awarded 
the  war  medal  with  five  clasps  for  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  Badajos,  Salamanca,  Vittoria,  and 
the  Pyrenees. 

Edwin  Beaumont  entered  the  military 
college  of  the  East  India  Company  at  Addis- 
combe  on  7  Aug.  1840,  received  a  commis- 
sion as  second  lieutenant  in  the  Bengal 
artillery  on  10  June  1842,  and  arrived  in 
India  on  12  Dec.  of  that  year.  His  further 
commissions  were  dated :  lieutenant  3  July 
1845,  brevet  captain  10  June  1857,  captain 
25  June  1857,  brevet  major  5  July  1857, 
brevet  lieutenant-colonel  19  Jan.  1858 ; 
brevet  colonel  19  Jan.  1863,  regimental 
lieutenant-colonel  24  March  1865,  major- 
general  6  March  1868,  lieutenant-general 
and  general  1  Oct.  1877,  colonel-commandant 
royal  artillery  20  Dec.  1890. 

He  served  with  the  5th  troop  of  the 
1st  brigade  of  the  Bengal  horse  artillery  in 
the  Satlaj  campaign  of  the  first  Sikh  war, 
and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Firozshah  on 
21  and  22  Dec.  1845,  and  of  Sobraon  on 
10  Feb.  1846,  receiving  the  war  medal  and 
clasp.  From  5  Aug.  1848  to  17  Nov.  1850 
he  was  deputy  judge-advocate-general  of  the 
Bengal  army.  In  the  Punjab  campaign  of 
the  second  Sikh  war  in  1848-9  he  served 
on  the  divisional  staff  of  Major-general 
William  Sampson  Whish  [q.  v.],  and  was 
present  at  the  action  of  the  passage  of  the 
Chenab  river  at  Ramnagar  on  22  Nov.  1848, 
at  the  battle  of  Chilianwala  on  13  Jan. 
1849,  at  the  battle  of  Gujrat  on  21  Feb.,  on 
Sir  Walter  Gilbert's  staff,  in  the  subsequent 
pursuit  of  the  Sikhs  and  Afghans  to  Pesha- 
war, and  at  the  surrender  of  the  Sikh  army 
on  14  March  1849.  For  his  services  he  was 
mentioned  in  despatches  (London  Gazette, 


19  April  1849),  received  the  war  medal  and 
two  clasps,  and  was  noted  for  a  brevet 
majority  on  attaining  the  rank  of  captain. 

From  12  March  1855  he  was  aide-de-camp 
to  the  commander-in-chief  in  India,  Sir 
William  Maynard  Gomrn  [q.  v.],  and  on 
21  Dec.  of  that  year  was  appointed  assistant 
adjutant-general  of  artillery  in  the  Oude 
division.  He  was  at  Mirat  when  the  mutiny 
broke  out  in  May  1857,  and  accompanied 
the  column  of  Brigadier-general  Archdale 
Wilson  [q.  v.]  on  its  march  to  join  that  of 
the  commander-in-chief  from  Ambala.  He 
took  part  in  the  actions  on  the  Hindun  river 
at  Ghazi-ud-din-Nagar  on  30  and  31  May, 
when  he  was  slightly  wounded,  and  in  the 
action  of  Badli-ke-Serai  on  8  June  and  the 
subsequent  occupation  of  the  ridge  before 
Delhi.  He  served  throughout  the  siege  as 
assistant  adj  utant-general,  and  when  the  siege 
batteries  were  thrown  up  he  did  regimental 
duty  on  the  left  portion  of  No.  2  battery, 
consisting  of  nine  24-pounder  guns,  suc- 
ceeding to  the  command  when  Major  Camp- 
bell was  wounded.  At  the  assault  of 
14  Sept.  he  resumed  his  place  on  Wilson's 
staff'.  For  his  services  he  was  mentioned  in 
despatches  (ib.  15  Dec.  1857)  and  received  a 
brevet  lieutenant-colonelcy. 

He  accompanied  Wilson,  who  commanded 
the  artillery,  to  the  siege  of  Lucknow  as 
assistant  adjutant-general,  and  on  its  capture 
in  March  1858  was  honourably  mentioned 
for  his  services  (ib.  25  May  1858).  He  was 
made  a  companion  of  the  order  of  the  Bath, 
military  division,  on  26  July,  and  received 
the  Indian  mutiny  medal  with  two  clasps. 
After  the  mutiny  was  suppressed  he  re- 
sumed his  duties  as  assistant  adjutant- 
general  of  the  Oude  division,  and  held  the 
appointment  until  January  1862,  when, 
after  officiating  for  a  time  as  adjutant- 
general  of  the  army,  he  went  to  England  on 
turlough.  On  10  July  1865  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  military  secretary  for  In- 
dian affairs  at  the  headquarters  of  the  army 
in  London,  and  on  4  Aug.  of  the  following 
year  was  nominated  an  extra  aide-de-camp 
to  the  field-marshal  commanding-in-chief, 
the  Duke  of  Cambridge.  He  held  both  ap- 
pointments until  1  Augr.  1872,  when  he  re- 
turned to  India.  On  8  July  in  the  following 
year  he  became  quartermaster-general  in 
India,  but  had  only  filled  the  office  eight 
months  when  he  was  summoned  home  to 
take  his  seat  as  a  member  of  council  of 
the  secretary  of  state  for  India  in  October 
1874.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a  K.C.B., 
military  division,  on  29  May  1875.  He 
again  returned  to  India  in  1877,  having  been 
appointed  military  member  of  the  council  of 


Johnson 


44 


Johnson 


the  governor-general  of  India  on  19  March, 
and  held  the  office  until  13  Sept.  1880.     He 
was  made  a  companion  of  the  Indian  Empire 
on  1  Jan.  1878.     His  last  appointment  was 
that  of  director-general  of  military  education 
at  the  war  office  in  London,  which  he  held  | 
from  10  Dec.  1884  to  31  Dec.  1886.     He 
was  decorated  with  the  grand  cross  of  the  ; 
order  of  the  Bath   on  the  occasion  of  the  j 
queen's  jubilee  on  21  June  1887.     Johnson 
retired  from  the  active  list  on  31  Jan.  1891,  ! 
and  died  on  18  June  1893,  being  buried  at 
Hanwell. 

[Despatches ;  India  Office  Records ;  Stubbs's 
Hist,  of  the  Beugal  Artillery  ;  Norman's  Narra-  | 
tive  of  the  Campaign  of  the  Delhi  Army,  1857  ;  ! 
Medley's  A  Year's  Campaigning  in  India,  1857- 
1858;  Kaye's  Hist,  of  the  Sepoy  War;  Malle-  | 
son's  Hist,  of  the  Indian  Mutiny:  Holmes's  ! 
Hist,  of  the  Indian  Mutiny ;  Archer's  Punjab  | 
Campaign,  1848-9  ;  Thackeray's  Two  Indian  ! 
Campaigns ;  Gough  and  Innes's  The  Sikhs  and  , 
Sikh  Wars;  Baronetage;  Men  of  the  Time,  ; 
12th  ed.  ;  Army  Lists;  Times,  21  June  1893.1 

E.  H.  V. 

JOHNSON,  SIB  GEORGE  (1818-1896), 
physician,  born  on  29  Nov.  1818  at  Goud- 
hurst  in  Kent,  was  the  eldest  son  of  George 
Johnson,  yeoman,  and  Mercy,  second  daugh- 
ter of  William  Corke,  timber  merchant,  of 
Edenbridge  in  the  same  county.  In  1837 
he  was  apprenticed  to  his  uncle,  a  general  ! 
practitioner  at  Cranbrook  in  Kent,  and  in 
October  1839  he  entered  the  medical  school 
of  King's  College.  While  a  student  he  was 
awarded  many  prizes  and  obtained  the  senior 
medical  scholarship.  At  this  early  age  he 
was  commencing  original  work,  and  was 
awarded  the  prize  of  the  King's  College 
Medical  Society  for  an  essay  '  On  Auscul- 
tation and  Percussion.'  In  1841  he  passed 
the  first  M.B.  London,  in  the  first  class,  and 
in  1842,  at  the  M.B.  examination,  he  received 
the  scholarship  and  gold  medal  in  physio- 
logy and  comparative  anatomy.  In  1844 
he  graduated  M.D.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  in  1846,  a 
fellow  in  1850 ;  in  1872-3  he  was  an  examiner 
in  medicine,  censor  in  1865, 1886,  and  1875, 
councillor  in  1865,  1874,  1881,  1882,  and 
1883,  Gulstonian  lecturer  in  1852,  materia 
medica  lecturer  in  1853,  Lumleian  lecturer 
in  1877,  Harveian  orator  in  1882,  and  vice- 
president  in  1887. 

At  the  end  of  his  college  course  Johnson 
held  in  succession  the  offices  of  house  phy- 
sician and  house  surgeon  to  King's  College 
Hospital.  He  was  an  associate  of  King's  Col- 
lege, and  in  1843  became  resident  medical 
tutor :  four  years  later  he  was  appointed 
assistant  physician  to  the  hospital.  In  1850 


he  was  made  an  honorary  fellow  of  King's 
College.  In  1856  he  became  physician  to  the 
hospital,  and  in  1857  he  succeeded  Dr.  Royle 
as  professor  of  materia  medica  and  therapeu- 
tics, an  office  which  he  continued  to  hold  until 
1863,  when,  on  the  resignation  of  Dr.  George 
Budd,  he  succeeded  to  the  chair  of  medicine, 
and  also  became  senior  physician  to  the 
hospital.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at 
King's  College  for  thirteen  years.  In  1876 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  clinical  medi- 
cine— an  office  he  resigned  ten  years  later 
when  he  became  emeritus  professor  of  clinical 
medicine  and  consulting  physician  to  King's 
College  Hospital. 

In  1862  Johnson  was  nominated  by  con- 
vocation and  elected  a  member  of  the  senate 
of  the  university  of  London.  In  1872  he  was 
made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  ;  in  1884 
president  of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirur- 
gical  Society,  and  in  1889  physician-extra- 
ordinary to  the  queen.  In  1892  he  was 
knighted.  He  was  a  member  of  the  British 
Medical  Association  and  a  frequent  contri- 
butor to  the  pages  of  the  '  British  Medical 
Journal.'  In  1871,  at  the  annual  meeting 
of  the  association  at  Plymouth,  he  delivered 
the  address  in  medicine,  taking  for  its  topic 
'  Nature  and  Art  in  the  Cure  of  Disease.' 

Johnson  died  from  cerebral  haemorrhage 
at  his  residence,  11  Savile  Row,  on  Wednes- 
day, 3  June  1896,  and  was  buried  on  8  June 
at  Addington.  In  1897  an  ophthalmological 
theatre  at  King's  College  Hospital  was  built 
and  equipped  in  his  memory.  His  portrait, 
by  Frank  Holl,  subscribed  for  by  the  staff 
and  students  of  King's  College  Hospital, 
was  presented  to  Johnson  in  1888  by  Sir 
Joseph  (now  lord)  Lister. 

In  1850  he  married  Charlotte  Elizabeth, 
the  youngest  daughter  of  the  late  Lieutenant 
William  White  of  Addington,  Surrey,  but 
ten  years  later  was  left  a  widower  with  five 
children. 

Johnson's  contributions  to  medical  litera- 
ture were  extremely  numerous,  and  dealt 
chiefly  with  the  pathology  and  treatment  of 
kidney  disease.  He  was  an  ardent  exponent 
of  the  views  of  Richard  Bright  [q.  v.l,  and 
extended  Bright's  observations  in  many  di- 
rections. His  discovery  of  the  hypertrophy 
of  the  small  arteries  in  Bright's  disease,  and 
his  'stop-cock'  explanatory  theory,  led  to 
what  was  known  as  the  '  hyaline-fibroid 
degeneration '  controversy  with  Sir  William 
Gull  and  Dr.  Sutton :  the  practical  outcome 
was  that  attention  was  directed  to  the  high 
tension  pulse  of  chronic  kidney  disease, 
together  with  its  importance  in  connection 
with  other  symptoms,  and  this  has  opened 
up  new  fields  of  treatment.  In  1852  he  pub- 


Jones  45 


Jones 


lished  '  Diseases  of  the  Kidney,  their  Patho- 
logy, Diagnosis,  and  Treatment,'  and  in  1873 
'  Lectures  on  Bright's  Disease,'  8vo.  His 
last  publication  was  '  The  Pathology  of  the 
Contracted  Granular  Kidney,'  1896. 

Johnson's  other  works  were  :  1. '  Epidemic 
Diarrhoea  and  Cholera:  their  Pathology 
and  Treatment,'  London,  1855,  post  8vo. 
2.  '  The  Laryngoscope :  Directions  for  its 
Use  and  Practical  Illustrations  of  its  Value/ 
1865, 8vo.  3. '  Medical  Lectures  and  Essays,' 
London,  1887,  8vo.  4.  'An  Essay  on 
Asphyxia,'  1889,  in  which  he  attacked  the 
views  advocated  by  many  modern  physio- 
logists. 5.  '  History  of  the  Cholera  Contro- 
versy,' London,  1896,  8vo.  He  reintroduced 
the  "picric  acid  test  for  albumen  and  the 
picric  acid  and  potash  test  for  sugar.  He 
at  once  recognised  the  great  use  of  the  oph- 
thalmoscope in  renal  pathology,  and  assisted 
Sir  Thomas  Watson  [q.  v.]  in  revising  the 
last  edition  of  his  famous  '  Lectures  on  the 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine.' 

[Lancet,  1896;  Brit.  Med.  Journal,  1896; 
Brit.  Mus.  Libr.  Catalogue ;  Churchill's  Med. 
Directory;  Biograph  v.  514 ;  private  informa- 
tion; King's  College  Hospital  Keports,  1897.] 

w.  w.  w. 

JONES,  HENRY  (1831-1899),  known  as 
'  Cavendish,'  writer  on  whist,  the  eldest  son 
of  Henry  Derviche  Jones  of  12  Norfolk 
Crescent,  was  born  in  London  on  2  Nov. 
1831.  His  father  was  an  ardent  devotee  of 
whist,  and  was  in  1863  chosen  to  be  chair- 
man of  the  Portland  Club  whist  committee, 
which,  in  connection  with  James  Clay  [q.v.j 
and  the  Arlington  Club  committee,  framed 
the  '  Laws  of  Short  Whist,'  edited  by  John 
Loraine  Baldwin  in  May  1864.  Henry  was 
educated  at  King's  College  school  (1842-8), 
and  proceeded  as  a  student  to  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital,  where  he  was  a  pupil  of  Sir 
William  Lawrence.  After  qualifying  in 
1852  as  M.R.C.S.  and  L.S.A.,  he  practised 
for  some  sixteen  years  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Soho  Square.  In  1869  he  retired  from 
practice,  but  retained  a  connection  with  his 
old  profession  as  a  member  of  the  court  of 
the  Apothecaries'  Company. 

In  1854,  at  Cambridge,  Henry's  younger 
brother,  Daniel  Jones,  joined  a  knot  of  young 
men  of  considerable  ability,  who  had  at  first 
*  taken  up  whist  for  amusement,  but  who 
found  it  offer  such  a  field  for  intellectual 
study  that  they  continued  its  practice  more 
systematically  with  a  view  to  its  more  com- 
plete investigation,  and  to  the  solution  of 
difficult  problems  connected  with  it.'  In 
London,  a  few  years  later,  Henry  was  intro- 
duced to  his  brother's  set,  of  which  he  soon 
became  the  most  advanced  member.  He 


began  to  make  notes  upon  difficult  points  and 
to  record  interesting  hands,  and  he  joined 
the  club  known  as  the  '  Cavendish,'  situated 
at  the  back  of  the  Polytechnic,  in  Cavendish 
Square.  He  subsequently  became  a  member 
of  the  Portland-  Club,  where  he  met  James 
Clay.  His  first  written  contribution  on  the 
subject  of  whist  appeared  in  '  Bell's  Life ' 
for  March  1857.  In  January  1862,  in  an 
article  in  '  Macmillan's  Magazine,'  William 
Pole  [q.v.  Suppl.]  suggested  the  utility  of  a 
handbook  embodying  a  series  of  model  games 
at  whist.  After  correspondence  with,  and 
encouragement  received  from,  Pole,  Jones 
brought  out  in  1862  a  small  edition  of  such 
a  manual  entitled '  Principles  of  Whist  stated 
and  explained  by  Cavendish.'  A  fifth  edition 
was  called  for  in  1863,  when  the  title  was 
altered  to '  The  Laws  and  Principles  of  Whist.' 
The  eighth  edition  of  1868  was  recast,  a 
ninth  edition  was  dedicated  to  James  Clay, 
the  tenth  contains  new  matter,  while  the 
eleventh,  of  1886,  introduces  the  subject  of 
American  leads,  as  promulgated  by  Nicholas 
Trist  of  New  Orleans.  '  Cavendish '  very  soon 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  standard  autho- 
rity upon  whist,  and  was  (so  the  story  runs) 
appealed  to  as  such  by,  among  other  promi- 
nent players,  Jones's  own  father,  though  the 
latter  had  no  idea  that  the  writer  was  his 
son  Henry,  of  whose  powers  as  a  whist  player 
he  had  formed  a  far  from  commensurate 
opinion.  Its  distinctive  merit  as  a  manual 
was  not  novelty  of  doctrine,  but  lucidity, 
literary  skill,  and  above  all  theoretical  cohe- 
rence. He  was,  however,  the  first  to  lay 
down  clearly  the  true  principles  of  the  dis- 
card, and  of  the  call  for  trumps. 

Two  years  after  '  Cavendish '  came  the 
slender  and  less  exhaustive  'Treatise  on  Short 
Whist,'  of  J[ames]  C[lay].  '  Cavendish '  was 
certainly  a  great  advance  upon  anything  that 
had  gone  before,  on  the  book  of  '  Major  A,' 
published  in  1835,  and  on  the  book  from 
which  the  latter  was  plagiarised,  Matthews's 
'  Advice  to  the  Young  Whist  Player '  of  1804. 
Before  this  came  Payne's  'Maxims,'  1770, 
which  for  the  first  time  laid  down  the  prin- 
ciple of  leading  from  five  trumps  ;  and  before 
him  was  the '  immortal'  Edmund  Hoyle,  who 
published  his  famous  '  Short  Treatise '  in 
1742. 

Immediately  upon  the  appearance  of  his 
'  classic '  in  1862  '  Cavendish '  became  whist 
editor  of  the  '  Field,'  and  he  soon  afterwards 
became  '  Pastime '  editor  of  '  The  Queen,' 
producing  at  the  same  time  numerous 
manuals  on  games.  Upon  the  subject  of 
which  he  was  an  undoubted  master  he  pro- 
duced '  Card  Essays,'  1879  (with  a  dedica- 
tion to  Edward  Tavener  Foster  and  a  sup- 


Jones 


Jones 


plement  of '  Card  Table  Talk  '),  and  '  Whist 
Developments,'  1885.  He  assisted  Pole  in 
his  article  on  'Modern  Whist'  for  the 
'  Quarterly  Review,' January  1871,  and  he  also 
contributed  to  '  The  Whist  Table,' edited  by 
'  Portland.'  He  naturally  was  a  member  of 
the  leading  whist  clubs  such  as  the  West- 
minster, the  Portland,  the  Arlington,  and 
the  Baldwin.  At  one  time  he  played  a 
great  deal  at  the  Union  Club,  Brighton. 
He  visited  America  (May  to  October  1893), 
and  a  banquet  was  given  to  him  by  the  whist 
players  of  Philadelphia  at  the  Union  League 
Club  in  June  1893.  He  played  in  several 
matches  of  the  Chicago  Whist  Club.  As  a 
player  he  was  surpassed  by  his  father,  and 
still  more  by  Clay,  whose  occasional  criti- 
cisms upon  his  own  performances  he  records 
with  candour.  Jones's  personality  is  de- 
scribed as  decided,  not  without  brusqueness. 
He  died  at  22  Albion  Street,  Hyde  Park,  on 
10  Feb.  1899,  and  was  buried  at  Kensal 
Green.  His  will  was  proved  on  7  April  1899 
by  Harriet  Louisa  Jones,  his  widow,  and 
Daniel  Jones,  his  brother,  the  value  of  the 
estate  being  11.916/.  The  testator  gave  his 
Indian  whist-markers  to  his  sister,  Fanny 
Hale  Jones,  his  books,  writings,  and  manu- 
scripts to  his  brother  Daniel.  His  whist 
library  was  sold  by  Sotheby  on  22  May  1900. 

'  Cavendish,'  said  the  '  Times '  in  a  leading 
article  upon  his  death,  'was  not  a  law- 
maker, but  he  codified  and  commented  on 
the  laws  which  had  been  made,  no  one 
knows  by  whom,  during  many  generations 
of  card-playing.  He  was  thus  the  humble 
brother  of  Justinian  and  Blackstone,  taking 
for  his  material,  not  the  vast  material  inte- 
rests of  mankind,  but  one  of  their  most 
cherished  amusements.'  In  addition  to  his 
works  on  '  Whist '  Cavendish  issued  guides 
to  croquet  (1869),  bezique  (1870),  6cart6 
(1870),  euchre  (1870),  calabrasella  (1870), 
cribbage  (1873),  picquet  (1873;  9th  edit. 
1896),  vingt-et-un  (1874),  go-bang  (1876), 
lawn-tennis  and  badminton  (1876),  chess 
(1878),  backgammon  (1878),  and  patience 
games  (1890).  He  was  much  interested  in 
croquet,  and  helped  to  found  the  All  Eng- 
land Croquet  Club.  He  edited  Joseph  Ben- 
nett's '  Billiards  '  in  1873,  issued  a  limited 
edition  of  '  Second  Sight  for  Amateurs,'  a 
very  scarce  volume,  in  1888,  wrote  articles 
upon  whist  and  other  games  for  the  ninth 
edition  of  the  '  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,' 
and  collaborated  with  '  B.  W.  D.'  in  '  Whist, 
with  and  without  Perception '  in  1889. 

[Times,  13,  16,  and  17  Feb.  1899;  Field, 
18  and  25  Feb.  1899;  Illustrated  London  News, 
22  April  1899;  Daily  Telegraph,  21  Feb.  1899; 
Harper's  Monthly,  March  1891;  Quarterly  Ke- 


view,  January  1871  ;  Macmillan's  Mag.  January 
1863;  The  Whist  Table,  pp.  350  sqq.  (with  an 
admirable  portrait  of  '  Cavendish '  as  fronti- 
spiece); Baldwin  and  Clay's  Short  Whist,  1870; 
Courtney's  English  Whist  and  Whist  Players, 
1894,  passim;  Hamilton's  Modern  Scientific 
Whist,  New  York,  1894;  Pole's  Philosophy  of 
Whist,  1892,  and  Evolution  of  Whist,  1895; 
Horr's  Bibliography  of  Card  Games,  Cleveland, 
1892;  notes  kindly  supplied  by  W.  P.  Courtney, 
esq.,  and  J.  W.  Allen,  esq.  The  Milwaukee  serial, 
'  Whist,'  contains  numerous  adecdotes  of  '  Ca- 
vendish,' and  as  many  as  seven  portraits  of  him 
at  various  ages  (see  especially  vols.  ii.  iii.  vi. 
and  xiii.)]  T.  S. 


,  LEWIS  TOBIAS  (1797-1895), 
admiral,  second  son  of  L.  T.  Jones,  captain 
in  the  royal  artillery  and  author  of  a  history 
of  the  campaign  in   Holland  in  1793-4-5, 
was  born  on  24  Dec.  1797.     He  entered  the 
navy  in  January  1808  on  board  the  Thrasher 
brig,  attached  to  the  Walcheren  expedition  in 
1809,  but  whether  Jones  was  actually  serving 
i  in  her  at  the  time  is  doubtful.     In  1812  he 
|  was  in  the  Stirling  Castle  off  Brest,  in  1816 
was  in  the  Granicus  at  Algiers,  where  he 
was  wounded,  and  served  continuously  in  the 
I  Channel,  and  on  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  or 
!  West  Indian  stations  till  he  was  made  lieu- 
tenant on  29  Aug.  1822.  He  was  afterwards  on 
the  North  American,  the  West  Indies,  home, 
and  Mediterranean  stations.     On  28  June 
j  1838  he  was  promoted   to  be  commander 
(second  captain)  of  the  Princess  Charlotte, 
',  flagship  of  Sir  Robert  Stopford  [q.  v.],  and 
was  in  her  during  the  operations  on  the  coast 
of  Syria  in  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1840, 
|  for  which  service  he  was  promoted  to  be 
captain  by  commission    dated  4  Nov.,  the 
I  day  following  the  reduction  of  Acre.     In 
|  1847  he  was  flag-captain  to  Commodore  Sir 
i  Charles  Hotham  [q.v.J  in  the  Penelope,  on  the 
j  west  coast  of  Africa,  where  in  February  1849 
he  commanded  the  boats  of  the  squadron  at 
the  destruction  of  the  slave  barracoons  in 
the  Gallinas  river.     The  Penelope  was  paid 
off  in  the  summer  of  1849,  and  early  in  1850 
Jones  was  appointed  to  the  Sampson,  again 
for  the  west  coast,  under  the  orders  of  Com- 
modore Bruce.    On  26-7  Dec.  1851  he  com- 
manded the  expedition  detached  against  the 
great  slaving  stronghold  at  Lagos,  which 
was  destroyed  and  the  place  made  dependent 
on  the  English  government.     Bruce  highly 
commended  Jones's 'gallantry,  firmness,  judg- 
ment, and  energy,'  and  sent  him  home  with 
despatches.     Still  in  the  Sampson,  he  then 
went  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  22  April 
1854  was  senior  officer  at  the  bombardment 
of  Odessa.    On  26  May  he  was  nominated  a 
C.B.     He  continued  actively  employed  in 


Jones 


47 


Jones 


the  Black  Sea,  and  in  November  was  moved 
into  the  90-gun  ship  London,  in  which  he 
continued  till  the  end  of  the  war.  For  his 
services  at  this  time  he  received  the  cross  of 
an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour  and  the  Med- 
jidie  of  the  third  class.  On  17  June  1859  he 
was  promoted  to  be  rear-admiral,  and  in  the 
following  year  was  second  in  command  on 
the  China  station,  under  Sir  James  Hope 
(1808-1881)  [q.  v.]  On  28  June  1861  he  was 
made  a  K.C.B.  From  1862  to  1865  he  was 
commander-in-chief  at  Queenstown,  and  be- 
came a  vice-admiral  on  2  Dec.  1865.  On 
1  April  1870,  under  Childers's  scheme  of 
retirement  for  age,  he  was  put  on  the  retired 
list,  on  which  he  became  an  admiral  on 
14  July  1871.  On  24  May  1873  he  was  made 
a  G.C.B. ;  and  on  25  March  1884  visitor  and 
governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  a  nominal 
and  honorary  appointment.  He  died  at 
Southsea,  after  two  days'  indisposition  with- 
out pain,  on  11  Oct.  1895,  within  a  few  weeks 
of  completing  his  ninety-eighth  year. 

[O'Byrne's     Naval     Biogr.     Diet.;      Times, 
H,  17  Oct.  1895;  Navy  Lists.]          J.  K.  L. 

JONES,  WILLIAM  BASIL  (whose 
surname  was  originally  TICKELL)  (1822- 
1897),  bishop  of  St.  David's,  born  at  Chelten- 
ham on  2  Jan.  1822,  was  the  only  son  by 
his  first  wif e(  Jane,  daughter  of  Henry  Tickell 
of  Leytonstone,  Essex)  of  William  Tilsley 
Jones  of  Gwynfryn,  Llangynfelyn,  near 
Aberystwyth,  high  sheriff  of  Cardiganshire 
for  1838  (J.  K.  PHILLIPS,  Sheri/s  of  Cardi- 
ganshire, pp.  37-8).  He  was  educated  at 
Shrewsbury  School  under  Samuel  Butler  and 
Benjamin  Hall  Kennedy  from  1834  to  1841, 
being  head  boy  in  his  last  year  (G.  W. 
FISHEK,  Shrewsbury  School,  p.  335).  He 
went  up  to  Oxford  in  1841,  having  matri- 
culated on  16  June  1840,  was  scholar  of 
Trinity  College  1840-5,  and  Ireland  scholar 
in  1842,  when  Archbishop  Temple  was  second 
in  the  competition  (STEPHENS,  Life  of  E.  A. 
Freeman,  i.  50)  ;  he  was  placed  in  the  second 
class  in  the  final  school  of  litercs  humaniores 
in  1844,  graduated  B.A.  the  same  year,  and 
M.A.  in  1847.  He  was  elected  in  1845  to  a 
Michel  scholarship,  and  in  1848  to  a  Michel 
fellowship  at  Queen's  College,  but  exchanged 
the  latter  in  1851  for  a  fellowship  at  Uni- 
versity College,  which  he  held  till  1857,  be- 
coming assistant  tutor  and  bursar  in  1854, 
lecturer  in  modern  history  and  classical  lec- 
turer from  1858  to  1865,  when  he  finally 
quitted  Oxford.  He  also  served  the  univer- 
sity as  master  of  the  schools  in  1848,  as  exa- 
miner in  classical  moderations  in  1856  and 
1860,  in  theology  in  1870,  as  senior  proctor 
in  1861-2,  and  as  select  preacher  in  1860-2, 


1866-7, 1876-8,  being  also  select  preacher  at 
Cambridge  in  1881. 

Jones's  closest  friends  during  his  under- 
graduate days  included  (Sir)  George  F. 
Bowen,  H.  J.  Coleridge,  E.  A.  Freeman,  and 
W.  Gifford  Palgrave,  all  Trinity  scholars, 
and  his  former  schoolfellow,  James  Riddell, 
scholar  of  Balliol.  They  had  a  literary  and 
philosophical  society  of  their  own  called 
4  Hermes,'  in  which  Jones  took  a  prominent 
part ;  he  was  also  a  member  and  for  a  time 
secretary  of  the  Oxford  Architectural  So- 
ciety. At  Queen's  College  commenced  his 
close  intimacy  with  William  Thomson  (after- 
wards archbishop  of  York),  who  like  himself 
was  an  old  Shrewsbury  boy.  Thomson,  when 
appointed  bishop  of  Gloucester  in  1861,  made 
Jones  his  examining  chaplain,  and,  when 
translated  to  York  in  1863,  presented  him 
to  the  Grindal  prebend  in  York  Minster 
and  the  perpetual  curacy  of  Haxby,  substi- 
tuting for  the  latter  in  1865  the  vicarage  of 
Bishopthorpe,  where  the  episcopal  palace  is 
situated.  Jones  soon  came  to  be  regarded 
as  the  archbishop's  '  right-hand  man,'  and 
the  series  of  archiepiscopal  favours  was  con- 
tinued by  his  appointment  as  archdeacon  of 
York  in  1867,  rural  dean  of  Bishopthorpe  in 
1869,  chancellor  of  York  and  prebendary  of 
Laughton  (in  lieu  of  Grindal)  in  1871,  and 
canon  residentiary  of  York  in  1873,  all  which 
preferments  he  held  (along  with  his  vicarage 
and  examining  chaplaincy)  till  his  own  eleva- 
tion to  the  episcopal  bench. 

On  the  resignation  of  the  see  of  St.  David's 
by  Connop  Thirl  wall  [q.  v.]  in  1874,  Dis- 
raeli chose  Jones  as  Thirlwall's  successor. 
Apart  from  his  distinction  as  a  scholar,  and 
his  exceptional  experience  of  organisation  and 
administration  in  church  work,  he  had  the 
special  qualification  of  possessing  intimate 
associations  with  the  diocese,  and  of  being 
a  Welshman  who  spoke  Welsh  (though  in  a 
stiff,  bookish  manner),  and  who  had  made 
no  mean  contributions  to  Welsh  antiquarian 
research.  His  interest  in  ecclesiastical  ar- 
chitecture had  led  him,  while  still  an  under- 
graduate, repeatedly  to  visit  St.  David's 
remote  cathedral,  on  which  he  also  wrote 
some  '  very  pretty  verses,'  among  the  best 
of  his  few  poetical  effusions ;  he  had  en- 
couraged Oxford  men  to  go  thither  to  read 
during  the  long  vacations,  and  in  1846  one 
of  these  reading  parties  started  the  move- 
ment for  th.e  restoration  of  the  cathedral  by 
raising  at  Oxford  a  fund  for  restoring  the 
rood-screen.  His  lifelong  friend,  Edward 
Augustus  Freeman  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  fully  shared 
his  interest,  and  collaborated  with  him  for 
several  years  in  writing  an  elaborate  history 
of  St.  David's  (STEPHENS,  i.  164, 205).  Jones 


Jones 

secured  Freeman's  active  support  for  the 
Cambrian  Archaeological  Association,  which 
was  started  in  1846-7,  Jones  himself  acting 
as  one  of  its  general  secretaries  in  1848-51, 
and  joint  editor  in  1854  (Index  to  Arch. 
Camb.)  He  also  interested  himself  during 
this  period  in  Welsh  education,  advocating 
the  reform  of  Christ's  College,  Brecon  (in  a 
booklet  on  Its  Past  History  and  Present 
Capabilities,  1853,  8vo),  and,  at  the  time  of 
the  schools  inquiry  commission,  of  Ystrad- 
meurig  School.  Thirlwall,  who  had  a  high 
opinion  of  him  (cf.  Letters  to  a  Friend,  p. 
255),  had  recognised  these  services  by  ap- 
pointing him  in  1859  to  one  of  the  six  cursal 
prebends  of  St.  David's ;  but  this  he  vacated 
in  1865,  on  settling  at  Bishopthorpe.  He  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  St.  David's  by  Arch- 
bishop Tait  at  West  minster  Abbey  on  24  Aug. 
1874  (being  made  D.D.  by  the  archbishop's 
diploma  on  27  Oct.),  and  enthroned  at  St. 
David's  on  15  Sept.  He  did  not  obtain  a 
seat  in  the  House  of  Lordstill  after  the  death 
of  Bishop  Selwyn  in  April  1878,  but  then  as 
junior  bishop  he  held  the  chaplaincy  of  the 
house  for  the  unusually  long  period  of  four 
and  a  half  years,  till  December  1882.  After 
his  release  from  the  chaplaincy  he  rarely  at- 
tended the  house. 

'  The  progress  of  the  diocese  during  Bishop 
Jones's  episcopate  was  far  greater  than  the  pro- 
gress during  any  period  of  equal  length  since 
the  Reformation'  (quoted  by  his  successor,  Dr. 
Owen,  in  his  primary  '  Charge,'  1900,  p.  26). 
This  was  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  in  his  time 
the  diocese  reaped  the  benefit  of  reforms  initi- 
ated by  Burgess  and  Thirlwall,  the  latter  of 
whom  had  devoted  himself  to  church  build- 
ing and  restoration,  the  augmentation  of 
benefices  (thereby  greatly  reducing  non- 
residence),  and  the  reform  or  establishment 
of  educational  institutions.  All  this  work 
Bishop  Jones  continued  and  extended. 
While  always  encouraging  judicious  '  re- 
storation '  he  also  gave  his  support  to  the 
multiplication  of  new  mission  churches,  and 
the  number  of  churches  annually  conse- 
crated by  him'  was  more  than  treble  Thirl- 
wall's  yearly  average.  His  personal  efforts 
for  improving  the  number  and  status  of  the 
parochial  clergy  and  his  scrupulous  care  in 
the  exercise  of  patronage  and  in  the  selec- 
tion of  candidates  for  ordination  (insisting 
on  good  testimonials  and  preferring  well- 
educated  to  merely  fluent  men),  resulted 
within  a  few  years  in  the  almost  total  dis- 
appearance of  non-residence  from  the  diocese, 
in  a  much-needed  improvement  in  pastoral 
work,  and  in  the  progressive  raising  of  the 
educational  and  spiritual  standard  of  the 
ministry.  He  also  applied  his  conspicuous 


48 


Jones 


business  ability  to  effecting  a  very  complete 
organisation  of  diocesan  work.  In  the 
diocesan  conference  which  he  established  in 
1881,  administrative  as  distinct  from  de- 
liberative functions  obtained  prominence 
from  the  outset,  so  that  by  1897  as  many  as 
twenty-one  diocesan  committees,  boards, 
and  societies  submitted  reports  to  the  con- 
ference. 

The  proposed  division  of  the  diocese — by 
far  the  largest  in  the  kingdom — did  not, 
when  first  suggested,  commend  itself  to  the 
bishop,  but  he  subsequently  accepted  the 
proposal,  and  was  prepared  to  relinquish  a 
part  of  the  income  of  St.  David's  on  condi- 
tion that  the  endowment  left  should  not  be 
less  than  that  of  the  other  Welsh  dioceses. 
He  ultimately  contented  himself,  however, 
with  the  appointment  in  1890  of  a  bishop 
suffragan  to  relieve  him  of  confirmations, 
while  himself  retaining  control  of  diocesan 
business  to  the  end. 

As  visitor  of  St.  David's  College,  Lampe- 
ter,  he  was  endowed,  under  the  college 
charter,  with  exceptionally  wide  powers, 
which  he  exercised  to  its  very  marked  im- 
provement, one  of  his  first  acts  being  to  supply 
it  with  a  complete  code  of  statutes  (1879, 8yo), 
instead  of  the  few  provisional  rules  which 
it  previously  had,  while  in  his  last  year  he 
assisted  the  college  board  in  framing  a  more 
democratic  charter.  When  the  university  of 
Wales  was  being  established  in  1893,  he 
however  missed  the  opportunity  of  securing 
the  inclusion  of  Lampeter  as  a  constituent 
college  of  the  university,  towards  which  he 
thereafter  advised  an  attitude  of  friendly 
reserve.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
government  of  Christ's  College,  Brecon,  be- 
coming chairman  of  its  board  of  governors  in 
1880  (see  his  evidence  before  Lord  Aberdare's 
committee  on  Welsh  intermediate  education, 
Minutes,  pp.  433-43).  As  to  elementary 
education,  he  was  satisfied  with  the  religious 
instruction  which  it  was  possible  to  provide  at 
board  schools.  He  also  cheerfully  accepted 
the  Burials  Act  of  1880,  which  in  his  opinion 
was  'not  unjust' to  the  church,  for  he  ad- 
mited  that  the  nonconformists  of  Wales 
had  at  least  a  theoretical  grievance  in  the 
matter.  But  when  the  Welsh  church  es- 
tablishment was  more  directly  attacked,  he 
denied  that  Wales  was  either  geographically 
or  ecclesiastically  distinct  from  England, 
embody  ing  his  views  in  the  dicta  that  Wales 
is  'merely  a  geographical  expression,'  is 
'  nothing  more  than  the  highlands  of  Scotland,' 
and  that  it  '  has  never  had  a  national  unity.' 
He,  however,  took  only  a  slight  part  in  the 
work  of  church  defence,  which  in  its  militant 
and  aggressive  forms  was  distasteful  to 


Jones 


49 


Jowett 


him,  and  he  was  successful  beyond  most 
Welsh  bishops  (Thirlwall  not  excepted)  in 
avoiding  controversies,  and  in  maintaining 
amicable  relations  with  Welsh  noncon- 
formists. 

Like  most  of  his  friends  at  Trinity  he  had 
been  deeply  interested  in  the  tractarian 
movement,  the  more  so  in  his  case  perhaps, 
owing  to  his  personal  affection  for  Isaac 
"Williams  [q.  v.],  who  was  a  native  of  Llangyn- 
felyn  parish,  where  Jones's  Welsh  home  was 
situated.  But  a  still  earlier  attachment  to 
evangelicalism,  corrected  by  his  cultured 
historical  sense,  led  him,  after  the  secession 
of  Newman,  to  develop  his  sympathies  in 
the  direction  of  the  evangelical  wing  of  the 
moderate  school,  but  with  a  whole-hearted 
loyalty  to  the  prayer-book.  Among  the 
benefits  which  he  ascribed  to  the  Oxford 
movement  was  the  greater  dignity  and 
solemnity  with  which  it  had  invested  re- 
ligious functions,  whence  perhaps  (and  owing 
also  to  his  fondness  of  music,  cf.  STEPHENS, 
Freeman,  i.  90)  his  private  admission  that 
he  liked  a  few  ritualists  '  to  give  colour '  to 
his  diocese. 

Throughout  his  life  Jones  was  always 
methodical  and  minutely  accurate,  though 
his  range  of  knowledge  was  of  the  widest. 
A  natural  warmth  of  feeling  was  concealed 
under  a  somewhat  precise  manner.  In  pre- 
sence, his  short  stature  was  compensated  by 
a  quiet  dignity.  To  the  last  he  took  a  lively 
interest  in  archaeological  research,  and  his  pre- 
sidential addresses  to  the  Cambrian  Archaeo- 
logical Association  at  Carmarthen  and  Lam- 
peter  in  1875  and  1878,  and  to  the  British 
Archaeological  Association  at  Tenby  in  1884, 
were  models  of  their  kind. 

He  died  at  Abergwili  Palace  on  14  Jan. 
1897,  and  was  buried  on  the  20th  in  the 
family  vault  at  Llangynfelyn.  The  bishop 
was  twice  married :  first,  on  10  Sept.  1856 
(during  his  residence  at  Oxford),  to  Frances 
Charlotte,  second  daughter  of  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Hoi  worthy,  vicar  of  Croxall,  Derby- 
shire, who  died  without  issue  on  21  Sept. 
:  and  secondly,  on  2  Dec.  1886,  to  Anne, 
fifth  daughter  of  Mr.  G.  H.  Loxdale  of  Aig- 
burth,  Liverpool,  by  whom  he  left  issue  a 
son  and  two  daughters. 

The  following  were  his  published  works  : 
1.  'Vestiges  of  the  Gael  in  Gwynedd,'  Lon- 
don (Tenby  printed),  1851,  8vo.  2.  'The 
History  and  Antiquities  of  St.  David's,' 
written  jointly  with  E.  A.  Freeman  ;  issued 
in  four  parts,  1852-7  (Tenby,  4to),  with 
illustrations  by  Jewitt,  engraved  by  Le 
Keux.  3.  '  Notes  on  the  GZdipus  Tyrannus 
of  Sophocles,  adapted  to  the  Text  of  Din- 
dorf,'  Oxford,  1862,  16mo ;  2nd  ed.  1869. 
VOL.  in. — SUP. 


4.  'The  New  Testament  illustrated  by  a 
Plain  Commentary  for  Private  Reading,' 
2  vols.  London,  1865, 4to  ;  the  second  volume 
only  was  by  Basil  Jones,  the  first  being 
by  Archdeacon  Churton.  5.  '  The  CEdipus 
Rex  of  Sophocles  with  Notes,'  Oxford,  1866. 
8vo.  6.  '  The  Peace  of  God  :  Sermons  on 
the  Reconciliation  of  God  and  Man '  (chiefly 
preached  before  the  University  of  Oxford), 
London,  1869,  8vo. 

His  translation  into  Greek  anapaestic  verse 
of  Tennyson's  '  Dying  Swan '  in  the  Antho- 
logia  Oxoniensis  deserves  to  be  mentioned 
as  probably  the  most  beautiful  thing  in  that 
collection.  Single  sermons  and  the  episcopal 
charges  were  also  published  separately  shortly 
after  their  delivery.  A  selection  of  his '  Ordina- 
tion Addresses'  was  issued  after  his  death 
(Oxford,  1900,  8vo),  with  a  preface  by  Canon 
Gregory  Smith,  who,  in  his  '  Holy  Days' 
(1900,  p.  67),  has  delineated  the  chief  traits 
of  the  bishop's  character. 

The  restoration  of  the  ruinous  eastern 
chapels  at  St.  David's  Cathedral  is  being 
carried  out  as  a  memorial  to  Bishop  Jones 
and  of  his  two  friends,  Deans  Allen  and 
Phillips,  who  both  died  within  a  few  months 
after  the  bishop.  A  portrait  of  the  bishop 
i  in  his  robes,  painted  by  Eddis  in  1882,  is 
preserved  at  Gwynfryn. 

[Authorities  cited  ;  Nicholas's  County  Families 

of  Wales,  1st  ed.  p.  198 ;  Burke's  Landed  Gentry, 

1  sub  nom.  Jones  of  Gwynfryn ;  Debrett's  Peerage 

i  (1896),p.661;Foster'sAlumniOxonienses(1715- 

i  1886),  p.  775,  ami  Oxford  Men  and  their  Col- 

\  leges,p.32;  Crockford's Clerical  Directory (1896) 

!  s.v. '  St.  David's ; '  Canon  F.  Meyrick's  Narrative 

of  Undergraduate  Life  at  Trinity  College,  Ox- 

:  ford,  1844-7,  in  Hort's  Memorials  of  Wharton 

B.  Marriott  (1873),  pp.  41  et  seq. ;  Blakiston's 

Trinity  College   (1898),  pp.  223-6;  Dean  Ste- 

phens's  Life  and  Letters  of  E.  A.  Freeman,  i.  43- 

i  51,  99,  393-4,  ii.  8,  37,  131-4,  208-9,  372-3, 

i  443  ;  Archseologia  Cambrensis  (January  1898), 

i  5th  ser.  xv.  88  (with  portrait) ;  Allibone's  Diet. 

1  of  English  Literature,  p.  995,  and  Suppl.  p.  925  ; 

Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ;  obituary  notices  in  the  Times, 

15  Jan.  1897;  Guardian,  20 and 27  Jan.;  Western 

Mail  (Cardiff),  15  and  16  Jan.  (cf.  1  April  1901) ; 

;  Church  Times,  22  Jan. ;  Brecon  Times,  26  Jan. ; 

!  Bye-Gones,  27  Jan.  1897,  and  Annual  Register  for 

1897,  pp.  137-8;  private  information.    See  also 

the  Primary  Charge  of  (his  successor)  Bishop 

i  Owen  of  St.  David's  (Carmarthen,  Nov.  1900), 

pp.25  et  seq.,  William  Hughes's  Hist,  of  the 

Church  of  the  Cymry  (1900),  and  Archdeacon 

Bevan  in  the  St'.  David's  Diocesan  Gazette  for 

|  1901.]  D.  Li-.  T. 

JOWETT,  BENJAMIN  (1817-1893), 
master  of  Balliol  College,  and  regius  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  in  the  university  of  Oxford, 
was  the  eldest  son  and  second  child  of  Ben- 

E 


Jowett  5 

jamin  Jowett  of  London  and  Isabella  Lang 
home.  The  family  originally  came  from 
Manningham,  near  Bradford  in  Yorkshire, 
where  at  one  time  they  owned  land.  Ben- 
jamin was  born  in  the  parish  of  Camberwell 
on  15  April  1817.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
pale  delicate-looking  boy  of  unusual  mental 
precocity,  and  when  he  learned  Greek  with 
the  tutor  of  his  cousins,  the  Langhornes, 
'  they  had  no  chance  against  him  in  their 
Greek  lessons '  (Life  and  Letters,  i.  30).  His 
chief  companion  in  these  years  was  his  elder 
sister  Emily ;  '  the  two  would  shut  them- 
selves up  in  a  room  with  their  books  and 
study  for  hours.' 

On  16  June  1829  he  was  admitted  to  St. 
Paul's  school.     The  high  master  at  the  time 
was  Dr.  John  Sleath  [q.   v.]  of  Wadham 
College.     Here  he  acquired  two  methods  of 
study  which  he  always  impressed  on  his  pupils 
at  a  later  time ;  he  learned  large  quantities  of 
Greek  and  Latin  poetry  by  heart,  and  he 
constantly  retranslated  into  Greek  or  Latin 
passages  which  he  had  previously  translated 
into  English.     Among  his  contemporaries  at  i 
the  school  were  [Baron]  C.  E.  Pollock,  [Lord]  j 
Hannen,  and  A.  S.  Eddis  of  Trinity  College,  j 
Cambridge. 

In  November  1835  he  gained  an  open 
scholarship  at  Balliol  College.  About  a  j 
year  afterwards  (October  1836)  he  came  into  ! 
residence.  Among  the  scholars  of  the  time 
were  [Dean]  Stanley,  [Vice-chancellor]  \ 
Wickens,  Stafford  Northcote  [Lord  Iddes- 
leigh],  J.  G.  Lonsdale,  [Dean]  Lake,  and  [Dean] 
Goulburn ;  and  among  the  fellows  [Arch- 
bishop] Tait,[Dean]  Scott,  and  W.  G.  Ward. 
In  Dr.  Sleath's  opinion  Jowett  was  '  the 
best  Latin  scholar  whom  he  had  ever  sent 
to  college,'  and  this  opinion  was  confirmed 
when  in  the  spring  of  1837  he  gained  the 
Hertford  (University)  scholarship  for  Latin. 
In  the  next  year  he  obtained  a  success  even 
more  brilliant,  being  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
college  while  still  an  undergraduate  (Novem- 
ber 1838).  In  the  following  summer  he 
obtained  a  first  class  in  literce  humaniores. 
Already  he  had  begun  to  take  private  pupils, 
the  first  of  whom  were  Thomas  Henry  (after- 
wards Lord)  Farrer  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  and  his 
brother  Oliver.  He  graduated  B.A.  in  1839, 
and  M.A.  in  1842.  In  1841  he  obtained 
the  chancellor's  prize  for  the  Latin  essay, 
and  in  1842  he  was  appointed  by  Dr.  Jen- 
kyns,  the  master,  to  a  tutorship  in  the  col- 
lege, a  post  which  he  retained  till  his  elec- 
tion to  the  mastership  in  1870.  He  took 
deacon's  orders  in  1842,  and  priest's  in  1845. 
Jowett  had  been  brought  up  amid  evan- 
gelical views,  which  were  traditional  in  his 
tamily.  He  now  found  himself  in  the 


Jowett 


midst  of  the  Oxford  movement,  and  was 
greatly  attracted  by  William  George  Ward 
fq.  v.],  with  whom  he  was  brought  into 
daily  contact.  Years  afterwards,  when  the 
two  friends  met  after  a  long  separation, 
Jowett  said :  '  Ward  reminded  me  that  I 
charged  him  with  shallow  logic,  and  that  he 
retorted  on  me  with  misty  metaphysics. 
That  was  perhaps  not  an  unfair  account  of 
the  state  of  the  controversy  between  us.' 
In  February  1841  Newman's  tract  on  the 
articles — the  famous  '  No.  XC.' — appeared. 
It  was  at  once  attacked  and  condemned,  and 
the  controversy  had  a  peculiar  interest  for 
the  Balliol  common  room.  For  Tait  was 
one  of  the  first  to  move  in  the  attack,  and 
WTard,  who  supported  the  tract,  was  dis- 
missed from  his  lectureship  at  the  college  in 
the  following  June  (CHURCH,  Oxford  Move- 
ment, c.  xiv.,  esp.  pp.  252  ff.)  It  appears 
that  Jowett  was  somewhat  bewildered  by 
the  shifting  currents  around  him.  '  But  for 
the  providence  of  God,'  he  said  at  a  later 
time,  '  I  might  have  become  a  Roman 
Catholic.'  In  1844  the  crisis  in  the  move- 
ment came.  Newman  had  retired  from  St. 
Mary's  to  Littlemore,  and  Ward  published 
his  '  Ideal  of  a  Christian  Church.'  Jowett, 
with  A.  P.  Stanley  to  lead,  fought  on  the 
side  of  toleration,  and  both  were  present  at 
the  scene  of  Ward's  degradation  on  13  Feb. 
1845,  a  day  which  Dean  Church  regards  as 
the  birthday  of  Oxford  liberalism  (/.  c.  p. 
340). 

Meanwhile  Jowett  was  working  earnestly 
with  pupils  in  college,  travelling  on  the 
continent  in  the  long  vacations.  In  1844 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  some  of  the 
most  distinguished  German  scholars  of  the 
time,  G.  Hermann,  Bekker,  Lachmann,  and 
Ewald,  and  consulted  Erdmann,  the  his- 
torian of  philosophy,  on  the  best  method  of 
approaching  the  philosophy  of  Hegel,  by 
whose  teaching  he  was  now  becoming 
fascinated.  For  some  years  he  remained  an 
eager  student  of  Hegel's  writings,  and  even 
translated  a  good  deal  of  the  logic  in  con- 
junction with  [Archbishop]  Temple  {Life,  i. 
120,  129,  142).  He  seems  also  to  have  been 
greatly  stimulated  by  Hegel's  '  History  of 
Philosophy '  in  the  lectures  which  he  was 
now  giving  as  tutor,  on  the  '  Fragments  of 
the  Early  Greek  Philosophers  ' — lectures  in 
which  he  first  gave  proof  of  his  peculiar 
powers.  From  1846  onwards  his  position  as 
tutor  was  assured;  he  was  the  centre  of  a 
number  of  pupils,  who  were  devoted  to  him, 
and  proved  the  value  of  his  teaching  by  their 
success  in  the  schools.  In  1848  he  began 
the  practice,  which  he  continued  till  near 
the  end  of  his  life,  of  taking  pupils  with  him 


Jowett 


in  the  vacation  to  some  quiet  healthy  place. 
Like  William  Sewell  [q.  v.]  of  Exeter,  he 
became  a  student  of  Plato,  and  it  was  greatly 
due  to  him  that  Plato  was  included  in  the 
list  of  books  which  could  be  offered  in  the 
schools  (Life,  i.  132).  This  incursion  into 
a  new  field  of  philosophy  he  balanced  by 
lectures  on  political  economy.  His  tours 
abroad  became  more  rare  as  the  years  passed 
on,  but  in  April  1848  he  visited  Paris  in 
the  days  of  the  revolution  with  Stanley, 
Francis  Turner  Palgrave  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  and 
[Sir]  Robert  Burnett  Morier  [q.  v.]  (see 
STANLEY,  Life,  i.  390). 

Yet  theology  was  the  chief  study  of  these 
days.  For  some  years  past  Jowett  had 
been  on  terms  of  intimate  .friendship  with 
Stanley,  and  finally  the  two  'friends  planned 
an  edition  of  St.  Paul's  epistles.  Jowett 
undertook  the  Thessalonians,  Galatians,  and 
Romans ;  Stanley  the  Corinthians.  From 
these  labours  they  were  drawn  away  for  a 
time  by  the  movement  for  reform  which  now 
swept  over  Oxford.  Stanley  and  Jowett  had 
already  begun  a  joint  work  on  university 
reform,  when  in  1850  a  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  take  evidence  on  the  subject.  Of 
this  commission  Stanley  was  the  secretary. 
From  the  evidence  which  Jowett  gave  be- 
fore it  we  see  that  he  wished  to  retain  the 
college  system,  but  was  in  favour  of  increasing 
the  number  of  professors.  That  he  had  in 
view  at  this  time  any  extension  of  university 
privileges  to  non-collegiate  students  there  is 
no  proof.  But  he  was  clearly  on  the  side  of 
the  poor  student,  and  did  not  wish  to  see 
the  university  possessed  by  the  '  gentleman 
heresy '  (Life,  i.  183).  He  was  a  public  ex- 
aminer in  1849,  1850,  1851,  and  1853. 

Jowett  was  now  known  beyond  Oxford. 
He  was  consulted  by  Sir  C.Trevelyan  in  re- 
gard to  examinations  for  the  Indian  civil 
service,  and  eventually  became  a  member  of 
Lord  Macaulay's  committee,  which  reported 
in  1854.  To  the  end  of  his  life  he  retained 
a  lively  interest  in  this  subject,  and  indeed 
in  everything  connected  with  India  (see 
letters  to  Lord  Lansdowne  in  Letters,  1899). 

When  Dr.  Richard  Jenkyns  [q.v.]  died  in 
1854,  Jowett  was  put  forward  is  a  candidate 
for  the  mastership,  but  the  election  fell  on 
Robert  Scott  (1811-1887)  [q.  v.]  This  re- 
pulse made  a  deep  impression  on  Jowett's 
sensitive  nature  ;  it  was,  in  fact,  the  beginning 
of  a  somewhat  distressful  period  of  his  life, 
during  which  he  felt  himself  in  little  sym- 
pathy with  his  college  and  Oxford.  The  first 
effect  of  it  was  to  send  him  back  with  re- 
newed energy  to  his  unfinished  work  on  St. 
Paul.  In  the  next  summer,  on  the  same  day 
with  Stanley's  edition  of  the  Corinthians,  his 


i  Jowett 

edition  of  the  Thessalonians,  Galatians,  and 
Romans  appeared.  The  publication  of  this 
book  formed  an  epoch  in  Jowett's  life. 

To  the  stricter  school  of  philologists  the 
commentary  seemed  to  be  vitiated  by  the 
view  which  Jowett  took  of  St.  Paul's  use  of 
language.  His  ablest  critic,  [Bishop]  Light- 
foot,  strongly  protested  against  the  charge  of 
vagueness  which  Jowett  brought  against  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament  period ;  and  of 
St.  Paul  especially  he  maintained  that  his 
antecedents  were  such  that  he  could  hardly 
fail  to  speak  or  write  Greek  with  accuracy, 
while  Jowett  was  inclined  to  look  on  the 
apostle  as  one  whose  thoughts  outran  his 
power  of  expression,  so  that  his  meaning 
must  be  gathered  from  the  context  rather 
than  by  a  strictly  grammatical  treatment  of 
the  words  (see  Journal  of  Sacred  and  Classical 
Philology,  iii.  p.  104,  ff.  1856).  The  essays, 
which  were  generally  acknowledged  to  be 
the  most  important  part  of  the  work,  were 
partly  condemned  as  heretical,  especially 
the  essay  on  the  atonement,  and  were  also 
thought  to  bewantingin  definite  conclusions, 
though  no  one  could  deny  that  deep  and 
suggestive  thoughts  were  contained  in  them. 
'  Those  who  look  only  for  positive  results  will 
be  greatly  disappointed  with  Mr.  Jowett's 
essays.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  are 
satisfied  with  being  made  to  think  instead  of 
being  thought  for,  and  are  willing  to  follow 
out  for  themselves  important  lines  of  re- 
flexion, when  suggested  to  them,  will  find 
no  lack  of  interest  or  instruction  in  these 
volumes.  The  value  of  Mr.  Jowett's  labours 
is  far  from  consisting  solely  in  the  definite 
results  attained,  which  are  poorer  than 
might  have  been  looked  for.  The  recon- 
structive process  bears  no  proportion  to  the 
destructive.  But,-  after  every  abatement 
which  has  to  be  made  on  this  score,  these 
volumes  will  still  hold  their  position  in  the 
foremost  ranks  of  recent  literature  for  depth 
and  range  of  thought '  (LIGHTFOOT,  I.  c.). 
The  book  could  not  fail  to  attract,  attention, 
even  beyond  theological  readers.  Bagehot 
said  that  Jowett  had  shown  by  '  chance  ex- 
pressions '  that  he  had  exhausted  impending 
controversies  years  before  they  arrived,  and 
had  perceived  more  or  less  the  conclusion  at 
which  the  disputantswouldarrivelong  before 
the  public  issue  was  joined '  (Physics  and 
Politics,  8th  ed.  pp.  116,  117).  In  1859  a 
second  edition  was  published,  in  which  the 
essay  on  the  atonement  was  rewritten,  not 
with  any  view  of  retracting  the  views  put 
forward' in  the  first,  but  to  explain  them 
more  clearly  and  meet  some  of  the  miscon- 
ceptions which  had  arisen. 

In  the  same  summer  (1855)  Jowett  was 

E2 


Jowett 


appointed  to  the  regius  professorship  of 
Greek,  vacant  by  the  death  of  Dean  Gaisford 
[q.  v.]  Those  who  condemned  his  views 
were  roused  to  action  by  this  preferment. 
Under  an  almost  forgotten  statute  Jowett 
was  denounced  by  Dr.  John  David  Macbride 
[q.  v.]  and  the  Rev.  Charles  Pourtales  Go- 
lightly  [q.  v.]  to  the  vice-chancellor  (Dr. 
Cotton  of  Worcester)  as  having  denied  the 
catholic  faith.  Dr.  Cotton  summoned  him 
to  subscribe  the  articles  anew  in  his  pre- 
sence, and  to  this  Jowett  submitted.  It 
was  a  mean  attack,  which  might  create  a 
prejudice,  but  could  lead  to  no  definite  result. 
Almost  meaner  still  was  the  agitation,  pro- 
longed over  ten  years,  by  which  the  Greek 
chair  was  deprived  of  any  addition  to  the 
statutory  emoluments  which  had  been 
hitherto  paid.  Of  the  four  chairs  founded 
by  Henry  VIII  at  Oxford,  and  endowed  by 
him  with  40/.  each,  the  chair  of  Greek  was 
the  only  one  which  had  never  received  in- 
creased emolument,  and  this  continued  to 
be  the  case  in  spite  of  repeated  appeals  to 
convocation  till  1865,  when  Christ  Church 
consented  to  raise  the  income  to  500/.  a  year. 
It  was,  in  fact,  made  clear  that  estates  had 
been  granted  to  that  college  for  the  purpose, 
and  that  the  chair  must  be  endowed  from 
some  source  was  rendered  inevitable  by  the 
action  of  Jowett's  friends,  who  subscribed 
2,0001.  to  wards  the  deficiency — which  Jowett 
refused  to  accept — and  by  his  own  action 
as  professor. 

For  from  his  election  Jowett  had  departed 
altogether  from  the  traditional  lines.  To 
edit  dictionaries  and  scholia  was  not  to  his 
taste  at  all ;  he  began  a  series  of  lectures  on 
the  '  Republic  of  Plato '  and  the  '  Fragments 
of  the  Early  Greek  Philosophers,'  and  at 
the  same  time  allowed  any  undergraduate 
who  wished,  whether  belonging  to  his  own 
college  or  not,  to  bring  him,  for  correction, 
translations  into  Greek  prose  or  verse  two 
or  even  three  times  a  week.  This  was  a 
very  severe  addition  to  his  tutorial  work. 
But  his  lectures  were  a  success.  Greek 
scholarship  received  a  stimulus  throughout 
the  university,  and  outside  Oxford  his  de- 
voted labour  on  his  pupils  could  not  but 
tell  in  his  favour,  whatever  his  theological 
opinions  might  be. 

In  the  ten  years  following  the  election  to 
the  professorship  Jowett  fell  deeper  still 
under  suspicion  of  heresy.  In  the  second 
edition  of  his  'Epistles  of  St.  Paul'  (1859) 
he  had  repeated  his  views,  and  in  this  he 
had  intended  to  include  an  essay  on  the 
'  Interpretation  of  Scripture.'  This  essay  he 
finally  kept  back  till  the  next  year,  when  it 
appeared  in  '  Essays  and  Reviews,'  a  work 


2  Jowett 

which  created  a  panic  in  the  church.  The 
volume  was  promoted  by  the  Rev.  Harry 
Bristow  Wilson  [q.v.],  of  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford,  and  among  the  contributors,  besides 
Jowett  and  Wilson,  were  Archdeacon  Row- 
land Williams  [q.v.J,  the  present  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  Mark  Pattison  [q.  v.],  and 
others.  The  book  went  through  many  edi- 
tions, '  for  though  we  have  now  got  to  the 
stage  of  affecting  astonishment  at  the  sen- 
sation produced  by  the  avowal  of  admitted 
truths  in  that  work,  nobody  who  remembers 
the  time  can  doubt  that  it  marked  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  very  important  development 
of  religious  and  philosophical  thought ' 
(LESLIE  STEPHEN,  Studies  of  a  Biographer, 
11.  129).  Wilson  and  Williams  were  brought 
before  the  court  of  arches  and  suspended  for 
a  year,  but  this  judgment  was  subsequently 
reversed  by  Lord  Westbury.  After  the  ver- 
dict of  the  dean  of  arches  an  attack  was 
made  upon  Jowett.  The  case  was  opened  in 
the  vice-chancellor's  court  at  Oxford  (20  Feb. 
1863),  when  Mountague  Bernard  [q.  v.]  ap- 
peared as  the  vice-chancellor's  assessor.  On 
Jowett's  part  it  was  protested  that  the  court 
had  no  jurisdiction  in  the  matter.  Bernard, 
while  rejecting  the  protest,  refused  to  order 
Jowett  to  appear  and  to  admit  articles  on  the 
part  of  the  promoters  of  the  case.  Counsel 
advised  against  an  application  to  the  court 
of  queen's  bench  for  a  mandamus,  and  the 
prosecution  was  dropped. 

For  a  time  Jowett '  held  his  tongue  about 
theology,  and  was  glad  to  have  done  so, 
because  he  began  to  see  things  more  clearly ' 
(1866).  But  in  1870  he  was  planning  in 
connection  with  Wilson  a  new  volume  of 
'  Essays,'  in  which  he  intended  to  write  on 
the  great  religions  of  the  world.  In  Sep- 
tember of  that  year  he  was  elected  master 
of  Balliol  College,  and  the  projected  volume 
never  appeared.  Theology  occupied  a  great 
deal  of  his  thought  and  time ;  he  preached 
not  only  in  the  college  chapel  but  in  the 
university  pulpit,  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  elsewhere.  But  nothing  was  published. 
He  would  not  allow  any  of  his  sermons  to 
be  printed,  or  his  '  St.  Paul'  to  appear  in  a 
new  edition.  He  wished  to  attain  to  greater 
clearness  and  certainty,  and  hoped  that  these 
would  come  with  time ;  but  he  took  on  him- 
self other  labours  which  left  no  leisure  for 
elaborating  his  views.  Yet  his  theological 
work  had  not  been  in  vain ;  he  had  pointed 
out  where  changes  must  be  made  if  theology 
is  to  retain  a  hold  on  thoughtful  minds,  and 
if  some  of  his  positive  conceptions  were  re- 
garded as  '  misty '  and  '  vague,'  he  was  clear 
enough  in  maintaining  what  he  called  '  the 
central  light  of  all  religion,'  the  divine  jus- 


Jowett 


53 


Jowett 


tice  and  truth.  What  he  wrote  '  was  much 
read  and  pondered  by  the  more  intellectual 
sort  of  undergraduates'  (PATER). 

From  1860  to  1870  his  labours  were  such 
as  would  have  overwhelmed  any  other  man. 
At  one  time  he  writes  that  he  is  seeing  every 
undergraduate  in  college  once  a  week !  In 
the  vacations  his  hours  were  given  to  Plato. 
He  had  begun  with  the  idea  of  a  commentary 
on  the  '  Republic/  a  work  which  he  never 
dropped,  though  he  did  not  live  to  finish  it. 
But  he  soon  felt  that  a  complete  analysis  of 
all  Plato's  writings  was  required  if  any  one 
wished  thoroughly  to  understand  the  '  Re- 
public,' and  the  analysis  in  time  became  an 
analysis  and  translation.  To  this  must  be 
added  the  work  of  the  professorship.  One 
who  attended  his  lectures  at  the  time  spoke 
of  them  as  being  '  informal,  unwritten,  and 
seemingly  unpremeditated,  but  with  many 
a  long-remembered  gem  of  expression,  or 
delightfully  novel  idea,  which  seemed  to  be 
lying  in  wait  whenever,  at  a  loss  for  a 
moment  in  his  somewhat  hesitating  dis- 
course, he  opened  a  book  of  loose  notes' 
(Life,  i.  330). 

About  1865  he  became,  with  the  support 
of  fellows  who  had  been  his  pupils,  a  pre- 
ponderating influence  in  the  common  room 
of  Balliol  College.  Much  time  was  devoted 
to  the  organisation  of  education  in  the 
college  and  the  university.  Arrangements 
•were  made  for  inter-collegiate  lectures,  and 
Scottish  professors  were  invited  to  give  lec- 
tures in  the  summer  term,  when  their  labours 
in  the  north  were  at  an  end.  But  his  chief 
object  was  to  lessen  the  expense  of  an  Oxford 
career.  For  this  purpose  he  persuaded  the 
college  to  found  more  scholarships  and  ex- 
hibitions, and  to  establish  a  hall  where,  as 
he  hoped,  young  men  would  be  able  to  live 
for  little,  while  enjoying  the  benefits  of  the 
college  system.  In  the  end  the  movement 
which  he  supported  was  carried  on  a  larger 
scale  by  the  university;  the  restriction  was 
removed  by  which  students  were  compelled 
to  reside  within  the  college  walls,  and  non- 
collegiate  students  came  into  being.  In  the 
same  years  a  considerable  part  of  the  college 
was  rebuilt.  Jowett  was  convinced  that 
'  not  a  twentieth  part  of  the  ability  in  the 
country  ever  comes  to  the  university.'  In 
order  to  attract  men  from  new  classes  he 
persuaded  the  college  to  alter  the  subjects 
for  examination  in  some  of  the  exhibitions, 
adding  physical  science  and  mathematics  to 
classics. 

By  his  election  to  the  mastership  (7  Sept. 
1870)  Jowett  attained  the  position  which 
he  most  coveted.  He  now  enjoyed  more 
leisure  than  hitherto,  and  he  had  as  much 


power  as  the  head  of  a  house  could  have. 
For  some  years  after  his  election  he  was 
much  occupied  with  the  enlargement  of  the 
college.  A  new  hall  was  built  (1877),  and 
the  old  one  transformed  into  a  library  for 
the  use  of  the  undergraduates.  Later  on  a 
hope,  formed  many  years  before,  was  realised, 
and  a  field  for  cricket  and  football  was 
secured  for  the  college  To  this,  as  to  every- 
thing connected  with  Balliol,  Jowett  gave 
liberally  from  his  private  purse,  and  finally 
he  built  at  his  own  expense  a  house  for  a 
tutor  adjacent  to  the  field. 

Jowett's  interests  in  education  were  not 
confined  to  Oxford.  The  University  College 
at  Bristol  owed  much  to  him,  he  strongly 
supported  the  claims  of  secondary  education 
and  university  extension,  and  at  the  time  of 
his  death  he  was  busy  with  a  scheme  for 
bringing  the  university  and  the  secondary 
schools  together.  When  it  was  arranged  in 
1874-5  that  the  age  of  the  candidates  for 
the  Indian  civil  service  should  be  fixed  at 
seventeen  to  nineteen,  and  that  successful 
candidates  should  pass  two  years  of  proba- 
tion at  a  university,  Jowett  made  arrange- 
ments to  receive  a  number  of  candidates  at 
Balliol  College,  and  helped  in  establishing  a 
school  of  oriental  languages.  In  the  uni- 
versity commission  of  1877-81  he  was  of 
course  greatly  interested.  He  had  not  much 
sympathy  with  research,  beyond  certain 
limits,  and  on  the  other  hand  he  urged 
strongly  the  claims  of  secondary  education 
in  the  large  towns,  a  movement  in  which 
he  thought  it  would  be  wise  for  the  uni- 
versity to  take  a  part.  The  better  organisa- 
tion of  the  teaching  of  the  non-collegiate 
students  was  strongly  pressed,  and,  above 
all,  the  retention  to  a  large  extent  of  prize 
fellowships,  on  which  Jowett  placed  great 
value. 

In  1871  the  translation  of  Plato  appeared 
in  four  volumes.  This  was  an  event  which 
determined  to  a  great  extent  the  literary 
work  of  the  rest  of  Jowett's  life — not  that 
he  '  had  done  with  theology  and  intended 
to  lead  a  new  life '  (PLATO,  Euthyphro,  end), 
for  he  was  always  hoping  to  return  to  theo- 
logy when  he  could  escape  from  other  labours 
— but  the  translation  of  Plato  had  a  rapid 
sale,  and  it  was  necessary  to  revise  it  for 
a  second  edition  (5  vols.  1875).  Many 
thoughts  which  might  have  appeared  in  an 
independent  work  on  theology  or  morals 
were  now  embodied  in  the  introductions  to 
the  dialogues.  From  Plato  he  was  led  on  to 
a  translation  of  Thucydides,  with  notes  on 
the  Greek  text  (2  vols.  1881).  From  1882  to 
1886  he  was  vice-chancellor,  and  carried  into 
the  administration  of  the  office  the  restless 


Jowett 


54 


Jowett 


energy  which  was  one  of  the  most  marked 
characteristics  of  his  nature.  He  was  able 
to  do  something  for  the  non-collegiate  stu- 
dents, and,  in  a  different  line,  for  the  drainage 
of  the  Thames  Valley,  in  conjunction  with 
Dean  Liddell— though  but  a  small  part  of 
their  schemes  was  realised — and  a  memorial 
of  his  work  remains  in  the  name  '  Vice- 
chancellor's  Cut,'  which  was  given  to  a  new 
outlet  made  for  the  Cherwell  into  the  Isis. 
He  also  did  much  for  the  recognition  and 
elevation  of  dramatic  representations  at  Ox- 
ford. It  was  due  to  his  support  that  the 
'  Agamemnon'  of  ^Eschylus  was  acted  in 
Balliol  Hall,  and  he  gave  his  direct  sanc- 
tion and  encouragement  to  the  performances 
of  the  Oxford  University  Dramatic  Society. 
The  theatre  at  Oxford  was  rebuilt  at  this 
time,  and  Jowett  was  one  of  the  first  to 
enter  it  on  the  opening  night.  He  also  in- 
vited Sir  Henry  Irving  to  give  a  lecture  at 
Oxford,  and  stay  at  the  master's  lodge  on 
the  occasion.  In  the  same  liberal  spirit  he 
encouraged  music  in  his  own  college, inviting 
John  Farmer  from  Harrow  to  superintend, 
and  giving  an  organ  for  the  hall.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  the  Sunday  concerts  at 
Balliol.  Another  subject  to  which  he  gave 
much  thought  and  care  was  the  university 
press.  During  these  years  his  literary  work 
flagged  a  little,  yet  in  1885  he  published 
the  translation  of  Aristotle's 'Politics,'  with 
notes,  but  without  the  essays  which  would 
have  given  a  special  value  to  the  book. 
These  he  did  not  live  to  finish. 

The  strain  of  the  vice-chancellorship  was 
more  than  Jowett's  health  could  bear.  In 
1887  he  fell  ill,  and  though  he  recovered  a 
considerable  degree  of  health,  he  was  quite 
unequal  to  the  tasks  which  he  laid  upon 
himself.  He  was,  however,  able  to  carry  on 
the  revision  of  the '  Plato '  for  a  third  edition, 
which  appeared  in  1892,  and  work  upon  the 
edition  of  the  '  Republic  '  on  which  he  had 
now  laboured  for  thirty  years.  This  was 
published  after  his  death  by  Professor  Lewis 
Campbell.  It  is  to  this  last  edition  of  '  Plato ' 
that  we  naturally  turn  for  Jowett's  final 
views  on  philosophy.  He  does  not  give  us 
any  comprehensive  account  of  Plato's  phi- 
losophy, for  he  did  not  quite  believe  that 
such  a  comprehensive  account  was  possible. 
Plato's  view  changes  in  different  dialogues, 
and  in  some  no  definite  conclusion  is  reached. 
It  was  therefore  better  to  treat  each  dialogue 
separately.  It  was  also  characteristic  of 
his  own  mind  to  be  constantly  changing  his 
point  of  view.  '  Mr.  Jowett's  forte  is  mental 
philosophy.  How  has  this  or  that  meta- 
physical question  presented  itself  to  different 
minds,  or  to  the  same  mind  at  different 


times  ?  Under  what  contradictory  aspects 
may  a  particular  religious  sentiment  or  moral 
truth  be  viewed?  What  phenomena  does 
an  individual  mind  exhibit  at  different  stages 
in  its  growth  ?  What  contrasts  do  we  find 
in  the  ancient  and  modern  world  of  thought  ? 
This  is  the  class  of  questions  Mr.  Jowett 
delights  to  ask  and  to  answer.'  So  said  Dr. 
Lightfoot  when  speaking  of  the  work  on 
'  St.  Paul,'  and  the  remarks  apply  with  equal 
force  to  the  '  Plato.'  If  we  ask  ourselves 
what  were  Plato's  views  on  ethics,  or  politics, 
or  art,  we  shall  indeed  find  many  far-reach- 
ing observations  in  Jowett's  introductions, 
but  not  a  systematic  statement ,  such  as  is 
given  e.  g.  in  Zeller's  '  History  of  Greek  Phi- 
losophy.' We  shall  also  find  much  which, 
though  it  arises  out  of  Plato's  thoughts,  is 
only  indirectly  connected  with  him — cri- 
ticism of  modern  forms  of  old  views,  of 
ideal  governments  other  than  that  of  Plato, 
of  recent  utilitarianism,  of  Hegel,  of  the 
nature  and  origin  of  language.  Few  books 
cover  so  wide  a  field,  or  show  keener  powers 
of  observation,  or  contain  deeper  thoughts. 
If  the  result  often  seems  inadequate,  it  is 
because  it  was  the  author's  aim  to  get  at  the 
truth,  not  to  support  any  theory.  And  what 
is  written  is  written  with  a  finish  and  beauty 
rarely  surpassed,  just  as  the  translation  of 
the  text  of  Plato — and  of  Thucydides  too — 
has  superseded  all  previous  translations. 

In  1891  Jowett  had  a  very  serious  illness, 
which  returned  upon  him  in  1893.  Towards 
the  end  of  September  in  this  year  he  left 
Oxford  on  a  visit  to  Professor  Campbell  in 
London.  Thence  he  went  to  Headley  Park, 
the  home  of  an  old  pupil,  Sir  Robert  S. 
Wright,  judge  of  the  high  court,  where 
he  died  on  1  Oct.  He  was  buried  in  St. 
Sepulchre's  cemetery,  Oxford,  on  6  Oct. 

After  making  bequests  to  his  relatives, 
secretaries,  servants,  and  others,  Jowett  left 
the  remainder  of  his  property  of  whatever 
kind,  including  the  copyrights  of  his  works, 
to  Balliol  College.  The  profits  of  the  copy- 
rights were  to  be  invested,  and  the  fund 
thus  formed  was  to  be  applied  partly  to  re- 
publication  of  Jowett's  own  works,  and 
partly  '  to  the  making  of  new  translations 
and  editions  of  Greek  authors,  or  in  any  way 
promoting  and  advancing  the  study  of  Greek 
literature  or  otherwise  for  the  advancement 
of  learning  in  such  way  that  the  college  may 
have  the  benefit  intended  by  15  George  III, 
ch.  53,  §  1.' 

After  his  death  his  friends  subscribed  a 
large  sum  of  money,  of  which  a  small  por- 
tion was  expended  on  a  memorial  tablet  in 
Balliol  College  chapel,  and  the  remainder 
applied  to  the  foundation  of  two  'Jowett 


Jowett 


55 


Jowett 


lectureships '  in  Greek  philosophy  and  his- 
tory (or  literature)  at  Balliol  College. 

He  received  the  honorary  degree  of  doctor 
of  theology  at  Levden,  1875,  of  LL.D.  at 
Edinburgh,  1884,  and  of  LL.D.  at  Cam- 
bridge, 1890. 

There  are  several  portraits  of  Jowett  : 
(1)  In  crayons,  by  George  Richmond,  R.A., 
about  1859,  at  Balliol  College ;  (2)  in  crayons, 
by  Laugee,  1871,  in  the  possession  of  Pro- 
fessor Dicey;  (3)  in  oils,  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Watts, 
R.A.,  in  the  hall  of  Balliol  College ;  (4)  in 
pastels,  by  the  Cavaliere  C.  M.  Ross,  at 
Balliol  College ;  (5)  in  water-colours,  by  the 
Lady  Abercromby,  1892,  in  the  hall  of 
Balliol  College  ;  the  head  was  subsequently 
repainted  by  the  same  lady,  and  is  at  the 
master's  lodge. 

Jowett:s  energy  and  industry  in  literary 
work  were  more  than  equalled  by  his  de- 
votion to  his  pupils  and  friends.  '  He  had 
the  genius  of  friendship,'  and  was  never  so 
happy  as  when  visiting  and  entertaining 
friends,  or  contributing  in  any  way  to  their 
happiness.  A  long  succession  of  pupils  re- 
garded him  with  the  greatest  affection,  and 
at  the  close  of  his  life  the  friends  of  his  youth 
were  his  friends  still,  for  he  never  lost  them. 
Among  the  earliest  were  Lord  Farrer,  Pro- 
fessor W.  Y.  Sellar,  Sir  A.  Grant,  T.  C. 
Sandars,  F.  T.  Palgrave,  Theodore  Walrond, 
Professor  H.  J.  S.  Smith.  These  were  followed 
by  Lord  Bowen,  W.  L.  Xewman,  Justice 
Wright,  Professor  T.  H.  Green,  Lyulph 
Stanley,  Sir  C.  P.  Ilbert,  and  later  still  by 
Sir  W.  R.  Anson,  Sir  F.  H.  Jeune,  Lord 
Lansdowne,  Sir  Arthur  Godley,  Andrew 
Lang,  Professor  W.  Wallace,  Professor  Caird, 
Lord  Milner,  Sir  G.  Baden-Powell,  and 
many  others.  It  was  his  delight  to  have 
some  of  these  pupil  friends  at  the  master's 
lodge  for  Sunday,  where  he  also  brought 
together,  whenever  he  could,  some  of  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  his  time.  Such 
were  Lowell,  W.  W.  Goodwin,  O.  AVendell 
Holmes,  Huxley,  M.  Arnold,  Turgenieff, 
Browning,  Froude,  H.  M.  Stanley,  Dr. 
Martineau,  G.  Eliot,  Renan,  Ruskin.  As  a 
host  he  was  most  careful  and  solicitous  of 
the  comfort  of  his  guests,  but  in  his  conver- 
sation he  was  often  reserved.  A  competent 
judge  wrote  of  him  :  '  A  disciple  of  Socrates 
he  valued  speech  more  highly  than  any 
other  gift,  yet  he  was  always  hampered  by 
a  conscious  imperfection  and  by  a  difficulty 
in  sustaining  and  developing  his  thoughts  in 
society.  .  .  .  He  was  seldom  more  than 
the  third  party  intervening'  (J.  D.  ROGERS, 
see  Life,  ii.  157).  In  a  tete-a-tete  conver- 
sation he  was  often  perversely  silent,  and 
gaps  were  almost  painful.  But  with  one  or 


two  congenial  friends  he  would  talk  unre- 
mittingly till  midnight,  and  even  in  his 
serious  illness  he  insisted  on  coming  down  to 
breakfast  that  he  '  might  have  a  little  cheer- 
ful conversation.'  He  loved  to  tell  stories 
and  to  have  them  told  to  him,  or  to  discuss 
subjects  in  which  he  had  an  interest,  in  the 
hope  of  gaining  clearer  insight.  He  had 
a  wonderful  power  of  fixing  a  discussion  in 
a  phrase :  '  Respectability  is  a  great  foe  to 
religion,'  he  said  at  the  close  of  a  discussion 
on  chapel  and  church ;  '  The  practice  of 
divines  has  permanently  lowered  the  standard 
of  truth  '  was  his  severe  sentence  on  theo- 
logical criticism.  In  his  letters  to  friends 
he  felt  able  to  pour  himself  out  with  less  re- 
straint than  in  conversation,  and  here  we 
often  find  him  at  his  best,  light-hearted, 
cheerful,  amusing,  and  devoted  to  his  friends, 
endeavouring  to  comfort  them  in  distress 
or  bereavement,  and  to  help  them  in  diffi- 
culty. 

Jowett  formed  no  school,  and  was  not  the 
leader  of  a  party  in  religion  or  philosophy. 
A  leader  in  the  church  he  could  not  be  after 
the  publication  of  his  'St.  Paul,'  and  he 
never  wished  to  leave  the  church  for  any 
form  of  nonconformity.  His  critical  in- 
stincts led  him  in  one  direction,  his  re- 
ligious feeling  drew  him  in  another.  Thus 
his  speculations  led  him  to  '  irreconcilable 
contrasts '  (LESLIE  STEPHEN,  op.  cit.  ii. 
141),  but  he  did  not '  pretend  that  such  con- 
trasts did  not  exist ; '  it  was  because  he 
pointed  them  out  with  unusual  force  and 
freedom  that  he  was  regarded  as  heretical. 
In  philosophy  he  was  content  to  be  critical 
(see  above) ;  he  saw  that  one  philosophy 
had  always  been  succeeded  by  another,  and 
the  leader  of  to-day  was  forgotten  to- 
morrow ;  each  therefore,  he  concluded,  had 
grasped  part  of  the  truth,  but  not  the 
whole  truth.  His  speculations  ended  in 
compromise,  and  thus,  here  also,  he  was 
unfitted  to  be  a  leader.  For  himself  he 
had  almost  a  horror  of  falling  under  one  set 
of  ideas  to  the  exclusion  of  others.  '  He 
stood  at  the  parting  of  many  ways,'  and 
wrote  '  No  thoroughfare '  upon  them  all,  says 
Mr.  Stephen,  severely  but  not  unjustly  (loc. 
cit.  p.  143) ;  and  after  all,  in  doing  so, 
Jowett  only  went  a  step  beyond  the  philo- 
sopher who  condemns  all  systems  but  his 
own.  Yet  indirectly  he  left  his  mark  even 
on  philosophy.  By  him  his  pupil  T.  H. 
Green  was  stimulated  to  the  study  of  Hegel, 
and  no  influence  has  been  greater  in  Oxford 
for  the  last  thirty  years  than  Green's.  But 
the  chief  traces  of  Jowett's  influence  will  be 
found  in  other  spheres.  His  essays  and 
translations  must  secure  him  a  high  place 


Kay 


among  the  writers  of  his  time,  and  in  every 
history  of  English  education  in  the  second 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  he  will  occupy 
a  prominent  place. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Jowett's  works : 
1.  'St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians, 
Galatians,  and  Romans,'  2  vols.  1855;  2nd 
edit.  1859.  2.  '  Essay  on  the  Interpretation 
of  Scripture,'  in  '  Essays  and  Reviews,'  1860. 
3.  '  The  Dialogues  of  Plato,'  translated  into 
English,  with  Analyses  and  Introductions, 
4  vols.  1871;  2nd  edit.  5  vols.  1875;  3rd 
edit.  5  vols.  1892.  (The '  Republic,'  published 
separately,  1888.)  4.  '  Thucydides,'  trans- 
lated into  English,  with  Introduction,  Notes, 
&c.  2  vols.  1881 ;  2nd  edit.  1900.  5.  Aris- 
totle's 'Politics,'  translated  into  English,  ! 


s  Keeley 

with  Introduction,  Notes,  &c.  2  vols.  1885. 
6.  Plato's'  Republic,' Text  and  Notes  (Jowett 
and  Campbell),  3  vols.  1894.  7.  '  College 
Sermons,'  1895.  8.  '  Sermons :  Biographical, 
&c.,'  1899.  9.  '  Sermons  on  Faith  and  Doc- 
trine,' 1901. 

[Jowett's  Life  and  Letters  by  Dr.  Evelyn 
Abbott  and  Dr.  Lewis  Campbell,  2  vols.  1897  ; 
Letters,  1899;  Benjamin  Jowett,  Master  of  Bal- 
liol  Coll.,  L.  A.  Tolleraache(1895) ;  W.  G.  Ward 
and  the  Oxford  Movement,  by  W.  Ward,  1889  ; 
Life  of  Dean  Stanley,  by  R.  E.  Prothero,  1893; 
Swinburne's  Studies  in  Prose  and  Poetry,  1894; 
Leslie  Stephen's  Studies  of  a  Biographer,  1898  ; 
article  in  the  Jewish  Quarterly,  by  Claude  G. 
Montenore,  January  1900  ;  personal  knowledge.] 

E.  A. 


K 


KAY,  SIR  EDWARD  EBENEZER 
(1822-1897),  judge,  fourth  son  of  Robert 
Kay  of  Brookshaw,  Bury,  Lancashire,  by 
Hannah,  daughter  of  James  Phillips  of 
Birmingham  |~cf.  KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH,  SIR 
JAMES;  and  KAY,  JOSEPH],  was  born  on 
2  July  1822.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
B.A.  in  1844,  and  proceeded  M.A.  in  1847. 
He  was  admitted  on  22  April  1844  student 
at  Lincoln's  Inn,  where  he  was  called  to  the 
bar  on  8  June  1847,  and  elected  bencher  on 
11  Jan.  1867,  and  treasurer  in  1888.  Like 
Lord  Blackburn  and  some  other  eminent 
judges,  it  was  in  the  capacity  of  a  reporter 
that  Kay  learned  his  law  (see  infra),  and  it 
was  but  slowly  that  by  dint  rather  of  in- 
dustry and  perseverance  than  brilliance  he 
acquired  one  of  the  largest  practices  ever 
possessed  by  a  stuff-gownsman.  He  took 
silk  in  1866,  and  after  enjoying  a  prolonged 
lead  in  Vice-chancellor  Bacon's  court,  con- 
fined his  practice  to  the  House  of  Lords  and 
privy  council  (1878).  On  the  retirement  of 
Vice-chancellor  Malins  in  1881,  Kay  was 
appointed  (30  March)  justice  of  the  high 
court  (chancery  division)  and  knighted 
(2  May).  He  proved  a  strong  judge,  a 
sworn  foe  to  lucrative  abuses  and  dilatory 
proceedings,  and  as  competent  on  circuit  as  ' 
in  chambers.  On  10  Nov.  1890  he  suc- 
ceeded Sir  Henry  Cotton  [q.v.  Suppl.J  as  lord- 
justice  of  appeal.  His  tenure  of  this  office 
was  abridged  by  a  painful  disorder  which, 
after  frequently  laying  him  aside,  compelled 
his  retirement  at  the  commencement  of ; 
Hilary  term  1897 — not,  however,  before  he  • 
had  given  proof  of  unusual  independence  . 
of  mind. 


He  died  at  his  town  house,  37  Hyde  Park 
Gardens,  on  16  March  1897.  His  remains 
were  interred  (23  March)  in  the  churchyard 
at  Brockdish,  near  Scole,  Norfolk,  in  which 
parish  his  seat,  Thorpe  Abbotts,  was  situate. 
He  married,  on  2  April  1850,  Mary  Valence 
(d.  1889),  youngest  daughter  of  Dr.  William 
French,  master  (1820-49)  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  by  whom  he  left  issue  two  daugh- 
ters. In  her  memory  Kay  founded  several 
divinity  scholarships  at  Jesus  College. 

Kay  was  author  of '  Reports  of  Cases  ad- 
judged in  the  High  Court  of  Chancery  before  « 
Sir  William  Page  Wood,  Knight,  Vice- 
chancellor,  1853-4,'  London,  1854,  8vo, 
continued  in  conjunction  with  Henry  P. 
Vaughan  Johnson  to  the  close  of  the  year 
1858  ;  in  all  5  volumes,  8vo. 

[Grud.  Cant. ;  Foster's  Men  at  the  Bar  ;  Lin- 
coln's Inn  Adm.  Reg.;  Law  List,  1848,  1867, 
1868 ;  Times,  1 7  March  1 897  ;  Law  Journ.  20  and  ' 

27  March    1897;  Ann.    Reg.    1897,   ii.    145; 
Vanity  Fair,  28  Aug.  1886,  7  Jan.  1888  ;  White- 
hall Rev.  27  March  1897  ;  Men  and  Women  of 
the  Time,  1895;  Burke's  Peerage,  1896;  Law 
Reports,  Appeal  Cases,  1891,  Memoranda.] 

J.  M.  R. 

KEELEY,  MRS.  MARY  ANN  (1805  ?- 
1899),  actress,  whose  maiden  name  was 
Goward,  was  born  in  Orwell  Street,  Ipswich, 
on  22  Nov.  1805  or  1806.  After  acting  in 
Norwich,  York,  and  other  country  towns,  she 
made  her  first  appearance  in  London  as  Miss 
Goward,  play  ing  at  the  Lyceum,  2  July  1825, 
Rosina  in  the  opera  of  that  name,  and  Little 
Pickle  in  the  '  Spoiled  Child.'  Here  and  at 
Covent  Garden  she  met  Robert  Keeley  [q.v.], 
whom  she  married  in  the  summerof  1829.  On 

28  Oct.  1825  Miss  Goward  made,  as  Marga- 


Keeley 


57 


Kemble 


retta  in '  Xo  Song,  No  S  upper,'  her  first  appear- 
ance at  Covent  Garden.  Her  name  appears 
to  Sophia  in  the  '  Road  to  Ruin,'  Norah  in 
'  Norah,  or  the  Girl  of  Erin,'  Matilda  in 
'  Three  Deep,'  Lucette  in  '  Shepherd's  Boy,' 
and  very  many  parts,  original  and  other. 
In  1834  she  was  a  comic  support  of  the 
Adelphi,  where  in  November  1838  she  made 
a  great  success  as  Smike ;  and  in  1839  one 
still  greater  as  Jack  Sheppard.  AVith  Mac- 
ready  at  Drury  Lane  in  1842  she  played  Xe- 
rissa,  Audrey,  Mrs.  Placid  in  Mrs.  Inchbald's 
'  Every  one  has  his  Fault,'  and  Polly  Pall- 
mall  in  Jerrold's  '  Prisoner  of  War.'  (For 
her  share  in  the  management  of  various 
theatres,  for  many  of  her  characters,  and  for 
her  family,  see  art.  ROBERT  KEELEY).  Mrs. 
Peerybingle,  Clemency  Newcome,  Maud  in 
the  '  Wife's  ^Secret,'  Jane  in  'Wild  Oats,' 
Rosemary  in  the '  Catspa  w,?  Maria  in '  Twelfth 
Night,'  in  which  she  was  seen  at  different 
theatres,  were  so  many  triumphs.  Betty 
Martin  in  an  adaptation  so  named  of  '  Le 
Chapeau  de  1'Horloger'  of  Madame  Emile  de 
Girardin,  in  which  she  was  seen  at  the 
Adelphi  (8  March  1855 ),  was  a  comic  master- 
piece. As  much  may  be  said  for  her  Mary 
Jane  (February  1856)  in  Moore's  '  That 
Blessed  Baby,'  and  Frank  Oatlands  in  'A 
Cure  for  the  Heartache.'  Betsy  Baker,  Dame 
Quickly,  Mrs.  Page,  and  Miss  Prue  in  '  Love 
for  Love,'  must  also  be  mentioned.  When, 
indeed,  Mrs.  Keeley  in  18o9  followed  her 
husband  into  retirement,  it  was  with  the 
reputation  of  the  finest  comedian  in  her  line 
of  modern  days.  Her  last  professional  ap- 
pearance was  at  the  Lyceum  in  1859  as 
Hector  in  Brough's  burlesque,  '  The  Siege 
of  Troy.'  She  came  frequently  for  benefits 
before  the  public  in  her  old  parts,  and  often 
delivered  addresses  by  her  friend,  Mr.  Joseph 
Ashby  Sterry,  and  others.  On  22  Nov.  1895 
her  ninetieth  birthday  was  celebrated  at  the 
Lyceum  by  a  miscellaneous  entertainment, 
in  which  many  leading  actors  took  part.  She 
preserved  to  the  last  an  unconquerable  viva- 
city. Mrs.  Keeley  died  on  12  March  1899 
at  10  Pelham  Crescent,  Brompton,  the  house 
in  which  thirty  years  previously  her  husband 
breathed  his  last.  Her  daughter,  Louisa  Mary, 
married  Montagu  Stephen  Williams  [q.  v.J 
In  her  latest  years  she  was  feted  and  caressed 
beyond  the  wont  of  womanhood  by  almost  all 
people  from  the  queen  downwards,  and  her 
funeral  at  Brompton  cemetery  on  16  March 
was  almost  a  public  ceremonial. 

[Personal  knowledge ;  Genest's  Account  of 
the  English  Stage ;  Scott  and  Howard's  Elan- 
chard  ;  Dramatic  and  Musical  Review  ;  Pascoe's 
Dramatic  List ;  Hollingshead's  Gaiety  Chroni- 
cles ;  Marston's  Our  Recent  Actors ;  Montagu 


Williams's  Leaves  of  a  Life.  1890;  Planche's 
Recollections ;  Men  and  Women  of  the  Time, 
14th  ed.;  Era,  18  March  1899;  Athenaeum, 
18  March  1899.J  J.  K. 

KEMBLE,  FRANCES  ANNE,  after- 
wards MRS.  BUTLER,  generally  known  as 
FANKY  KEMBLE  (1809-1893),  actress  and 
writer,  the  daughter  of  Charles  Kemble  [q.v.] 
and  Marie  Therese  Kemble  [q.  v.],  was  born  in 
Newman  Street,  London,  on  27  Nov.  1809, 
and  educated  principally  in  France.  AVhen 
her  father's  management  of  Covent  Garden 
was  in  extremis  she  made  her  first  appear- 
ance on  the  stage  on  o  Oct.  1829  as  Juliet 
to  her  father's  Mercutioand  the  Lady  Capu- 
let  of  her  mother,  who  returned  to  the  stage 
after  a  long  absence.  Fanny  Kemble's  suc- 
cess was  overwhelming.  She  appeared  on 
9  Dec.  as  Belvidera  in  '  Venice  Preserved; ' 
on  18  Jan.  1830  as  Euphasia  in  the '  Grecian 
Daughter ; '  on  25  Feb.  as  Mrs.  Beverley  in 
the  '  Gamester ; '  on  28  April  as  Isabella  in 
the  piece  so  named ;  and  on  28  May  as  Lady 
Townley  in  the  '  Provoked  Husband.'  So 
profitable  were  her  appearances  that  13,000/. 
of  debt  were  wiped  off  the  theatre.  In  the 
following  season  she  was  seen  as  Mrs.  Hal- 
ler  in  the  '  Stranger,'  Calista  in  the  '  Fair 
Penitent,'  Juliana  in  the  'Honeymoon,' 
Lady  Macbeth,  Portia,  Beatrice,  and  Con- 
stance. In  1833  she  was  the  first  Louise  de 
Savoie  in  her  own '  Francis  the  First,'  which 
was  not  a  success ;  the  first  Duchess  of 
Guise  in  an  adaptation  of  the  '  Henri  III ' 
of  Dumas,  which  was  a  failure ;  and  the 
first  Julia  in  Knowles's  '  Hunchback.'  In 
the  autumn  she  accompanied  her  father  to 
America,  appearing  on  18  Sept.  at  the  Park 
theatre,  New  York,  as  Bianca  in  '  Fazio,'  a 
part  she  repeated  in  Philadelphia  and  Bos- 
ton. On  7  Jan.  1834  she  married  Pierce 
Butler,  a  southern  planter,  whom  in  1848 
she  divorced  (he  died  in  1867).  On  16  Feb. 
1847,  at  Manchester,  she  reappeared  on  the 
stage  as  Julia,  which  with  Lady  Teazle, 
Mariana,  and  Queen  Katherine,  she  repeated 
at  Liverpool.  In  May  she  reappeared  in  Lon- 
don, playing  at  the  Princess's  with  William 
Creswick  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  After  a  short  visit  to 
America  she  began  in  April  1848  a  series  of 
Shakespearean  readings  at  Willis's  rooms. 
In  October  1849  at  Sansom  Street  hall, 
Philadelphia,  she  gave  a  reading  from  '  King 
John.'  Resuming  her  maiden  name  she  re- 
tired for  twenty  years  to  Lennox,  Massa- 
chusetts, reappearing  in  1868  as  a  reader 
at  Steinway  hall,  New  York.  In  1873  she 
resided  near  Philadelphia,  and  in  1877-8 
returned  to  England,  dying  at  86  Gloucester 
Place,  London,  the  residence  of  her  son- 
in-law,  the  Rev.  Canon  Leigh,  on  15  Jan. 


Kemble  5 

1893 ;  she  was  buried  on  the  20th  at  Kensal 
Green. 

Fanny  Kemble  had  a  sparkling,  saucy,  and 
rather  boisterous  individuality,  and  seems 
to  have  had  a  string  of  elderly  admirers  of 
distinction.  Rogers,  Macaulay,  Sidney 
Smith,  and  other  literary  men  of  the  epoch 
gave  her  incessant  homage,  and  memoirs  of 
the  early  part  of  the  century  are  full  of  her. 
Eighty-five  letters  addressed  to  her  by  Ed- 
ward Fitzgerald  between  1871  and  1883  were 
printed  in  '  Temple  Bar,'  and  with  the  addi- 
tion of  nineteen  letters  were  issued  separately 
in  1895.  Wilson,  in  the  '  Noctes,'  credited 
her  with  genius,  and  assigned  her,  as  did 
others,  #  place  near  her  aunt,  Mrs.  Siddons. 
Scott  and  Moore  placed  her  on  a  lower  plane. 
Longfellow  was  completely  under  her  spell. 
Judge  Haliburton  spoke  of  her  '  cleverness 
and  audacity,  refinement  and  coarseness, 
modesty  and  bounce,  pretty  humility  and 
prettier  arrogance.'  Leigh  Hunt  could  not 
be  won  to  faith  in  her.  Macready  said,  with 
some  justice,  that  she  was  ignorant  of  the 
very  rudiments  of  her  art,  but  made  amends, 
declaring  that  '  she  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable women  of  the  present  day.'  Lewes 
called  her  readings  '  an  intellectual  delight.' 

Her  chief  literary  productions  were : 
'Francis  the  First,'  1832;  'The  Star  of 
Seville,'  a  drama,  1837;  'Poems,'  Phila- 
delphia, 1844 ;  '  A  Year  of  Consolation ' 
(travels  in  Italy),  1847;  'Plays,'  1863, 
including  '  An  English  Tragedy,'  '  Mary 
Stuart,'  translated  from  Schiller,  and  '  Made- 
moiselle de  Belle-Isle,'  translated  from 
Dumas ;  '  Christmas  Tree  and  other  Tales,' 
from  the  German,  1856 ;  '  Notes  on  some 
of  Shakespeare's  Plays,'  1882 ;  '  Far  Away 
and  Long  Ago,'  1889. 

Her  autobiographical  works  consist  of: 
1.  '  Journal  of  F.  A.  Butler,'  1835,  reprinted 
apparently  as  '  Journal  of  a  Residence  in 
America.'  2.  '  Journal  of  a  Residence  on  a 
Georgian  Plantation,'  1863.  3.  '  Record  of  a 
Girlhood,'  1878.  4.  '  Records  of  Later  Life,' 
1882.  5.  'Further  Records,' 1891.  These 
works  are  bright  and  animated,  but  caused 
some  offence  in  certain  circles  by  the  views 
they  expressed  as  to  the  theatrical  profession, 
which  she  joined  with  reluctance.  One  or 
two  works  bearing  on  slavery  were  extracted 
from  her  early  journal,  and  published  sepa- 
rately. 

A  charming  portrait  by  Sir  Thomas  Law- 
rence, showing  her,  as  she  said,  '  like  what 
those  who  love  me  have  sometimes  seen  me,' 
has  been  often  reproduced.  Another  beauti- 
ful portrait  by  Sully,  now  in  the  possession 
of  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Leigh,  has  been  engraved 
by  J.  G.  Stodart. 


Kennedy 


[Books  cited  ;  Geuest's  Account  of  the  Eng- 
lish Stage ;  Clark  Russell's  Representative 
Actors  ;  White's  Actors  of  the  Century;  Notes 
and  Queries,  7th  ser.  xi.  159 ;  Pascoe's  .Dra- 
matic List;  Pollock's  Macready;  Mme.  Craven's 
Jeunesse  de  F.  Kemblo ;  Letters  of  Edward 
Fitzgerald  to  Fanny  Kemble,  1895;  Theatrical 
Times,  vol.  ii. ;  Dramatic  and  Musical  Review, 
vol.  vi. ;  Theatre,  vol.  xxi.  March  1893  ;  Leigh 
Hunt's  Dramatic  Essays ;  Lewes's  Dramatic 
Essays.]  J.  K. 

KENNEDY,  VANS  (1784-1846),  major- 
general,  Sanskrit  and  Persian  scholar,  was 
born  at  Pinmore  in  the  parish  of  Ayr,  Scot- 
land. He  belonged  to  an  old  Ayrshire 
family,  and  was  connected  with  the  houses 
of  Cassilis  and  Eglintoun.  His  father  was 
Robert  Kennedy  of  Pinmore,  and  his  mother 
Robina,  daughter  of  John  Vans  of  Barnbar- 
roch,  Wigtownshire,  who  on  marrying  his 
cousin  assumed  the  name  of  Agnew.  Robert 
Kennedy  was  ruined  by  the  failure  of  the 
Ayr  bank,  and  had  to  sell  Pinmore  and  re- 
tire to  Edinburgh,  where  he  died  in  1790. 
The  care  of  his  numerous  children  then 
devolved  on  the  widow,  who  was  a  woman 
of  great  worth  and  ability.  Major-general 
Kennedy  was  her  youngest  son,  and  one  of 
his  sisters  was  Grace  Kennedy  [q.  v.] 

Kennedy  was  educated  at  Edinburgh, 
at  Berkhamsted,  and  finally  at  Monmouth, 
and  was  noted  in  youth  for  his  studious 
habits.  On  the  completion  of  his  fourteenth 
year  he  returned  to  Edinburgh,  and,  having 
obtained  a  cadetship,  he  sailed  for  Bombay 
in  1800.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  he  was 
employed  with  his  corps,  the  1st  battalion 
of  the  2nd  grenadiers,  against  the  people 
of  the  Malabar  district,  and  received  a  wound 
in  his  neck,  from  the  effects  of  which  he 
suffered  all  his  life.  In  1807  he  became 
Persian  interpreter  to  the  Peshwa's  sub- 
sidiary force  at  Sirur,  then  commanded  by 
the  Colonel  W.  Wallace  (d.  1809)  who, 
according  to  the  '  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  In- 
dia,' is  still  worshipped  as  a  saint  by  the 
Hindus.  While  at  Sirur  Kennedy  had  fre- 
quent opportunities  of  meeting  Sir  Barry 
Close  and  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  both  of 
whom  greatly  admired  him.  In  1817  he 
was  appointed  judge-advocate-general  to  the 
Bombay  army,  and  on  30  Sept.  of  the  same 
year  he  contributed  a  paper  on  Persian 
literature  to  the  Literary  Society  of  Bombay. 
Mountstuart  Elphinstone,  who  described 
Kennedy  as  the  most  learned  man  of  his 
acquaintance,  gave  him  the  appointment  of 
Maratha  and  Gujrati  translator  of  the  regu- 
lations of  government,  but  the  post  was 
abolished  a  few  months  after  Elphinstone's 
retirement.  He  held  the  office  of  judge- 


Kennish 


59 


Keppel 


advocate-general  till  1835,  when  he  was 
removed  by  Sir  John  Keane.  After  that  he 
was  appointed  oriental  translator  to  the 
government,  and  he  held  this  office  till  his 
death. 

Kennedy  was  throughout  life  a  student, 
and  he  seems  to  have  belonged  to  the  type 
of  the  recluse  and  self-denying  scholar.  He 
is  described  as  working  sixteen  hours  a  day, 
and  as  spending  all  his  money  on  manu- 
scripts and  munshies,  and  in  relieving  the 
wants  of  others.  He  contributed  several 
papers  to  the  Bombay  branch  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  and  in  1824  he  published 
at  Bombay  a  Marat  ha  dictionary.  In  1828 
he  published  in  London  a  quarto  volume 
entitled  '  Researches  into  the  Origin  and 
Affinity  of  the  Principal  Languages  of  Asia 
and  Europe,'  and  in  1831  he  followed  this 
up  by  another  quarto  entitled  '  Researches 
into  the  Nature  and  Affinity  of  Ancient 
and  Hindu  Mythology.'  Both  these  works 
exhibit  much  learning  and  vigorous  and 
independent  thinking,  but  are  now  nearly 
obsolete.  The  first  seems  to  be  the  more 
valuable  of  the  two,  and  contains  some  in- 
teresting notes,  e.g.  that  at  p.  182  on  the 
number  of  Arabic  words  in  the  Shahnama. 
Kennedy  also  wrote  five  letters  on  the 
Puranas,  and  had  a  controversy  with  Horace 
Hayman  Wilson  [q.  v.]  and  Sir  Graves 
Champney  Haughton  [q.  v.]  He  published 
at  Bombay  in  1832  a  work  on  military  law, 
of  which  a  second  edition  appeared  in  1847. 
He  died  at  Bombay  on  29  Dec.  1846,  and 
was  buried  at  the  old  European  cemetery  at 
Back-Bay. 

[Biographical  Memoir  by  James  Bird,  Secre- 
tary Bombay  branch  K.A.S. ;  Journal  of 
B.B.R.A.S.  ii.  430,  Bombay,  1848,  and  N.  V. 
Mandlik's  edition  of  the  Transactions  of  the 
Literary  Society  of  Bombay,  Bombay,  1877, 
vol.  i.  p.  xv ;  Preface  to  Grace  Kennedy's  Col- 
lected Works,  Edinburgh,  1827.]  H.  B-E. 

KENNISH  or  KINNISH,  WILLIAM 

(1799-1862),  Manx  poet,  son  of  Thomas 
Kennish  by  his  wife,  Margaret  (Radcliffe), 
was  baptised  at  Kirk  Maughold,  Isle  of  Man, 
on  24  Feb.  1799.  Of  humble  parentage,  he 
was  reared  as  a  ploughboy,  but  in  1821 
entered  the  navy  as  a  common  seaman, 
learned  English  of  his  messmates,  having 
previously  known  only  his  native  dialect, 
and  rose  to  be  a  warrant  officer.  He  was 
ship's  carpenter  on  the  Hussar,  bearing  the 
flag  of  Sir  Charles  Ogle  upon  the  North 
American  station,  1829-30,  and  while  sta- 
tioned at  Halifax  devised  a  plan  for  concen- 
trating a  ship's  broadside  with  greater  effect 
than  hitherto  attempted  upon  a  given  mark. 
His  plan,  which  met  with  encouragement 


from  Captain  Edward  Boxer  of  the  Hussar, 
was  tried  by  Sir  Charles  Napier  on  board 
the  Galatea  in  1831,  and  was  recommended 
to  the  admiralty,  to  which  body  Kennish 
also  submitted  a  theodolite  of  his  invention. 
In  June  1832  he  received  the  gold  Isis  medal 
from  the  Society  of  Arts.  He  published  his 
essay,  on  concentrating  a  ship's  broadside,  in 
1837  in  a  handsome  quarto,  with  nineteen 
plates,  and  subsequently  he  served  upon  the 
men-of-war  Tribune  and  Donegal  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  in  the  Channel.  But 
he  felt  that  he  had  received  no  encourage- 
ment from  the  admiralty  at  all  commen- 
surate with  the  labour  and  money  that  he 
had  expended  upon  his  essay,  and  he  left 
the  navy  in  or  about  1841.  Three  years 
later  he  published  in  London  '  Mona's  Isle 
and  other  Poems '  (1844,  8vo,  a  scarce 
volume),  with  a  long  subscription  list  of 
naval  men.  Some  of  the  local  pieces,  such 
as  '  The  Curraghs  of  Lezayre,'  more  espe- 
cially those  in  ballad  metre,  have  merit,  and 
the  book  is  a  mine  of  Manx  folk-lore.  Dis- 
appointed at  the  limited  circulation  of  his 
fame,  Kennish  went  over  to  America,  became 
attached  to  the  United  States  admiralty,  for 
which  body  he  made  a  survey  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  and  died  at  New  York  on  19  March 
1862,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three. 

[Harrison's  Bibliotheca  Monensis  (Manx  Soc.), 
2nd  edit.  1876,  p.  165  ;  Kennish's  Works  in 
Brit.  Museum  Library;  note  kindly  furnished 
by  Mr.  K.  Cortell  Cowell.]  T.  S. 

KEPPEL,  WILLIAM  COUTTS,  seventh 
EARL  OF  ALBEMARLE  and  VISCOTJNT  BURY 
(1832-1894),  born  in  London  on  15  April 
1832,  was  eldest  son  of  George  Thomas 
Keppel,  sixth  earl  of  Albemarle  [q.  v.],  by 
his  wife  Susan,  third  daughter  of  Sir  Coutts 
Trotter,  bart.  Throughout  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  he  was  known  as  Viscount  Bury, 
his  father's  second  title.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton,  and  in  1843,  when  eleven  years 
old,  was  gazetted  ensign  and  lieutenant  in 
the  forty-third  regiment.  In  1849  he  became 
lieutenant  in  the  Scots  guards,  and  during 
1850-1  he  was  private  secretary  to  Lord 
John  Russell.  In  1852  he  went  out  to 
India  as  aide-de-camp  to  Lord  Frederick 
Fitzclarence,  commander-in-chief  at  Bom- 
bay. In  the  following  year  he  came  home 
on  sick  leave,  retired  from  the  army,  and 
in  December  1854  went  out  to  Canada  as 
superintendent  of  Indian  affairs  for  Canada. 
He  utilised  the  knowledge  gained  in  Canada 
in  his  'Exodus  of  the  Western  Nations' 
(London,  1865,  2  vols.  8vo).  This  is  really 
a  history  of  North  America,  with  particular 
reference  to  Canada.  Bury  believed  that 


Ker 


Kerr 


the  ultimate  separation  of  England  and 
Canada  was  inevitable,  and  was  anxious 
that  the  separation,  when  it  came,  should 
be  effected  peaceably. 

After  his  return  to  England  he  was,  on 
30  March  1857,  elected  to  parliament  for 
Norwich  in  the  liberal  interest.  He  was 
re-elected  on  29  April  1859,  and  again  on 
28  June  following  on  his  appointment  by 
Lord  Palmerston  to  the  post  of  treasurer  of 
the  household.  His  election  was,  however, 
declared  void,  and  on  1  Dec.  1860  he  was 
returned  for  Wick  burghs.  He  stood  for 
Dover  at  the  general  election  of  1865,  but 
was  defeated,  and  he  ceased  to  be  treasurer 
of  the  household  in  1866,  when  the  con- 
servatives came  into  power.  On  17  Nov. 
1868  he  was  returned  for  Berwick.  In  1874 
he  was  defeated  for  Berwick,  and  in  1875 
for  Stroud.  He  now  became  a  conservative, 
and  on  6  Sept.  1876  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  during  his  father's  lifetime  as  Baron 
Ashford.  From  March  1878  to  April  1880 
he  was  under-secretary  at  war  under  Bea- 
consfield,  and  in  1885-6  he  held  the  same 
office  under  Lord  Salisbury.  On  Easter 
Sunday  1879  he  was  received  into  the 
Roman  catholic  church.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  seventh  earl  of  Albemarle  on 
21  Feb.  1891,  and  died  on  28  Aug.  1894, 
being  buried  on  the  31st  at  the  family  seat, 
Quiddenham,  Norfolk.  He  married  on 
15  Nov.  1855,  at  Dundwmr,  Canada,  Sophia 
Mary,  second  daughter  of  Sir  Allan  Napier 
MacNab  [q.  v.],  premier  of  Canada.  By  her 
he  had  issue  three  sons  and  seven  daughters. 
The  eldest  son,  Arnold  Allan  Cecil,  is  eighth 
and  present  earl  of  Albemarle. 

Albemarle,  who  was  created  K.C.M.G.  in 
1870,  was  an  enthusiastic  volunteer.  He 
was  made  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  civil 
service  rifle  volunteers  in  1860,  volunteer 
aide-de-camp  to  the  queen  in  1881,  and 
published  'Suggestions  for  an  Uniform  Code 
of  Standing  Orders  on  the  Organisation  and 
Interior  Economy  of  Volunteer  Corps  ' 
(London,  1860,  12mo).  He  was  also  author 
of '  The  Rinderpest  treated  by  Homoeopathy 
in  South  Holland,'  1865,  8vo,  and  with 
Mr.  G.  Lacy  Hillier  of  '  Cycling,'  in  the 
'Badminton  Library'  (London,  1887,  8vo), 
which  reached  a  fifth  edition  in  1895. 

[Works  in  Brit.  Mus.  Libr. ;  G.  E.  C[okayne]'s 
Complete  Peerage ;  Burke's  Peerage,  1900 ; 
Army  Lists,  1843-54  ;  Men  of  the  Time,  1891, 
s.v.  'Bury;'  Times,  29  Aug.  1894;  Tablet, 
1  Sept.  1894;  Official  Return  of  Members  of 
Parliament.]  A.  F.  P. 

KER,  JOHN  (d.  1741),  Latin  poet,  was 
born  at  Dunblane,  Perthshire.  He  was  for 
a  time  schoolmaster  at  Crieff,  and  about 


1710,  after  examination  by  ministers  and 
professors,  became  a  master  in  the  Royal  High 
School,  Edinburgh.  In  1717  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Greek  in  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  being  the  first  special  teacher  of 
the  subject  there  (Stat.  Account  of  Scotland, 
xxi.  82).  It  is  significant  that  he  should 
have  secured  this  post  when  his  political  pro- 
clivities are  remembered,  as  well  as  his  ad- 
miration for  the  uncompromising  Jacobite, 
Archibald  Pitcairne  [q.  v.]  On  2  Oct.  1734 
Ker  succeeded  Adam  Watt  in  the  Latin 
chair  at  Edinburgh  University.  Here  he 
studied  law,  associating  again  with  friends 
of  high  school  days,  and  became  exceed- 
ingly popular  (CHALMERS,  Life  of  Ruddi- 
man,  p.  98).  He  had  a  distinct  influence  in 
reviving  exact  Latin  scholarship  in  Scot- 
land. As  a  professor  he  commanded  the 
respect  of  his  students,  although  somewhat 
weakly  deferential  towards  live  lords  when 
they  happened  to  be  members  of  his  class. 
But,  says  Dr.  Alexander  Carlyle  of  Inveresk, 
who  notes  this  foible,  he  '  was  very  much 
master  of  his  business '  (Autobiography  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Alexander  Carlyle,  p.  31).  He 
died  at  Edinburgh  in  November  1741. 

About  1725  Ker  published  his  Latin 
poem,  '  Donaides '  (those  of  the  Don),  cele- 
brating illustrious  alumni  of  Aberdeen. 
In  1727  appeared  his  paraphrase  of  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  '  Cantici  Solomonis  Paraphrasis 
Gemina.'  He  is  also  the  author  of  memorial 
verses  on  Archibald  Pitcairne,  Sir  William 
Scott  (1674  P-1725)  [q.  v.],  and  others.  He 
is  represented,  along  with  Arthur  Johnston 
and  other  Latinists,  in  Lauder's  '  Poetarum 
Scotorum  Musae  Sacrse,'  1739.  The  Latin 
ballad  on  the  battle  of  Killiecrankie  versified 
in  English  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  '  Cham- 
bers's  Journal,'  1st  ser.  No.  48,  is  most  pro- 
bably Ker's  (CHAMBERS.  Scottish  Songs  before 
Burns,  p.  43). 

[Bower's  History  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, ii.  296-314  ;  Grant's  Story  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh  during  its  first  Three  Hundred 
Years,  ii.  318;  appendix  to  Erskine's  Sermon  on 
the  Death  of  Robertson  the  Historian,  in  Dis- 
courses on  several  Occasions,  i.  271.]  T.  B. 

KERR,  NORMAN  (1834-1899),  physi- 
cian, the  eldest  son  of  Alexander  Kerr,  a 
merchant,  was  born  at  Glasgow  on  17  May 
1834,  and  was  educated  at  the  high  school 
of  that  city.  He  supported  himself  as  a 
journalist  on  the  staff  of  the  '  Glasgow  Mail ' 
until  he  entered  the  university  of  Glasgow, 
where  he  graduated  M.D.  and  C.M.  in  1861. 
He  then  sailed  for  a  time  as  surgeon  in  the 
Allan  Canadian  mail  steamers,  and  in  1874  he 
settled  at  St.  John's  Wood  in  London,  and 


Kerr 


61 


Kerr 


was  appointed  a  parochial  medical  officer  of 
St.  Marylebone,  a  post  he  retained  for 
twenty-four  years.  He  died  at  Hastings  on 
30  May  1899,  and  is  buried  at  Paddington 
cemetery,  Willesden  Lane.  He  was  twice 
married  :  first,  in  1671,  to  Eleanor  Georgina, 
daughter  of  Mr.  Edward  Gibson  of  Ballin- 
derry,  Ireland,  who  died  in  1892,  leaving 
issue  four  daughters  and  a  son ;  and,  se- 
condly, in  1894,  to  Edith  Jane,  daughter  of 
Mr.  James  Henderson  of  Belvidere  Lodge, 
Newry. 

The  advancement  of  temperance  was  the 
work  of  Kerr's  life.  He  originated  the 
Total  Abstinence  Society  in  connection  with 
the  university  of  Glasgow,  was  an  early 
member  of  the  United  Kingdom  Alliance, 
and  was  the  founder  and  first  president  of 
the  Society  for  the  Study  and  Cure  of  In- 
ebriety. For  many  years  he  was  chairman 
of  the  Inebriates  Legislation  Committee  of 
the  British  Medical  Association,  and  he  was 
vice-president  of  the  Homes  for  Inebriates 
Association.  He  was  senior  consulting  phy- 
sician to  the  Dalrymple  Home  for  Inebriates 
at  Rickmansworth,  Hertfordshire.  The  Ine- 
briates Act  of  1898  was  largely  the  outcome 
of  his  labours. 

He  wrote:  1.  'On  the  Action  of  Alco- 
holic Liquors  in  Health,'  London,  1876. 
2.  '  Mortality  from  Intemperance,'  London, 
1879.  3.  '  Stimulants  in  Workhouses,'  Lon- 
don, 1882.  4.  'The  Truth  about  Alcohol,' 
London,  1885.  5.  '  Inebriety,  its  ^Etiology, 
Pathology,  Treatment,  and  Jurisprudence,' 
3rd  edit.  London,  1894.  Among  many 
ephemeral  articles  was  his  '  Alcoholism  and 
Drug  Habits '  in  the  '  Twentieth  Century 
Practice  of  Medicine,'  1895. 

[British  Medical  Journal,  1899,  i.  1442; 
additional  information  kindly  given  by  Mrs. 
Norman  Kerr.]  D'A.  P. 

KERR,  SCHOMBERG  HENRY,  ninth 
MARQTTIS  OF  LOTHIAN  (1833-1900),  diplo- 
matist and  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland, 
second  son  of  John  William  Robert,  seventh 
marquis  of  Lothian,  by  Lady  Cecil  Chetwynd 
Talbot,  only  daughter  of  Charles,  second 
earl  Talbot,  was  born  at  Newbottle  Abbey, 
near  Dalkeith,  on  2  Dec.  1833.  His  elder 
brother,  William  Schomberg  Robert  Kerr, 
born  on  12  Aug.  1832,  succeeded  as  eighth 
marquis  of  Lothian  on  his  father's  death, 
14  Nov.  1841,  but  himself  died  without 
issue  on  4  July  1870.  He  bequeathed  to 
Oxford  University  a  sum  of  money  for  the 
foundation  of  the  Marquis  of  Lothian's 
prize,  which  is  of  the  annual  value  of  40£, 
and  is  awarded  for  an  essay  on  some  point 
in  foreign  history  between  the  death  of 


Romulus  Augustulus  and  that  of  Frederick 
the  Great. 

Schomberg  Henry  was  educated  at  Glen- 
almond  and  Oxford,  where  he  matriculated 
from  New  College  on  20  Oct.  1861 .  He  left 
the  university  without  a  degree,  entered  the 
diplomatic  service,  and  was  appointed  attache 
at  Lisbon.  He  was  transferred  in  1854  to 
Teheran,  and  thence  in  1855  to  Bagdad. 
During  the  Persian  war  of  1857  he  served 
as  a  volunteer  on  the  staff  of  Sir  J.  Outram, 
by  whom  he  was  publicly  thanked  at  the 
close  of  the  campaign.  He  was  afterwards 
attach^  at  Athens,  and  in  1862  was  ap- 
pointed second  secretary  at  Frankfort.  In 
the  same  capacity  he  was  removed  in  1865 
to  Madrid,  and  thence  in  the  same  year  to 
Vienna.  He  succeeded  his  elder  brother, 
William  Schomberg  Robert,  as  ninth  mar- 
quis of  Lothian,  and  fourth  baron  Ker  of 
Kersheugh,  Roxburghshire,  on  4  July  1870, 
and  in  right  of  the  latter  peerage  took  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  on  30  March 
1871.  He  moved,  on  19  March  1874,  the 
address  in  answer  to  the  queen's  speech, 
and  on  5  Aug.  following  took  the  oaths  for 
the  subordinate  office  of  lord  privy  seal  of 
Scotland,  which  he  retained  until  death. 
He  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council  on 
6  Feb.  1886,  and  in  Lord  Salisbury's  second 
administration  succeeded  Mr.  Arthur  Bal- 
four  as  secretary  for  Scotland,  and,  as  such, 
ex-officio  keeper  of  the  great  seal  of  Scot- 
land and  vice-president  of  the  committee 
of  council  for  education  in  Scotland 
(11  March  1887).  The  sphere  of  his  admi- 
nistrative duties  was  further  enlarged  by  a 
statute  of  the  same  year  (50  &  51  Viet.  c. 
52).  He  held  office  until  the  fall  of  the 
administration  in  August  1892,  during 
which  period  he  had  charge  of  the  measures 
of  1889  for  the  reform  and  re-endow- 
ment of  the  Scottish  universities  and  the 
reform  of  Scottish  local  government,  and 
several  other  measures  nearly  affecting 
Scottish  interests.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  historical  manuscripts  commission, 
was  elected  in  1877  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  and  re- 
ceived in  1882  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  of  which  he 
was  lord  rector  in  1887-8.  He  was  also 
vice-president  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Geo- 
graphical Society,  and  a  member  of  the 
governing  body  of  the  Imperial  Institute. 
He  was  elected  K.T.  in  1878,  and  a  knight  of 
grace  of  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem 
in  1899;  was  colonel  from  1878  to  1889, 
and  afterwards  honorary  colonel,  of  the 
3rd  battalion  of  the  royal  Scots  regiment, 
and  captain- general  of  the  royal  company 


Kettle 


Kettlewell 


of  archers  from  1884   until   his   death   on 
17  Jan.  1900. 

He  married,  in  1865,  Lady  Victoria  Alex- 
andrina  Montagu  Douglas  Scott,  second 
daughter  of  Walter  Francis,  fifth  duke  of 
Buccleugh,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons 
and  five  daughters.  His  third  son,  Robert 
Schomberg,  lord  Jedburgh,  succeeded  him  as 
tenth  marquis  of  Lothian. 

[Fosters  Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886;  Irving's 
Book  of  Scotsmen;  Ann.  Keg.  1857,  ii.  448; 
Lords'  Journ.  ciii.  163  ;  Hansard's  Parl.  Debates, 
3rd  ser.  ccxviii-ccclvi,  4th  ser.  i-lxxvi ;  Haydn's 
Book  of  Dignities,  ed.  Ockerby ;  Imperial  Kalen- 
dar,  1877-92;  Official  Yearbook  of  the  Learned 
Societies  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  Statuta 
Universitatis  Oxon. ;  Burke's  Peerage,  1900.] 

J.  M.  K. 

KETTLE,  SIR  RUPERT  ALFRED 
(1817-1891),  advocate  of  arbitration  in  trade 
disputes,  born  at  Birmingham  on  9  Jan. 
1817,  was  the  fifth  son  of  Thomas  F.  Kettle 
of  Suffolk  Street,  Birmingham,  a  glass- 
stainer,  fancy  button  and  military  ornament 
maker,  and  gilder.  The  family  was  de- 
scended from  Henri  Quitel,  a  Huguenot  of 
Milhaud  or  Millau  in  Languedoc,  who  emi- 
grated to  Birmingham  on  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  practised  there  the 
trade  of  glass-stainer.  Rupert  left  Birming- 
ham early  in  life  and  was  articled  to  Richard 
Fryer,  a  Wolverhampton  attorney.  Resolv- 
ing to  qualify  as  a  barrister,  he  entered  the 
Middle  Temple  on  2  June  1842,  was  called 
to  the  bar  on  6  June  1845,  and  soon  obtained 
a  large  practice  on  the  Oxford  circuit.  In 
1859  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Worces- 
tershire county  courts,  and  subsequently  he 
acted  as  chairman  of  the  standing  committee 
for  framing  the  rules  for  county  courts. 
Kettle  took  the  deepest  interest  in  industrial 
matters,  and  was  frequently  called  upon  to 
arbitrate  in  disputes  in  the  iron  and  coal 
trades.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the 
Midland  iron  trade  wages  board,  and  used 
the  influence  which  this  office  gave  him  to 
persuade  masters  and  men  to  accept  arbitra- 
tion in  their  disputes.  In  1864,  after  a 
strike  in  the  building  trade  at  Wolverhamp- 
ton had  lasted  seventeen  weeks,  Kettle,  on 
invitation  from  both  sides,  succeeded  in 
arranging  a  settlement  and  ultimately  in 
establishing  at  Wolverhampton  a  legally 
organised  system  of  arbitration.  The  essen- 
tial principle  of  the  new  system  was  that  if 
the  delegates  of  the  contending  parties  could 
not  agree,  an  independent  umpire  should 
have  power  to  make  a  final  and  legally 
binding  award  between  them.  The  scheme 
proved  so  satisfactory  that  it  was  rapidly 
extended  to  other  towns,  eventually  in- 


cluding a  large  part  of  the  English  building 
trade.  Kettle  formed  similar  boards  in  the 
coal  trade,  the  potteries,  the  Nottingham 
lace  trade,  the  handmade  paper  trade,  the 
ironstone  trade,  and  other  staple  trades  of 
the  country.  He  was  commonly  styled  the 
'  Prince  of  Arbitrators,'  and  on  1  Dec.  1880 
he  was  knighted  '  for  his  public  services  in 
establishing  a  system  of  arbitration  between 
employers  and  employed.'  In  1890  the  post- 
master-general, Heory  Cecil  Raikes  [q.  v.], 
consulted  Kettle  during  the  strike  of  the 
post-office  employes. 

On  24  Nov.  1882  Kettle  was  elected  a 
bencher  of  the  Middle  Temple.  He  was 
one  of  the  senior  magistrates  and  a  deputy- 
lieutenant  of  Staffordshire,  and  he  was  assis- 
tant chairman  of  quarter  sessions  from  1866 
to  1891.  He  was  an  artist  of  some  ability, 
and  several  of  his  pictures  were  publicly 
exhibited.  In  1892  he  resigned  his  office  of 
county  court  judge,  finding  that  his  labours 
in  connection  with  arbitration  occupied  the 
greater  part  of  his  time.  He  died  at  his 
residence,  Merridale,  Wolverhampton,  on 
6  Oct.  1894,  and  was  buried  on  9  Oct.  in 
the  Wolverhampton  cemetery.  On  18  Dec. 
1851  he  married  Mary  (d.  13  July  1884), 
only  child  and  heiress  of  William  Cooke  of 
Merridale.  By  her  he  left  issue. 

Kettle  was  the  author  of:  1.  'A  Note  on 
Rating  to  the  Poor  ...  for  Unproductive 
Land,'  London,  1856,  8vo.  2.  '  Strikes  and 
Arbitrations,'  London,  1866,  8vo.  3. '  School 
Board  Powers  and  School  Board  Duties,' 
1871.  4.  *  Masters  and  Men,'  London,  1871, 
8vo.  5.  '  Boards  of  Conciliation  and  Arbi- 
tration between  Employers  and  Employed,' 
1871.  6.  '  Suggestions  for  diminishing  the 
Number  of  Imprisonments,'  1875.  7.  '  The 
Church  in  relation  to  Trades  Unions,'  1877. 

[Wolverhampton  Chronicle,  10  Oct.  1894; 
Burke's  Landed  Gentry.  1894;  Simms's  Biblio- 
theca  Stafford.  1894;  Poster's  Men  at  the  Bar, 
1885;  Biograph,  1880,  iv.  487-8;  Men  and 
Women  of  the  Time,  1898  ;  Jeans's  Conciliation 
and  Arbitration  in  Labour  Disputes,  1894,  p. 
93.]  E.  I.  C. 

KETTLEWELL,  SAMUEL  (1822-1893), 
theological  writer,  born  on  31  March  1822, 
was  son  of  the  Rev.  William  Kettlewell, 
rector  of  Kirkheaton,  near  Huddersfield,  and 
his  wife,  Mary  Midgeley.  He  was  educated 
at  Durham  University,  where  he  graduated 
as  a  licentiate  of  theology  in  1848.  He  was 
ordained  deacon  in  the  same  year,  and  priest 
in  1849  by  the  bishop  of  Ripon.  He  then 
became  a  curate  at  Leeds  under  Walter 
Farquhar  Hook  [q.  v.],  and  in  1851  he  was 
appointed  vicar  of  St.  Mark's,  Leeds.  This, 


Keux  63 


King 


his  only  incumbency,  he  resigned  in  1870 
to  devote  himself  to  literary  work.  He  had 
already  published  a  '  Catechism  on  Gospel 
History '  (London,  1851, 8vo;  3rd  edit.  1878), 
and  two  works  suggested  by  the  Irish  dis- 
establishment agitation,  namely :  '  A  Short 
Account  of  the  Reformation  in  Ireland,' 
and  'Rights  and  Liberties  of  the  Church' 
(both  London,  1869,  8vo).  His  energies 
were  now  mainly  devoted  to  his  work  on 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  and  in  1877  he  published 
'  The  Authorship  of  the  "  De  Imitatione 
Christ!"  '  (London,  8vo);  this  was  followed 
in  1882  by  'Thomas  a  Kempis  and  the 
Brothers  of  Common  Life '  (London,  2  vols. 
8vo ;  2nd  edit.  1884).  These  two  books  were 
the  fruit  of  much  research  in  England,  Hol- 
land, and  Belgium.  Kettlewell  maintains 
the  usually  accepted  authorship  of  the  '  De 
Imitatione,'  and  collects  all  that  is  known 
about  the  life  of  Thomas  a  Kempis.  In 
1888  he  published  'The  Basis  of  True 
Christian  Unity  '  (London,  2  vols.  8vo),  and 
in  1892  a  translation  of  the  '  De  Imitatione.' 
He  had  received  the  Lambeth  M.A.  in  1860, 
and  in  1892,  in  recognition  of  his  work,  he 
was  granted  the  Lambeth  D.D.,  the  queen 
countersigning  his  diploma.  He  died  at  his 
residence,  Kesselville,  Eastbourne,  whither 
he  retired  in  1870,  on  2  Nov.  1893 ;  he  was 
twice  married,  and  his  widow  survives  him. 
[Works  in  Brit.  Mus.  Libr. ;  Crockford's 
Clerical  Directory,  1891 ;  Eastbourne  Chro- 
nicle, 5  Nov.  1893;  Times,  21  Nov.  1893; 
Guardian,  8  Nov.  1893;  private  information.] 

A.  F.  P. 

KEUX,  JOHN  HENRY  LE  (1812-1896), 
engraver.  [See  LE  KETJX.] 

KEYMER  or  KEYMOR,  JOHN  (fl. 
1610-1620),  economic  writer,  is  said  to  have 
written  as  early  as  1601  his  '  Observations 
upon  the  Dutch  Fishing,'  which  was  first 
published  by  Sir  Edward  Ford  in  1664 
(London,  4to).  Keymer  had  no  practical 
knowledge  of  the  fisheries,  being  '  altogether 
unexperimented  in  such  business'  (GENTLE- 
MAN, Way  to  Win  Wealth,  1614,  p.  3) ;  he 
collected  his  notes  from  conversation  with 
fishermen  like  Tobias  Gentleman  [q.v.  Suppl.] 
and  others,  with  a  view  to  stimulating  Eng- 
lish fishery,  then  almost  a  monopoly  of  the 
Dutch.  Histract  was  translated  into  German, 
and  published  in  part  xii.  of  the  '  Diarium 
Europseum,'  Frankfort,  1666,  4to;  it  was 
reissued  in  English  in  the  'Phenix'  [sic] 
1707,  vol.  i.,  in  'A  Collection  of  choice 
Tracts,'  1721,  and  in  '  A  small  Collection  of 
valuable  Tracts  relating  to  the  Herring 
Fishery,'  1761. 

Another  work  by  Keymer,  addressed  to 


James  I,  on  the  importance  of  encouraging 
manufactures  in  England  and  increasing 
commerce  by  reducing  customs,  is  extant 
in  the  Record  Office  (State  Papers,  Dom. 
James  I,  cxviii.  114).  The  latter  suggestion 
was  much  in  advance  of  the  age,  but  on 
20  Dec.  1622  Prince  Charles,  John  Williams, 
bishop  of  Lincoln  and  Buckingham,  were 
joined  with  others  in  a  commission  '  to  hear 
the  propositions  of  John  Keymer,  and  con- 
sider whether  they  will  tend  to  the  good  of 
the  King  and  the  Commonwealth,  as  is  pre- 
tended' (Cal.  State  Papers,  Dom.  1619-22, 
p.  469).  Nothing  further  seems  to  have 
been  done  in  the  matter. 

[Editions  of  Keymer's  book  in  Brit.  Mus. 
Libr.;  Cal.  State  Papers,  Dom.  1619-22;  Gen- 
tleman's Way  to  Win  Wealth,  1614  ;  Palgrave's 
Diet,  of  Political  Economy,  s.v.  '  Gentleman, 
Tobias.']  A.  F.  P. 

KING,  THOMAS  (1835-1888),  prize- 
fighter, was  born  in  Silver  Street,  Stepney, 
on  14  Aug.  1835,  and  as  a  youth  served 
before  the  mast  both  in  the  navy  and  in 
a  trading  vessel.  About  1858  he  obtained 
a  position  as  foreman  of  labourers  at  the 
Victoria  Docks.  His  courage  in  disposing 
of  a  dock  bully  known  as  '  Brighton  Bill ' 
commended  him  to  the  notice  of  the  ex- 
champion,  Jem  Ward,  who  coached  him 
with  the  gloves  at  the  George  in  Ratcliffe 
Highway.  On  27  Nov.  1860,  on  the  Kentish 
marshes,  he  met  Tommy  Truckle  of  Ports- 
mouth for  50/.  a  side,  and  defeated  him  in 
forty-nine  rounds  (sixty-two  minutes).  He 
was  now  taken  in  hand  and  trained  by  Nat 
Langham  at  the  Feathers,  Wandsworth,  for 
a  contest  with  William  Evans  ('  Young 
Broome '),  to  be  followed,  if  successful,  by  a 
fight  for  the  championship  with  Jem  Mace, 
the  finest  boxer  in  England  since  the  retire- 
ment of  Sayers.  The  betting  of  two  to  one 
on  King  was  justified  by  the  event  on  21  Oct. 
1861,  after  a  long  fight  interrupted  by  the 
police  at  the  seventeenth  round,  but  resumed 
until  the  forty-third.  The  fight  between 
the  '  Young  Sailor,'  as  King  was  called,  and 
the  '  scientific  '  Jem  Mace  of  Norwich  had 
another  issue,  King  being  outclassed  after 
displaying  the  utmost  pluck  in  a  contest  of 
sixty-eight  minutes  (28  Jan.  1862).  A  return 
match,  which  excited  much  greater  interest, 
took  place  at  Aldershot  (26  Nov.  1862).  The 
betting  was  seven  to  four  on  Mace,  who  had 
the  best  of  the  fighting,  but  was  knocked 
out  by  a  single  blow,  a  '  terrific  cross-counter 
on  the  left  cheek,'  in  the  nineteenth  round. 
In  this  battle  of  thirty-eight  minutes  King 
had  shown  himself  a  glutton  for  punishment, 
of  a  '  bottom '  and  endurance  worthy  of  the 


King 


64 


King 


best  traditions  of  the  ring.  King  now  mar- 
ried and  announced  his  intention  of  leaving 
the  ring,  thus  acquiescing  in  the  resumption 
of  the  belt  by  Mace.  But  he  was  yet  to 
champion  England  against  America  in  the 
great  fight  with  the  '  Benicia  Boy,'  John 
Camel  Heenan,  the  adversary  of  Sayers. 
The  ring  was  pitched  at  Wadhurst,  below 
Tunbridge  Wells,  at  an  early  hour  on  10  Dec. 
1863.  King  weighed  a  little  below  thirteen, 
Heenan  just  over  fourteen  stone;  both  were 
over  six  feet  in  height.  The  former  seemed 
mistrustful,  Heenan  full  of  confidence.  Bets 
of  20  to  7  were  freely  offered  on  the  Ameri- 
can, but  there  were  few  takers.  Heenan's 
game  throughout  the  early  rounds  was  to 
close  in  and  '  put  the  hug  on '  so  as  to  crush 
his  antagonist  by  dashing  him  violently  to 
the  ground.  King's  consisted  of  dealing  his 
adversary  a  series  of  sledge-hammer  blows 
on  his  nose.  Both  were  extremely  success- 
ful in  their  respective  tactics,  and  in  the 
absence  of  the  orthodox  feinting,  sparring, 
and  '  science,'  the  result  came  to  be  mainly 
a  question  of  sheer  endurance.  At  the 
eighteenth  round  the  tide  of  victory  turned  in 
King's  favour.  At  the  close  of  the  twenty- 
fourth  round,  after  nearly  forty  minutes' 
fighting,  Heenan  lay  insensible,  and  his 
seconds  threw  up  the  sponge.  Public  anxiety 
as  to  his  condition  was  allayed  by  a  medical 
report  in  the  'Times'  (12  Dec.)  Both  com- 
batants appeared  in  person  at  Wadhurst,  in 
answer  to  a  summons,  on  22  Dec.,  when  they 
were  bound  over  to  keep  the  peace,  both 
King  and  Heenan  engaging  to  fight  no  more 
in  this  country.  King,  having  won  about 
4,000£.  in  stakes  and  presents,  fulfilled  his 
promise  to  the  letter.  After  starring  the 
country  at  100/.  a  week,  he  set  up  as  a  book- 
maker and  realised  a  handsome  competence. 
He  also  invested  in  barge  property. 

In  1867  he  won  a  couple  of  sculling  races 
on  the  Thames,  but  in  later  years  was  best 
known  for  his  success  in  metropolitan  flower 
shows.  He  died  of  bronchitis  at  Clarence 
House,  Clarence  Road,  Clapham,  on  4  Oct. 
1888.  After  1863  the  vigilance  of  the  police 
confined  pugilism  in  England  more  and  more 
to  the  disreputable  and  dangerous  classes, 
and  Tom  King  is  thus  not  incorrectly  termed 
by  the  historian  of  the  English  prize-ring 
as  '  Ultimus  Romanorum.' 

[Miles's  Pugilistica,  vol.  iii.  ad  fin.  (portrait)  ; 
Pendragon's  Modern  Boxing,  1879,  pp.  43-50, 
57-78  :  Bell's  Life,  October  1861  ;  W.  E.  Hard- 
ing's  Champions  of  the  American  Prize  Ring, 
1888,  pp.  54-9  (portrait);  Times,  11-12  Dec. 
1863  ;  Bird  of  Freedom,  10  Oct.  1888  ;  Sporting 
Times,  13  March  1875;  Biase's  Modern  Bio- 
graphy, ii.  229.]  T.  S. 


KING,  THOMAS  CHISWELL  (1818- 
1893),  actor,  was  born  at  Twyning,  near 
Tewkesbury,  on  24  April  1818.  He  adopted 
his  wife's  maiden  name  of  Chiswell  in  addi- 
tion to  his  own  name  of  Thomas  King  on 
his  marriage,  which  took  place  shortly  after 
he  joined  the  theatrical  profession.  Appren- 
ticed in  his  youth  to  the  painting  and  paper- 
hanging  business  at  Cheltenham,  he  acquired 
a  taste  for  the  stage  through  acting  with 
amateurs,  and  about  1840  joined  the  com- 
pany of  Alexander  Lee,  the  ballad  composer, 
to  support  Mrs.  Harriett  Waylett  [q.  v.]  in 
one-act  dramas  and  operettas  in  Cheltenham, 
Worcester,  Warwick,  and  Leamington.  In 
1843  he  became  attached  in  a  subordinate 
capacity  to  the  Simpson-Munro  company  at 
Birmingham,  playing  on  24  Oct.  Conrade  in 
'  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,'  and  Sir  Thomas 
Fairfax  in  the '  Field  of  the  Forty  Footsteps.' 
On  16  May  1844  he  was  seen  as  Young 
Scrooge  in  the  '  Christmas  Carol '  to  the 
Fezziwig  of  his  wife. 

King  made  rapid  progress  in  his  profession , 
and  by  August  1847  was  playing  leading 
business  on  the  York  circuit  under  J.  L. 
Pritchard.  Proceeding  to  Gourlay's  Vic- 
toria Theatre,  Edinburgh,  in  June  1848,  he 
remained  there  four  months,  and  in  Novem- 
ber joined  W.  H.  Murray's  company  at  the 
Theatre  Royal  in  the  same  city  as .'  heavy 
man,'  appearing  on  the  13th  as  Sir  Richard 
WTroughton  in  the  'Jacobite.'  In  April 

1850  he  supported  Charles  Kean  during  his 
visit  to  Edinburgh,  and  was  engaged  by  him 
to  play  secondary  tragic  parts  during  the 
opening  season  of  his  management  in  Lon- 
don.    Making  his  d4but  at  the  Princess's  in 
October  1850  as  Bassanio  in  the  '  Merchant 
of  Venice,'  King  subsequently  played  the 
king  in  '  Henry  IV,  Part  I.,'  and  on  31  Jan. 

1851  was  seen  as  the  exiled  duke  when  '  As 
you  like  it '  was  performed  before  the  queen 
at  Windsor.     Late  in  the  year  he  was  en- 
gaged by  John  Harris  of  Dublin  as  leading 
actor  at  the  Theatre  Royal  there.    He  opened 
under  the  new  management  on  26  Dec.  as 
Colonel  Buckthorne  in  '  Love  in  a  Maze,' 
and  soon  became  an  abiding  favourite  with 
Dublin   playgoers.      Remaining  there  five 
seasons,  be  appeared  in  no  fewer  than  fifteen 
notable  Shakespearean  revivals,  and  as  Mac- 
beth, Master  Ford,  Hotspur,  and  Leontes, 
met  with  much  approbation.     During  1855 
he -was  in  leading  support  to  Helen  Faucit, 
Samuel  Phelps,  and  Miss  Glyn  during  their 
visits  to  Dublin.     In  March  1856  he  seceded 
abruptly  from  the  Theatre  Royal,  and  on 
14  April  began  a  three  weeks'  engagement 
at  the  Queen's  in  the  same  city  in '  Hamlet.' 
Opening  at  Birmingham  on  20  Oct.,  in  con- 


King 


Kingsford 


junction  with  Miss  Glyn,  King  remained 
there  after  her  departure,  and  on  18  Nov. 
played  Colonna  in  '  Evadne.'  On  3  Dec.  he 
was  seen  as  John  Mildmay  in  '  Still  Waters 
run  deep,'  and  as  Quasimodo  in  '  Esme- 
ralda.'  On  6  July  1857  he  made  his  first 
appearance  in  Manchester,  in  association 
with  Miss  Marriott  and  Robert  Roxby 
[q.v.]  Returning  to  Birmingham  on  26  Sept. 
as  Hamlet,  he  appeared  there  on  the  27th 
as  Mephistopheles  in  Boucicault's  version  of 
'  Faust  and  Marguerite,'  which  was  played 
for  forty-eight  nights  at  a  profit  of  2,0001. 

During  1859  King  fulfilled  several  engage- 
ments at  the  Queen's  Theatre,  Dublin.  On 
16  April  he  played  there  Serjeant  Austerlitz 
in  '  Theresa's  Vow,'  to  the  Theresa  of  his 
daughter  Bessie.  On  26  July  he  was  seen 
as  Martin  Hey  wood  in  the  '  Rent  Day,'  and 
on  14  Dec.  as  Estevan  in  the  'Broken 
Sword.'  On  30  April  1860  he  began  an 
important  engagement  at  the  City  of  Lon- 
don Theatre  as  Hamlet,  returning  thither  in 
December.  On  24  Sept.  intervening  he  re- 
turned to  the  Queen's  at  Dublin  as  Ruthven 
in  the  '  Vampire.' 

From  1861  to  1868  King's  record  was  one 
of  splendid  strolling.  On  15  March  1869  he 
was  given  a  trial  engagement  at  Drury  Lane 
by  F.  C.  Chatterton,  opening  there  as  Riche- 
lieu to  the  Julie  de  Mortemar  of  his  daugh- 
ter Bessie,  who  then  made  her  London 
debut.  He  was  favourably  received,  and 
subsequently  played  Hamlet,  Julian  St. 
Pierre,  and  William  in  '  Black-eyed  Susan,' 
besides  alternating  Othello  and  lago  with 
Charles  Dillon.  At  the  same  house  on 
24  Sept.  1870  King  was  the  original  Varney 
in  the  '  Amy  Robsart '  of  Andrew  Halliday. 
In  the  Easter  of  1871  his  services  were 
transferred  to  the  Adelphi  at  a  salary  of 
30/.  per  week.  There  he  originated  the  role 
of  Quasimodo  in  Andrew  Halliday's  ver- 
sion of  '  Notre  Dame,'  which  ran  uninter- 
ruptedly to  November,  and  was  revived  at 
Christmas. 

In  June  1873  King  fulfilled  an  engage- 
ment at  the  Marylebone,  and  on  11  Sept. 
made  his  American  debut  at  the  Lyceum 
Theatre,  New  York,  as  Quasimodo.  The 
play  did  not  repeat  its  Adelphi  success, 
although  it  was  performed  for  six  weeks. 
On  27  Oct.  King  played  Othello,  after  which 
the  Lyceum  closed  abruptly.  It  reopened 
in  November  with  Italian  opera,  and  on  the 
7th  'Notre  Dame'  was  revived  for  four 
nights.  Afterwards  King  made  a  successful 
tour  of  Canada,  exclusively  in  Shakespearean 
plays,  and  returned  to  the  Lyceum  Theatre, 
New  York,  on  3  March  1874. 

From  1878  to  1880  King  was  lessee  of 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


the  Worcester  theatre,  an  unprofitable  specu- 
lation. In  1883  he  made  a  short  provincial 
tour  under  Mr.  J.  Pitt  Hardacre's  manage- 
ment, but  he  had  outlived  his  popularity 
and  the  vogue  of  his  school.  Later  appear- 
1  ances  were  infrequent,  but  in  July  1890  he 
performed  for  six  nights  to  good  houses  at 
the  Queen's  Theatre,  Manchester,  and  was 
much  admired  as  Ingomar,  one  of  his  most 
characteristic  impersonations.  Retiring 
finally  to  King's  Heath,  he  died  there  on 
21  Oct.  1893,  and  was  buried  at  Claines, 
near  Worcester.  He  had  a  son  and  two 
daughters,  all  of  whom  took  to  the  stage. 
His  elder  daughter,  Miss  Bessie  King,  sur- 
vives him. 

A  sound  tragedian  of  the  second  order, 
T.  C.  King  was  the  last  exponent  of  a  school 
which  subordinated  intelligence  to  precept 
and  tradition.  Physically  he  was  well 
equipped,  having  a  tall  and  shapely  figure, 
with  dark  expressive  features  and  well-set 
eyes ;  and  his  rich  bass  voice  was  flexible 
and  resonant.  A  temperate  graceful  actor, 
he  had  more  individuality  and  fewer  vices 
of  style  than  most  conventional  tragedians. 
In  London  he  never  established  his  hold, 
but  in  one  or  two  large  provincial  centres, 
notably  Dublin  and  Birmingham,  his  follow- 
ing was  large  and  affectionate. 

[Many  errors  of  detail  common  to  all  the 
biographical  accounts  of  T.  C.  King  are  here 
corrected,  thanks  to  authentic  information 
kindly  placed  at  the  writer's  disposal  by  the 
actor's  nephew,  Mr.  Henry  King  of  St.  Leonards- 
on-Sea.  Data  have  also  been  derived  from  Dib- 
din's  Annals  of  the  Edinburgh  Stage ;  Pascoe's 
Dramatic  List ;  Levey  and  O'Rorke's  Annals  of 
the  Theatre  Royal,  Dublin ;  Cole's  Life  of 
Charles  Kean ;  Michael  Williams's  London 
Theatres,  Past  and  Present ;  Birmingham  Faces 
and  Places,  vol.  v.  No.  12  ;  local  playbills  in  the 
Birmingham  Free  Library;  Freeman's  Journal.] 

W.  J.  L. 

KINGSFORD,  WILLIAM  (1819-1898), 
historian  of  Canada,  born  on  23  Dec.  1819 
in  the  parish  of  St.  Lawrence  Jewry,  Lon- 
don, was  the  son  of  William  and  Elizabeth 
Kingsford  of  Lad  Lane.  Educated  at 
Wanostrocht's  well-known  school  in  Cam- 
berwell  [see  WANOSTBOCHT,  NICHOLAS],  he 
was  articled  at  an  early  age  to  an  architect, 
but,  finding  the  office  uncongenial,  enlisted 
in  the  1st  dragoon  guards  in  his  seventeenth 
year.  He  went  with  his  regiment  to  Canada 
in  1837,  became  sergeant,  and  in  1840, 
through  the  influence  of  his  friends  at  home, 
obtained  his  discharge,  much  to  the  regret  of 
the  colonel,  Sir  George  Cathcart  [q.v.J,  who 
offered  to  procure  a  commission  for  him. 
On  the  death  of  that  officer  in  the  Crimea, 


Kingsford 


66 


Kingsford 


Kingsford  wrote  a  touching  tribute  to  his 
memory,  which  appears  in  Lady  Cathcart's 
life  of  her  husband. 

Entering  the  office  of  the  city  surveyor  of 
Montreal  in  1841,  he  qualified  in  due  course 
as  civil  engineer,  and  obtained  the  position 
of  deputy  city  surveyor,  a  post  which  he 
held  for  three  years.  He  resigned  this  situa- 
tion to  begin  the  publication  of  the  Montreal 
'  Times,'  in  company  with  Murdo  Mclver. 
Two  years  later  he  returned  to  his  profession, 
entered  the  public  works  department,  and 
among  other  undertakings  made  a  new  sur- 
vey of  the  Lachine  canal.  In  1849  he  was 
engaged  in  the  construction  of  the  Hudson 
River  railroad  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and 
in  1851  proceeded  to  Panama  as  assistant 
engineer  to  ,T.  J.  Campbell,  who  was  then 
building  the  isthmus  railway.  Returning  to 
Canada  in  1853,  he  surveyed  for  the  Grand 
Trunk  the  tracks  from  Montreal  to  Vaudreuil, 
from  Montreal  to  Cornwall,  from  Brockville 
to  Rideau,  and,  under  A.  M.  Ross,  who  had 
the  construction  of  the  work  in  charge,  laid 
down  the  lines  of  the  present  Victoria  Bridge. 
He  was  chief  engineer  of  the  city  of  Toronto 
for  a  few  months  during  1855,  but  resigned 
to  re-enter  the  service  of  the  Grand  Trunk, 
in  whose  employment  he  remained  till  1 864. 
He  acted  at  first  as  superintendent  of  the 
line  east  from  Toronto,  and  afterwards  as 
contractor  to  maintain  the  section  that  runs 
from  that  city  westward  to  Stratford.  He 
came  to  England  in  1865,  made  one  or  two 
general  surveys  on  the  continent  for  English 
firms,  and  reported  to  Thomas  Brassey  [q.  v.] 
on  the  railway  possibilities  of  the  island  of 
Sardinia. 

In  1867,  at  the  instance  of  English  capi- 
talists who  looked  forward  to  the  building 
of  the  Canadian  intercolonial  railway — one 
of  the  conditions  of  the  new  federation — 
Kingsford  went  once  more  to  Canada,  where 
he  remained  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  As 
the  dominion  resolved  to  build  the  line  as 
a  government  work,  he  was  disappointed  in 
his  immediate  expectations,  but  soon  ob- 
tained employment,  which  included  the  en- 
largement of  the  Grenville  canal  and  the 
draining  of  the  township  of  Russell  in  On- 
tario. The  last-mentioned  work  caused  him 
to  fix  his  permanent  residence  in  Ottawa. 
When  the  Mackenzie  government  came  into 
power  in  1872  Kingsford  was  appointed 
dominion  engineer  in  charge  of  the  harbours 
of  the  great  lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 
He  continued  in  this  post  till  31  Dec.  1879, 
when  he  was  cashiered  by  Sir  Hector  Lan- 
gevin,  who  had  become  minister  of  public 
works  in  the  second  Macdonald  administra- 
tion. 


The  dismissal  of  so  important  a  civil  ser- 
vant in  so  summary  a  fashion  gave  rise  to 
hostile  comment  at  the  time  as  an  act  of  ex- 
treme partisanship,  and  was  brought  to  the 
notice  of  the  Canadian  House  of  Commons. 
The  minister  defended  himself  by  saying 
that,  having  made  certain  changes  in  the 
working  of  his  department,  the  services  of  a 
special  engineer  in  charge  of  harbours  was  no 
longer  necessary.  Kingsford  published  the 
correspondence  and  proceedings  in  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  '  Mr.  Kingsford  and  Sir  Hec- 
tor Langevin'  (1882).  There  seems  no  doubt 
that  Kingsford  was  unfairly  treated. 

Thus  rudely  cast  on  the  world  at  the  age 
of  sixty,  Kingsford  began  the  great  work  of 
his  life,  the  history  of  his  adopted  country. 
He  was  well  prepared  for  the  task.  Besides 
his  own  language  he  was  master  of  French, 
German,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  He  had 
already  contributed  largely  to  the  press,  and 
put  forth  a  number  of  substantial  pamphlets : 
The  History,  Structure,  and  Statistics  of 
Plank-roads,'  1852 ;  '  Impressions  of  the 
West  and  South,'  1858;  'The  Canadian 
Canals :  their  History  and  Cost,'  1865,  a 
work  supplemented  later  by  articles  in  the 
'  Monetary  Times,'  Toronto ;  and  a  mono- 
graph on  Canadian  history  entitled  '  A  Po- 
litical Coin.'  His  professional  engagements 
gave  him  a  full  knowledge  of  Canadian 
topography,  while  his  early  experience  in  the 
army,  supplemented  by  assiduous  reading, 
enabled  him  to  comprehend  a  military  situa- 
tion. Kingsford  set  himself  in  1880  to  the 
serious  study  of  the  archives  of  Canada, 
which  were  collected  at  Ottawa,  and  he  con- 
tinued the  work  almost  without  intermission 
for  the  next  seventeen  years 

The  firstfruits  of  his  labour,  '  Canadian 
Archaeology,'  appeared  in  1886,  and  was 
soon  followed  by  the  '  Early  Bibliography 
of  Ontario.'  He  published  the  first  volume 
of  the  •'  History  of  Canada '  in  1887.  The 
tenth  volume,  which  concludes  his  task  and 
brings  the  narrative  of  events  to  the  union 
of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  (1841),  was 
printed  in  1898,  the  preface  being  dated 
24  May.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  work  j  ustifies 
Kingsford's  anticipations  and  the  warm  re- 
ception it  received  in  England  and  Canada. 
It  is  the  fullest  and  fairest  presentation  of 
Canadian  experience  that  has  been  given  to 
the  world.  Queen's  University  at  Kingston 
and  Dalhousie  in  Nova  Scotia  signified  their 
appreciation  of  his  labours  by  conferring  on 
him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  McGill  University 
gave  his  name  to  a  recently  endowed  chair 
of  history. 

Kingsford  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Canada,  to  which  he  contributed 


Kingsley 


Kingsley 


several  papers,  and  a  member  of  the  Cana- 
dian Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  He  sur- 
vived the  completion  of  his  history  only  a 
few  months,  and  died  on  28  Sept.  1898. 

In  1848  he  married  Maria  Margaret, 
daughter  of  William  Burns  Lindsay,  clerk 
of  the  legislative  assembly  of  the  province 
of  Canada.  Queen  Victoria  bestowed  on  his 
widow  a  civil  list  pension  of  100Z.  in  recog- 
nition of  his  services. 

[Morgan's  Can.  Men  and  Women  of  the  Time, 
p.  539;  Canadian  Magazine,  January  1899; 
Canadian  Gazette,  London,  6  July  1899  ;  Cana- 
dian Sessional  Papers,  Supplementary  Report  on 
Public  Works,  1890,  p.  23;  Wrongs  Toronto 
Univ.  .Studies,  ;.  10,  ii.  18;  Bourinot's  Biblio- 
graphy, Roy.  Soc.  Canada,  p.  47 ;  Toronto 
Globe,  29  Sept.  1898  ;  Parish  Register,  St.  Law- 
rence Jewrv.  E.C. ;  private  information.] 

T.  B.  B. 

KINGSLEY,     MARY     HENRIETTA 
(1862-1900),  traveller  and  writer,  born  in  i 
Islington  on  13  Oct.  1862,   was   the  only 
daughter  and  eldest   child   of  Dr.    George  ' 
Henry  Kingsley  [q.  v.]  by  his  wife,  Mary  : 
Bailey.     Charles  Kingsley  [q.  v.]  and  Henry  ; 
Kingsley  [q.  v.]  were  her  father's  brothers,  i 
Her  parents  removed  to  Highgate  in  1863, 
soon  after  her  birth,  and  there  she  passed 
her  first  sixteen  years.     She  had  a  somewhat  | 
irregular  home-training,  among  books,  quiet  j 
domestic  duties,  the  care  of  numerous  pet  | 
animals  and  a  rambling  garden,  duties  and 
interests  which  stayed  by  her  through  life.  ' 
She  was  not  sent  to  school  or  college,  but 
read  omnivorously,  and  in  truth  had  a  world 
of  her  own  amid  the  old  books  of  travel, 
natural  history,  or  alchemy,works  on  science, 
country  sport,   and    literature,   which    she 
found  on  her  father's  shelves.     The  family 
led  a  retired  life,  and  Mary  grew  up  a  shy, 
rather  silent  girl,  disliking  social  gatherings 
but  eagerly  benefiting  by  intercourse  with  a 
sympathetic  friend  or  a  scientific  neighbour. 
Her   father  was    an   enthusiastic   traveller 
with  keen   scientific   interests.     These  his 
daughter  fully  shared.      She  was  fond   of 
natural   history,   especially  of  her  father's 
favourite  study   of  fishes  and  their  ways. 
She  learned  German,  but  not  French,  which 
later  she  regretted. 

In  1879  the  household  removed  to  Bexley 
in  Kent ;  here  she  experimented  in  mechanics, 
studied  chemistry,  and,  through  friendship 
with  Cromwell  Fleetwood  Varley  [q.  v.], 
dived  into  electricity.  With  an  increasing 
zest  for  scientific  studies  she  took  up  ethno- 
graphy and  anthropology.  In  the  spring  of 
1886  another  move  was  made  to  Cambridge, 
where  her  brother  was  j  ust  entered  at  Christ's 
College.  This  change  had  a  great  effect  upon 


her,  besides  improving  her  health,  which  had 
been  somewhat  delicate.     In  the  society  of 
cultivated  men  and  women,  congenial  to  her 
father  and  herself,  she  gained  confidence  in 
her  own  powers,  winning  friends  and  appre- 
ciation for  her  own  sake.     About  the  spring 
of  1888  a  friend  took  her  to  Paris  for  a  week 
— her  first  taste  of  foreign  travel.     During 
the  four  years  that  followed  she  devoted  her- 
self with  tender  capability  to  nursing  her 
mother,  who  had  been  attacked  by  serious 
illness,  and  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
period  she  also  had  the  care  of  her  father, 
who  had  returned  home  broken  in  health 
after  rheumatic  fever.     Dr.  Kingsley  died  in 
February  1892,  and  his  wife  in  April.     The 
heavy  sense  of  responsibility  which  had  na- 
turaly  weighed   upon    Mary  Kingsley  was 
lightened,  and  after  a  trip  to  the  Canaries  in 
the  late  spring  she  came  back  restored  in 
health  and  tone,  with  a  mind  full  of  new 
possibilities  awakened  by  the  incidents  of 
her  voyage.     Removing  with  her  brother  to 
Addison  Road,  London,  filled  by  the  heredi- 
tary passion  for  travel,  she  renounced  an  in- 
tention  of  studying   medicine  in  order  to 
pursue  the   study,  which   she   had  already 
begun  with  her  father,  of  early  religion  and 
law.    She  was  resolved  personally  to  investi- 
;  gate  the  subject  in  uncivilised  countries ;  she 
i  had  formerly  thought  of  going  to  India  for 
j  the  purpose,  but  instead  she  now  prepared 
I  for  a  voyage  to  tropical  West  Africa.     Her 
•  friends,  Dr.  Guillemard  of  Cambridge  and 
Dr.  Giinther   of  the  British   Museum,  en- 
i  couraged  her  to  collect  beetles  and  fresh- 
,  water  fishes ;  she  read  Monteiro  and  other 
i  books  on  the  West  Coast ;  and,  with  a  few 
introductions  to  Portuguese   colonists  and 
others,  she,  happy  in  the  sense  of  freedom, 
started  alone  in  August  1893.     She  sailed 
down  the  coast  to  St.  Paul  de  Loanda,  made 
her  way  thence  by  land  to  Ambriz,  across 
many  parts  hitherto  untravelled  by  Euro- 
peans, through  great  difficulties  of  swamp, 
bush,  and  river   while   gathering   her  col- 
lections.  She  also  visited  duringthis  journey 
Kabinda  and  Matadi  on  the  Congo  river; 
and,  returning  by  way  of  Old  Calabar,  reached 
England  in   January  1894.      On  this  first 
journey  she  gained  some  acquaintance  with 
the  customs  and  fetish  (i.e.  religion)  of  the 
Fjort  tribes  in  the  old  kingdom  of  Congo, 
which  she  afterwards  utilised  in  an  intro- 
duction to  Mr.  R.  Dennet's  « Folk  Lore  of 
the  Fjort '(1898). 

The  collections  which  she  brought  home 
were  of  value  to  naturalists ;  and  the  voyage 
had  been  a  foretaste  of  what  she  might  do 
with  more  definite  aims  and  a  better  know- 
ledge of  how  to  attain  them.  During  1894 

p  2 


Kihgsley 


68 


Kingsley 


she  made  good  use  of  her  opportunities 
among  her  old  friends  and  new,  in  preparing 
to  start  afresh.  Having  received  a  collec- 
tor's equipment  from  the  British  Museum, 
she  sailed  from  Liverpool  on  23  Dec.  1894 
for  Old  Calahar,  touching  on  the  way  thither 
at  Sierra  Leone,  Cape  Coast  Castle,  and 
Accra.  Mary  Kingsley  stayed  nearly  two 
months  at  Old  Calabar,  where  she  was  most 
hospitably  entertained  by  Sir  Claude  and 
Lady  Macdonald,  and  made  many  excursions 
in  the  neighbourhood.  She  then  went  south 
to  Congo  Francais  and  ascended  the  Ogow6 
river,  passing,  at  the  risk  of  her  life,  through 
the  dangerous  rapids  above  N'Ojele  ;  and 
subsequently  made  a  very  adventurous  and 
dangerous  journey  through  a  part  of  the  Fan 
country  which  had  never  been  explored 
before,  from  Lambarene  on  the  Ogow6  river 
to  Agonjo  on  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Rembwe  river,  passing  on  her  way  the 
beautiful  and  almost  unknown  Lake  Ncovi. 
Afterwards  she  visited  the  island  of  Corisco, 
where  she  obtained  some  valuable  zoological 
specimens ;  and  the  last,  but  not  the  least, 
feat  of  this  memorable  journey  was  the 
ascent  of  Mungo  Mah  Lobeh,  the  great 
Cameroon,  a  mountain  13,760  feet  high. 
During  this  expedition  she  won  the  affection 
and  respect  of  natives  all  down  the  coast  by 
the  interest  she  took  in  their  welfare  and 
their  affairs ;  and  German  and  French 
officials,  and  missionaries,  traders,  and  sea- 
captains  everywhere  became  her  friends  and 
admiring  helpers.  In  order  to  pay  her  way 
(for  which  her  slender  resources  did  not 
suffice)  she  had  learnt  to  trade  with  rubber 
and  oil,  and  the  knowledge  thus  acquired 
became  of  great  importance  to  the  West 
African  merchants  in  this  country.  She 
brought  home  a  collection,  reported  on  by 
Dr.  Giinther,  consisting  of  insects,  shells, 
and  plants,  eighteen  species  of  reptiles,  and 
sixty-five  species  of  fishes,  of  which  three 
were  entirely  new  and  were  named  after  her. 
Careful  notes  and  observations  made  on  the 
spot  were  afterwards  used  as  the  foundation 
of  her  writings  and  lectures. 

She  landed  again  in  England  on  30  Nov. 
1895,  and  work  soon  began  to  pour  in  upon 
her.  She  set  herself  resolutely  to  acquire  a 
power  of  exposition,  both  as  a  writer  and 
speaker,  and  in  this  endeavour  met  with  great 
success.  Duringl896  she  was  writing 'Travels 
in  West  Africa'  (1897),  which  combined  a 
narrative  of  both  her  journeys.  Her  fresh 
style  bubbled  over  with  humour.  In  February 
and  March  she  read  papers  before  the  Scot- 
tish and  Liverpool  Geographical  Societies, 
magazine  articles  followed,  and  on  19  Nov 
she  gave  her  first  lecture  at  the  London 


School  of  Medicine  for  Women  on  'African 
Therapeutics  from  a  Witch  Doctor's  point 
of  view.'  During  the  next  two  years  she 
lectured  on  West  Africa  all  over  the 
country,  speaking  to  various  audiences, 
associations  of  nurses,  pupil-teachers,  and 
working  men,  as  well  as  to  scientific  so- 
cieties, academic  gatherings,  and  to  both 
the  Liverpool  and  the  Manchester  chambers 
of  commerce.  She  freely  gave  her  services 
for  charitable  purposes.  Her  great  desire 
was  that  Englishmen  should  know  the  con- 
ditions of  life  and  government  in  their  West 
African  colonies,  insisting  that  justice 
should  be  done  to  native  and  white  man 
alike.  One  of  her  last  public  utterances  was 
at  the  Imperial  Institute  on  12  Feb.  1900. 
Meanwhile  she  was  still  writing  assiduously ; 
in  February  1899  appeared  '  West  African 
Studies,'  containing  some  matter  already 
published  and  essays  showing  her  matured 
views  on  several  important  subjects.  A 
second  edition  of  this  book  appeared  in  1901, 
with  an  introduction  by  Mr.  George  Mac- 
millan.  A  small  volume,  'The  Story  of  West 
Africa'  (H.  Marshall's  Empire  Series),  begun 
in  1897,  came  out  in  1899 ;  and  her  last  book 
was  a  sympathetic  memoir  of  her  father  pre- 
fixed to  his  '  Notes  on  Sport  and  Travel ' 
(January  1900). 

Her  health  suffered  under  the  strain  of 
work  and  London  life,  and  she  longed  to  get 
away.  The  war  of  1899  with  the  Boer  re- 
publics turned  her  thoughts  to  South  Africa, 
whence  she  hoped  she  might  return  to  her 
own  west  coast.  She  sailed  on  11  March  1900, 
reaching  Cape  Town  on  the  28th.  Offering 
her  services  to  the  authorities,  she  was  sent 
to  the  Simon's  Town  Palace  Hospital  to 
nurse  sick  Boer  prisoners ;  but  overwork, 
heroically  and  ably  performed,  brought  on 
enteric  fever,  from  which  she  died  on  3  June 
1900.  By  her  long-cherished  desire  she  was 
buried  at  sea.  The  coffin  was  conveyed 
from  Simon's  Town  harbour  on  a  torpedo 
boat ;  the  honours  of  a  combined  naval  and 
military  funeral  were  accorded  her.  The 
feeling  expressed  at  this  sudden,  and  as  it 
appeared  to  many  unnecessary,  loss  of  a 
valuable  life  was  universal  wherever  she  had 
been  known,  at  Cape  Town,  on  the  West 
Coast,  and  in  England.  Memorials  to  her 
memory  were  immediately  set  on  foot  at 
Cape  Town,  at  Liverpool,  where  a  hospital 
bearing  her  name  is  to  be  erected;  while 
other  friends  in  England  and  West  Africa 
hope  to  carry  on  her  work,  which  has  had 
an  important  influence  for  good  on  West 
African  affairs,  by  the  establishment  of  a 
Mary  Kingsley  West  Africa  Society,  for  in- 
quiry into  native  custom  and  law,  and  for 


Kirkes 


69     Knatchbull-Hugessen 


the  mutual  enlightenment  of  the  black  and 
white  man. 

Although  of  daring  and  masculine  courage, 
loving  the  sea  and  outdoor  life,  Miss  Kings- 
ley  was   full  of  womanly  tenderness,  sym- 
pathy, and  modesty,  entirely  without  false 
shame.    Her  genius  was  able,  wise,  and  in- 
tellectually far-seeing ;    and,  though  some-  ' 
times   wrong,  she   dealt  with  great   issues 
from  the  insight  of  a  sincere  and  generous 
mind.     Her  tine  square  brow  was  her  chief  i 
beauty,  and   she  exercised  remarkable  per- 
sonal attraction,  heightened  by  her  brilliant  i 
conversation   and   her  keen   sense  of  (ever  ; 
kindly)  humour.      Portraits  exist  of  her  in 
photograph  only  ;    one,  a   profile,  taken  at 
Cambridge  in    1893,  the  other,  nearly  full 
face,  taken  in  London  about  the  middle  of  ; 
1896. 

Mary  Kingsley  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Anthropological  Society  in  June  1898. 
Among  her  principal  lectures  and  writings 
besides  those  named  above  are  '  The  Fetish 
View  of  the  Human  Soul,'  '  Folk  Lore,'  vol. 
viii.    June   1897;     'African    Religion    and 
Law'  (Hibbert  lecture  at  Oxford),  'National 
Review,'  September  1897 ;  '  The   Law  and  j 
Nature  of  Property  among  the  Peoples  of 
the  true  Negro  Stock,'  delivered  at  the  Bri- 
tish  Association  (Bristol),  September  1898 : 
'  The  Forms  of  Apparitions  in  West  Africa,'  j 
'  Journal  of  the  Psychical  Research  Society,'  j 
July  1899  (vol.  xiv.);  'Administration  of 
our  West  African  Colonies,'  an  important  i 
address  to  the  Manchester  chamber  of  com-  j 
merce,  printed  in  their  'Monthly  Record,' 
30   March   1899;    'West   Africa  from   an 
Ethnological  Point  of  View,'  '  Imperial  In- 
stitute Journal,'  April  1900.    '  The  Develop- 
ment of  Dodos,' '  National  Review,'  March 
1896,  and  '  Liquor  Traffic  with  West  Africa,'  ; 
'  Fortnightly,'  April  1898,  dealt  with  a  con-  | 
troversy  on  liquor  and  missionaries.     Four  i 
articles   on   '  West   African    Property '  ap- 
peared in  the  '  Morning  Post'  in  July  1898,  ! 
and  three  or  four  letters  were  published  in  j 
the  'Spectator'  in  1897,  1898,  and  1900.  • 
4  Gardening  '  and  '  Nursing  '  in  West  Africa  j 
are  articles  in  '  Climate,'  April,  and  '  Cham-  j 
bers's  Journal,'  June  1900. 

[Personal  knowledge  and  private  letters  ;  Me- 
moir of  Dr.  Geo.  Kingsley  by  his  daughter,  1900 ; 
chapter  of  autobiography  by  Mary  H.  Kingsley 
in  T.  P.  O'Connors  M.A.P.,  20  May  1899.] 

L.  T.  S. 

KIRKES,  WILLIAM  SENHOUSE 
(1823-1864),  physician,  was  born  in  1823  at 
Holker  in  North  Lancashire.  After  educa- 
tion at  the  grammar  school  of  Cartmel  he 
was,  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  apprenticed  to  a 
partnership  of  surgeons  in  Lancaster,  and 


went  thence  to  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital, 
London,  in  1841.  He  was  distinguished  in 
the  school  examinations,  and  in  1846  gra- 
duated M.D.  at  Berlin.  In  1855  he  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  of  London,  and  delivered  the 
Gulstonian  lectures  there  in  1856.  Sir  James 
Paget  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  was  then  warden  of  the 
college  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  and  in 
1848  he  and  Kirkes  published  a  '  Handbook 
of  Physiology,'  which  soon  became  popular 
among  students  of  medicine.  A  second 
edition  appeared  in  1851,  and  further  editions 
by  Kirkes  alone  in  1856,  1860,  and  1863. 
In  1867, 1869, 1872,andl876  further  editions 
by  William  Morrant  Baker  appeared.  Vin- 
cent Dormer  Harris  was  next  joined  with 
Baker  in  several  editions,  and  then  edited 
the  book  himself,  with  the  assistance  of 
Mr.  D'Arcy  Power.  John  Murray,  the  pub- 
lisher, to  whom  it  was  a  valuable  property, 
next  employed  William  Dobbinson  Halli- 
burton, under  whose  care  no  part  of  the 
original  work  of  Kirkes,  except  his  name  on 
the  outside  cover,  remained,  and  in  this 
form  the  book  goes  through  almost  annual 
editions,  and  is  still  the  most  popular  text- 
book of  physiology  for  medical  students. 
Kirkes  was  appointed  demonstrator  of  mor- 
bid anatomy  to  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital 
in  1848,  and  in  1854  defeated  Dr.  John 
William  Hue  in  a  contest  for  the  office  of 
assistant  physician.  He  became  lecturer  on 
botany,  and  then  on  medicine,  and  in  1864, 
when  Sir  George  Burrows  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  re- 
signed, he  was  elected  physician  to  the  hos- 
pital. He  died  at  his  house  in  Lower 
Seymour  Street  of  double  pneumonia  with 
pericarditis  after  five  days'  illness  on  8  Dec. 
1864  (Gent.  Mag.  1865,  i.  124).  His  most 
original  work  is  a  paper  in  the  '  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society 
of  London '  (xxxv.  281 )  on '  Embolism,  or  the 
carrying  of  blood-clots  from  the  heart  to  re- 
mote parts  of  the  body,'  a  pathological  pro- 
cess then  just  beginning  to  be  recognised. 

[Memoir  in  British  Medical  Journal,  24  Dec. 
1864 ;  MS.  Records  at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hos- 
pital ;  Works ;  Boase's  Modern  English  Biogr.] 

N.  M. 

KNATCHBULL-HUGESSEN,  ED- 
WARD HUGESSEN,  first  BARON  BBA- 
BOVENE  (1829-1893),  was  eldest  son,  by  the 
second  wife,  of  Sir  Edward  Knatchbull, 
ninth  baronet  [q.v.],  of  Mersham  Hatch,  Kent, 
where  he  was  born  on  29  April  1829.  His 
mother,  a  niece  of  Jane  Austen,  was  a 
daughter  of  Edward  Knight  of  Godmersham 
Park,  Kent,  and  of  Chawton  House,  Hamp- 
shire. Knatchbull  went  to  Eton  in  1844, 
and  matriculated  at  Magdalen  College,  Ox- 


Knatchbull-Hugessen    7° 


Knibb 


ford,  on  9  July  1847.  He  graduated  B.A. 
in  1851,  and  proceeded  M.A.  in  1854.  His 
father  died  on  24  May  1849,  and  stated  in 
his  will  his  desire  that  his  son  should  add  to 
his  surname  the  name  Hugessen,  after  the 
testator's  mother,  Mary,  daughter  and  co- 
heiress of  William  Western  Hugessen  of 
Provender,  Kent.  This  was  done  by  royal 
license. 

At  the  general  election  of  1857  Knatch- 
bull-Hugessen was  elected  a  member  for 
Sandwich,  in  the  liberal  interest,  having 
Lord  Clarence  Paget  for  a  colleague.  His 
maiden  speech  in  the  House  of  Commons 
was  made  on  21  April  1858  in  support  of  the 
abolition  of  church  rates.  When  Palmer- 
ston,  on  30  June  1859,  formed  his  second  ad- 
ministration he  included  Knatchbull-Huges- 
sen  in  it  as  a  lord  of  the  treasury.  This 
office  he  filled  till  1866,  with  the  exception 
of  two  months  in  1860,  when  he  was  under- 
secretary for  the  home  office.  In  Glad- 
stone's first  administration,  formed  on  9  Dec. 
1868,  Knatchbull-Hugessen  returned  to  the 
under-secretaryship  for  the  home  office.  In 
1871  he  became  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies.  On  24  March  1873  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  privy  councillor.  He  left  office 
when  Gladstone  resigned  on  13  Feb.  1874. 
He  was  not  included  in  Gladstone's  second 
administration,  which  was  formed  on  28  April 
1880,  but  on  24  March  in  that  year  he  was 
gazetted  a  peer,  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Brabourne  of  Brabourne  in  the  county  of 
Kent.  After  he  entered  the  House  of  Lords 
his  political  views  entirely  changed,  and  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Carlton  Club. 

He  filled  the  offices  of  chairman  of  the 
East  Kent  quarter  sessions  and  deputy- 
chairman  of  the  South-Eastern  Railway.  He 
died  on  6  Feb.  1893  at  Smeeth  Paddocks, 
and  was  buried  at  Smeeth,  Kent,  three  days 
later.  He  was  twice  married :  first,  on 
19  Oct.  1852,  at  St.  Stephen's,  Hertfordshire, 
to  Anna  Maria  Elizabeth,  younger  daughter 
of  the  Rev.  Marcus  Richard  Southwell, 
vicar  of  that  church,  by  whom  he  had  two 
sons  and  two  daughters ;  and,  secondly,  on 
3  June  1890,  at  Maxwelton  chapel,  Glen- 
cairn,  to  Ethel  Mary,  third  daughter  of 
Colonel  Walker  of  Crawfordton,  Dumfries- 
shire, by  whom  he  had  two  daughters. 

Before  and  after  his  elevation  to  the 
peerage  Brabourne  was  an  industrious  man 
of  letters,  being  chiefly  known  as  author  of 
numerous  stories  for  children,  but  in  these 
capacities  failed  to  distinguish  himself.  He 
was  also  a  book  collector.  His  library, 
which  was  sold  by  auction  in  May  1892, 
'  abounded  in  topographical  works,  scarcely 
any  English  county  being  unrepresented,' 


and  the  sum  realised  was  over  2,OOOZ. 
(Atheneeum,  Nos.  3317  and  3353).  After 
the  death  of  his  mother  on  24  Dec.  1882,  in 
her  ninetieth  year,  Brabourne  became  pos- 
sessor of  ninety-four  letters  written  by  his 
great-aunt,  Jane  Austen,  to  her  elder  sister, 
Cassandra.  At  the  close  of  1884  he  published 
these  letters  in  two  volumes,  with  introduc- 
tory and  critical  remarks,  which  were  mainly 
notable  for  their  diffuse  irrelevance. 

Brabourne's  story  books,  which  pleased 
the  uncritical  readers  for  whom  they  were 
produced,  were  entitled :  1.  '  Stories  for  my 
Children,'  1869.  2.  'Crackers  for  Christ- 
mas :  more  Stories,'  1870.  3.  '  Moonshine: 
Fairy  Stories,'  1871.  4.  '  Tales  at  Teatime: 
Fairy  Stories,'  1872.  5.  'Queer  Folk: 
Seven  Stories,'  1873.  6.  '  River  Legends  ; 
or,  Father  Thames  and  Father  Rhine,'  1874. 
7.  'Whispers  from  Fairy-Land,'  1874. 
8. '  Higgledy-Piggledy ;  or,  Stories  for  Every- 
body and  Everybody's  Children,'  187-">. 
9.  '  Uncle  Joe's  Stories,'  1878.  10.  <  Other 
Stories,' 1879.  11.  'The  Mountain  Sprite's 
Kingdom,  and  other  Stories,'  1880.  12.  '  Fer- 
dinand's Adventure,  and  other  Stories.' 
13.  '  Friends  and  Foes  from  Fairy-Land,' 
1885.  He  also  published,  in  1877,  'The 
Life,  Times,  and  Character  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well :  a  Lecture,'  and,  in  1886, '  Facts  and 
Fictions  in  Irish  History:  a  Reply  to  Mr. 
Gladstone.' 

[Times  and  Annual  Register  for  1893;  pre- 
face to  Letters  of  Jane  Austen.]  F.  R. 

KNIBB,  WILLIAM  (1803-1845),  mis- 
sionary and  abolitionist,  third  son  of  Thomas 
and  Mary  (born  Dexter)  Knibb,  was  born  at 
Kettering  on  7  Sept.  1803,  one  of  twins.  His 
father  was  a  tradesman,  his  mother  a  mem- 
ber of  the  independent  chapel  whose  Sunday 
school  he  joined  at  seven  years  old.  After 
three  years  at  the  grammar  school  he  entered 
some  printing  works  in  1814,  and  in  1816 
removed  with  his  elder  brother  Thomas 
(b.  11  Oct.  1799)  to  Bristol  on  the  transfer  of 
the  business.  He  was  baptised  by  Dr.  John 
Ryland  [q.  v.]  and  admitted  member  of  the 
Broadmead  Chapel  on  7  March  1822. 

Both  brothers  early  conceived  a  desire  for 
missionary  enterprise.  William's  first  im- 
pulse was  felt  while  '  composing '  missionary 
accounts  and  letters.  Thomas  was  accepted 
in  1822  by  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
as  master  of  the  free  school  in  Kingston, 
Jamaica,  while  William  commenced  preach- 
ing in  a  village  near  Bristol,  and  in  a  low 
part  of  the  town  called  the  '  Beggars'  Opera,' 
colloquially  the  '  Beggars'  Uproar.'  The 
death  of  his  brother  after  three  days'  illness, 
on  25  April  1823,  led  to  William  sailing  on 


Knibb 


Knox 


5  Nov.  1824  for  Jamaica  to  fill  the  post. 
He  was  just  over  twenty-one,  and  took  with 
him  his  young  wife,  Mary  AVatkins  of  Bris- 
tol, to  whom  he  was  married  a  month  earlier. 
After  four  years  Knibb  resigned  his  school 
to  undertake  the  small  mission  of  Savannah 
la  Mar,  and  in  1830  he  settled  at  Falmouth, 
near  Montego  Bay.  Local  feeling  against 
the  missionaries  was  strong,  and  their  evan- 
gelical labours  greatly  restricted  by  the 
island  laws.  Knibb  protested  against  the 
unjust  action  of  the  magistrates,  and  became 
the  subject  of  much  misrepresentation.  The 
introduction  of  Fowell  Buxton's  motion  re- 
lating to  colonial  slavery  in  April  1831  was 
the  signal  for  violent  agitation  among  the 
planters  and  excitement  among  the  slaves, 
which  culminated  in  insurrection.  Knibb 
was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  aiding,  and  his 
chapel,  like  many  others  in  the  island,  Avas 
destroyed.  But  the  case  against  him  fell 
through,  and  on  his  release  he  was  despatched 
by  the  missionaries  to  plead  their  cause  in 
England. 

He  arrived  to  find  the  reform  bill  passed, 
when  his  first  exclamation  was  '  Now  I'll 
have  slavery  down.'  He  threw  himself  ve- 
hemently into  the  struggle.  At  the  Assembly 
Rooms  at  Bath,  on  15  Dec.  1832,  he  defended 
the  missionaries  in  a  public  discussion,  and 
published  with  P.  Borthwick  a  defence  of 
the  missionaries  under  the  title  of  '  Colo- 
nial Slavery '  (London,  2nd  edit.  1833). 
He  was  examined  before  select  committees 
of  both  houses  of  parliament,  and  in  his 
spare  moments  addressed  some  meetings  of 
the  Anti-Slavery  Society.  A  handsome  sum 
of  money  was  raised  to  recoup  the  heavily 
taxed  missionaries  and  rebuild  their  schools 
and  chapels.  In  October  1834  Knibb  re- 
turned to  Jamaica,  where  he  became  the 
object  of  malicious  attacks  in  the  pro-slavery 
Jamaican  press.  These  were  copied  by 
'  John  Bull,'  an  English  paper,  then  edited 
by  Thomas  Hood.  A  Bristol  solicitor  and 
friend  of  Knibb  (Mr.  H.  W.  Hall)  brought 
a  libel  action  against  the  proprietor  of  the 
paper  before  Lord  Denman  in  1839  and  ob- 
tained damages,  amounting  to  70/.,  for  the 
missionary.  The  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
presented  him  with  a  testimonial  to  mark 
the  vindication  of  his  character. 

In  1840  Knibb,  with  his  two  daughters, 
proceeded  to  England  to  exhibit  in  public 
addresses  the  results  of  emancipation,  and 
to  appeal  for  the  enlargement  of  the  mission. 
At  the  same  time  he  pressed  home  the  sub- 
ject of  African  slavery.  He  was  everywhere 
received  with  enthusiasm,  as  he  was  subse- 
quently upon  his  third  and  fourth  visits  in 
1842  and  1845. 


To   Knibb's  efforts   in   England  and  at 
home  the  increase  of  missionary  activity  in 
Jamaica  was   largely   due.      Addressing   a 
meeting  in  Norwich  in  June  1845  he  related 
that  thirty-five  chapels,  sixteen  schoolrooms, 
and  twenty-four  mission-houses  had  been 
built  at  a  cost  of  Io7,000/.     The  conditions 
of  life  had  already  improved  so  much  that, 
as  he  pointed  out,  the  average  limit  of  a 
missionary's  life  in  the  West  Indies  had  in- 
creased from  three  to  seven  years.     Knibb 
himself,  a  man  of  splendid  constitution  and 
immense  energy,  spent  twenty-one  years  in 
Jamaica.     He  was  stricken  down  with  ma- 
lignant fever  in  the  thick  of  his  work,  and 
died  after  four  days'  illness  on  15  Nov.  1845 
at  Kettering,  one  of  his  seven  stations,  where 
a  house  had  been  built  and  presented  by  his 
affectionate  people  to  his  wife  and  daughters. 
Mrs.  Knibb  survived   until  1  April  1866. 
Five  of  their  children  predeceased  him.     Of 
the  elder  son,  William,  a  remarkable  boy  of 
twelve,  Dr.  James  Hoby  Avrote  a  '  Memoir.' 
Knibb  founded,  in  September  1839,  the 
'  Baptist  Herald  and  Friend  of  Africa,'  a 
weekly  paper   for  the   instruction   of    the 
emancipated  population  of  Jamaica.     Some 
of  his  speeches  in  England  are  printed  in 
pamphlet   form.     His   correspondence  with 
Joseph  Sturge  [q.  v.],  Joseph  John  Gurney 
fq.  v.],  Dr.  Hobjr,  and   many  other  aboli- 
tionists  and    missionaries,    is    included   in 
Hinton's  '  Life,'  where  also  is  a  portrait.    A 
!  medallion  was  placed  at  the  base  of  a  figure 
of  justice,  erected  in  his  chapel  at  Falmouth 
I  to  commemorate  the  birth  of  freedom  on 
;  1  Aug.  1838.     Figures  of  Sturge,  Granville 
Sharp,  and  Wilberforce  appear  in  bas-relief. 

[Life,  by  J.  Howard  Hinton,  1847;  Memoir 
by  Mrs.  J.  J.  Smith,  1896  ;  Dr.  Cox's  Hist,  of 
ths  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  1842,  vol.  ii. 
passim  ;  Jamaica  Missionary,  1849  ;  funeral  ser- 
mons by  J.  Howard  Hinton,  Samuel  Oughton, 
T.  F.  Newman,  J.  Aldis,  and  other  baptist 
ministers,  1846;  Bevan  Braithwaite's  Memoir 
of  J.  J.  Gurney ;  Gurney's  Winter  in  the  West 
Indies,  p.  134  ;  Sturge  and  Harvey's  West  Indies 
in  1837,  pp.  199,  201,  204,  231  ;  The  Tourist, 
1833,  p.  l.j  C.  F.  S. 

KNIGHT-BRUCE,  GEORGE  WYND- 
HAM  HAMILTON  (1852-1896),  first  bi- 
shop of  Mashonaland.  [See  BETJCE.] 

KNOX,  ROBERT  BENT  (1808-1893), 
j  archbishop  of  A  rmagh,  was  second  son  of  Hon. 
j  Charles  Knox  (d.  1825),  archdeacon  of  Ar- 
'  magh,  by  his  wife  Hannah  (d.  1852),  daugh- 
ter of  Robert   Bent,  M.P.,  and   widow  of 
James  Fletcher.    He  was  born  at  Dungannon 
Park  Mansion,  the  residence  of  his  grand- 
father Thomas  Knox,  first  viscount  North- 


Knox 


Knox 


land  (d.  1818),  on  25  Sept.  1808.  Though 
baptised  Robert  Bent,  he  early  dropped  the 
use  of  his  middle  name.  He  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  graduating  B.A. 
in  1829,  M.A.  in  1834,  B.D.  and  D.D.  in 
1858 ;  he  was  also  LL.D.  Cambridge  in 
1888.  In  1832  he  was  ordained  deacon  and 
priest  by  Beresford,  bishop  of  Kilmore.  On 
7  May  1834  he  was  collated  chancellor  of 
Ardfert,and  on  16  Oct.  1841  he  was  collated 
to  the  prebend  of  St.  Munchia,  Limerick,  by 
his  uncle  Edmund  Knox  (d.  7  May  1849), 
bishop  of  Limerick,  who  made  him  his  do- 
mestic chaplain.  In  March  1849  he  was 
nominated  by  Lord  Clarendon  to  the  see  of 
Down,  Connor,  and  Dromore,  vacated  by  the 
death  (2  Nov.  1848)  of  Richard  Mant  [q.  v.] 
He  was  consecrated  on  1  May,  and  enthroned 
on  8  May  at  Lisburn,  on  5  May  at  Dro- 
more. Samuel  Wilberforce  [q.  v.],  who  Avas 
in  Ireland  in  1861,  details  in  his  diary 
(26  Aug.)  some  ill-natured  gossip  about  the 
appointment.  James  Henthorn  Todd  [q.  v.] 
described  Knox  as  'very  foolish,  without 
learning,  piety,  judgment,  conduct,  sense, 
appointed  by  a  job,  that  his  uncle  should 
resign  Limerick.'  The  dean  of  Limerick, 
Anthony  La  Touche  Kirwan  (d.  1868),  said 
of  him,  '  He  used,  when  made  to  preach  by 
his  uncle,  to  get  me  to  write  his  sermon,  and 
could  not  deliver  it.  The  bishop  used  to 
say,  "  Why  do  you  always  blow  your  nose 
in  the  pathetic  part  ?  " '  (Life  of  Wilberforce, 
1882,  iii.  25). 

Knox,  as  a  whig,  was  not  at  the  outset 
popular  in  his  diocese.  Like  his  predecessor, 
ne  resided  at  Holywood,  co.  Down.  He 
made  no  secret  of  his  opinion  that,  in  the 
absence  of  extensive  reforms,  disestablish- 
ment was  inevitable,  and  did  his  best  to 
prepare  for  it.  At  an  early  period  of  his 
episcopate  he  had  entertained  the  project  of 
a  cathedral  at  Belfast  (in  addition  to  the 
three  existing  cathedrals  of  the  diocese) ; 
this  luxury  he  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  plan 
for  multiplication  of  churches.  The  'Bel- 
fast Church  Extension  Society  '  was  founded 
by  him  in  1862 ;  as  the  result  of  his  efforts, 
forty-eight  new  or  enlarged  churches  were 


consecrated  in  his  diocese.  Prior  to  disesta- 
blishment, he  organised  (1862)  diocesan 
conferences,  and  founded  a  diocesan  board 
of  missions.  In  the  House  of  Lords  in  1867, 
and  before  the  church  commission  in  1868, 
he  proposed  a  reduction  of  the  Irish  hier- 
archy to  one  archbishop  and  five  bishops. 
He  was  not  a  man  of  commanding  power  or 
of  genial  warmth,  but  his  simplicity  and 
modesty  of  manner,  the  plain  good  sense  of 
his  clear  and  frank  utterances,  his  ready 
exertions  in  all  works  of  charity,  and  his 
complete  freedom  from  sectarian  bias,  won 
for  him  the  respect  and  good  feeling  of  every 
section  in  the  community. 

On  the  death,  26  Dec.  1885,  of  Primate 
Marcus  Gervais  Beresford  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  he 
was  chosen  by  the  house  of  bishops  as  his 
successor,  and,  exchanging  his  diocese  for 
that  of  Armagh,  was  enthroned  at  Armagh 
as  archbishop  on  1  June  1886.  As  president 
of  the  general  synod  of  the  Irish  church,  his 
characteristic  qualities  of  fairness  and  mode- 
ration came  effectively  into  play.  He  re- 
tained to  the  last  his  activity  of  body, 
presiding  at  the  Armagh  diocesan  synod  a 
fortnight  before  his  death.  He  died  at  Ar- 
magh of  heart  disease  on  23  Oct.  1893,  and 
was  buried  on  27  Oct.  in  the  old  church  (a 
disused  ruin)  at  Holywood.  Portraits  of 
him  are  at  Armagh  Palace  and  at  the  see 
house  of  Down,  lie  married,  on  5  Oct.  1842, 
Catherine  Delia,  daughter  of  Thomas  Gibbon 
Fitzgibbon  of  Ballyseeda,  co.  Limerick,  and 
by  her  (who  predeceased  him)  had  three 
sons  and  three  daughters,  of  whom  a  son, 
Lieutenant-general  Charles  Edmond  Knox, 
and  two  daughters  survive  him.  Besides  a 
sermon  (1847),  charges  (1850  and  1858),  and 
a  brief  address,  '  Fruits  of  the  Revival,'  in 
Steane's  'Ulster  Revival'  (1859,  8vo),  he 
published  '  Ecclesiastical  Index  (of  Ireland)  ' 
(Dublin,  1839,  8vo),  a  valuable  book  of  refe- 
rence, with  appendix  of  forms  and  prece- 
dents. 

[Cotton's  Fasti  Eccles.  Hibern. ;  Belfast  News 
Letter,  24  and  30  Oct.  1893;  Northern  Whig, 
same  dates  ;  Burke's  Peerage,  1899,  p.  1214.] 

A.  G. 


Lacaita 


73 


Lacaita 


LACAITA,     SIR     JAMES     PHILIP 

(1813-1895),  Italian  scholar  and  politician, 
only  son  of  Diego  Lacaita  of  Manduria  in 
the  Terra  d'Otranto,  and  of  Agata  Conti  of 
Agnone  in  the  Molise,  was  born  at  Man- 
duria, in  the  province  of  Lecce,  Italy,  on 
4  Oct.  1813.  He  took  a  law  degree  at  the 
university  of  Naples,  was  admitted  an  advo- 
cate in  1836,  and  practised  his  profession. 
An  acquaintance  with  Enos  Throop,  United 
States  charg6  d'affaires  at  Naples,  begun  in 
December  1838,  helped  him  in  the  study  of 
English,  and  this  knowledge  gained  him  the 
post  of  legal  adviser  to  the  British  legation  at 
Naples,  and  the  friendship  of  the  minister, 
Sir  William  Temple,  at  whose  table  he 
met  many  English  travellers  of  distinction. 
Lacaita's  political  opinions  were  liberal  but 
moderate,  and  he  never  belonged  to  any 
secret  society.  He  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  representation  of  the  city 
of  Naples  in  1848,  and  on  7  April  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  the  Neapolitan  legation 
in  London,  but  did  not  start  for  his  post, 
which  he  resigned  after  the  fall  of  the  liberal 
Troya  ministry  in  May.  In  November  1850 
he  met  Gladstone,  who  was  in  Naples  in 
order  to  collect  information  about  Bourbon 
misrule.  This  led  to  the  arrest  of  Lacaita 
on  3  Jan.  1851,  and  he  remained  in  custody 
for  nine  days.  In  a  letter  from  Gladstone 
to  Panizzi,  in  September,  he  is  referred  to 
as  '  a  most  excellent  man,  hunted  by  the 
government'  (FA.GAN,  Life  of  Panizzi,  ii. 
97,  205-6). 

The  publication  of  Gladstone's  letters  to 
Lord  Aberdeen,  for  which  Lacaita  supplied 
many  striking  facts,  aroused  the  hostility  of 
the  court  and  clerical  partisans  in  Italy,  and 
Lacaita  found  it  advisable  to  leave  Naples 
for  London,  where  he  arrived  on  8  Jan.  1852. 
He  was  at  Edinburgh  on  14  Feb.,  in  May 
he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
office  of  librarian  of  the  London  Library, 
and  on  15  June  married  Maria  Clavering 
(d.  1853),  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Gibson 
Carmichael,  seventh  baronet.  His  means 
were  small,  but  he  made  many  powerful 
friends  in  the  best  political  and  literary 
circles  in  London  and  Edinburgh.  From 
November  1853  until  April  1856  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  Italian  at  Queen's  College,  London, 
was  naturalised  in  July  1855,  and  published 
'  Selections  from  the  best  Italian  Writers  ' 
(1855,  2nd  ed.  1863,  sm.  8vo).  In  the 
winter  of  1856-7  he  accompanied  Lord 


|  Minto  to  Florence  and  Turin.      From  1857 
f  to    1863  he   acted  as  private  secretary  to 
j  Lord  Lansdowne,  and  towards  the  close  of 
|  1858   went  with  Gladstone  to  the   Ionian 
j  Islands  as  secretary  to  the  mission,  being 
madeK.C.M.G.  for  his  services  in  March  1859. 
Lacaita  was  entrusted  by  Cavour  with  a 
j  delicate  diplomatic  negotiation  in  1860  con- 
nected with  schemes  to  prevent  Garibaldi  from 
j  crossing  from  Sicily  to  Calabria,  and  subse- 
|  quently  the  Neapolitan  government  offered 
j  him  the  post  of  minister  in  London  with  the 
,  title  of  marquis,  both  of  which  he  declined  (ib. 
ii.208).  In  December  1860,  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  Bourbons,  he  revisited  Naples,  caused 
!  his  name  to  be  reinstated  on  the  municipal 
registry,  and  in  July  1861,  while  back  in 
England,   was   returned   as   deputy  to  the 
first  Italian  legislature.     He  generally  sup- 
ported the  new  Italian  government.    After 
j  the  dissolution  of  1865  he  did  not  seek  re- 
.  election,  and  was  made  a  senator  in  1876. 
Though  speaking  but  seldom  in  the  chamber, 
he  exercised  a  considerable  influence  upon 
public  affairs  between  1861  and  1876  through 
his  intimacy  with  Ricasoli,  La  Marmora,  Min- 
ghetti,  Visconti-Venosta,  and  other  leading 
men.     Florence  became  his  headquarters  in 
Italy  after  the  removal  of  the  government 
thence  from  Turin,  and  so  it  remained  even 
after  the  transfer  of  the  capital  to  Rome.    He 
I  spent  a  portion  of  each  year  in  England,  and 
during  the   last    fifteen   years  of    his   life 
wintered  at  Leucaspide,  near  Taranto,  where 
he   had  made  large  purchases  of  monastic 
lands  in  1868.      He  was  a  director  of  the 
Italian  company  for  the  Southern  Railways 
from  its  formation,  and  took  a  share  in  the 
management  of  several  Anglo-Italian  public 
companies.     Besides  his   English   title,    he 
was  a  knight  of  the  Brazilian  order  of  the 
Rose,  and  knight  commander  of  S.  Maurizio 
e  Lazzaro  and  of  the  Corona  d'  Italia. 

During  his  earlier  years  in  England  he 
frequently  lectured  on  Italian  subjects  at  the 
Royal  Institution,  the  London  Institution, 
and  elsewhere.  He  wrote  nearly  all  the 
Italian  articles  for  the  eighth  edition  of  the 
'  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,'  and  revised 
several  editions  of  Murray's  '  Handbook  for 
South  Italy.'  In  1865  he  edited  the  third 
or  album  volume  of  the  great  edition  of  the 
'  Inferno  di  Dante,'  after  the  death  of  Lord 
Vernon,  having  helped  in  the  production  of 
the  former  volumes  (London,  1858-65,  3 
vols.  folio).  He  compiled  the  'Catalogue 


Lacy 


74 


Lacy 


of  the  Library  at  Chatsworth '  (London, 
1879,  4  vols.  large  8vo)  for  the  seventh 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  and  edited  the  first 
complete  publication  of  the  famous  Latin 
lectures  on  Dante  of  Benvenuto  da  Imola, 
delivered  in  1375, '  Comentum  super  Dantis 
Aldigherij  Comoediam  nunc  prim  urn  integre 
in  lucem  editum,  sumptibus  Guil.  Warren 
Vernon,'  Florence,  1887,  5  vols.  large  8vo. 

He  died  at  Posilipo,  near  Naples,  on 
4  Jan.  1895,  in  his  eighty-second  year, 
leaving  an  only  son,  Charles  Carmichael 
Lacaita  (b.  1853),  M.P.  for  Dundee,  1885-7. 

During  forty-five  years  his  life  and  in- 
terests were  divided  between  this  country 
and  Italy ;  in  the  one  a  polished  English- 
man, in  the  other  a  vivacious  Neapolitan 
and  a  conscientious  landowner.  He  was  a 
notable  Dante  scholar,  an  excellent,  biblio- 
grapher, a  man  of  wide  reading  and  intel- 
lectual sympathy,  of  great  social  tact  and 
goodness  of  heart. 

[Information  kindly  furnished  by  Mr.  C.  C. 
Lacaita;  see  also  the  Times,  8  Jan.  p.  10, 
10  Jan.  p.  1,  4,  1895;  Lettere  ad  Antonio 
Panizzi,  pubbl.  da  L.  Pagan,  1880,  p.  463, 
&c. ;  Minghetti,  Miei  Ricordi,  1890,  iii.  228; 
Burke's  Peerage,  1894,  p.  160".]  H.  R.  T. 

LACY,  EDMUND  (1370  P-1455),  bishop 
of  Exeter,  born  probably  about  1370,  was 
son  of  Stephen  Lacy  and  his  wife  Sibilla, 
who  were  buried  in  the  conventual  church 
of  the  Carmelites  at  Gloucester.  Edmund 
was  probably  a  native  of  that  city,  and  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  D.D. 
In  1398  he  was  master  of  University  College, 
and  is  said  to  have  presided  over  that  society 
for  five  years  (Wooo,  Hist,  and  Ant.  ii.  59). 
On  4  Jan.  1400-1  he  appears  as  canon  of 
Windsor.  He  was  installed  prebendary  of 
Hereford  Cathedral  on  25  Sept.  1412,  and  in 
1414  also  held  the  prebend  of  Nassington 
in  Lincoln  Cathedral.  On  12  May  1409  he 
was  sent  as  envoy  to  France,  and  on  22  May 
1413  he  was  appointed  agent  to  the  papal 
court.  In  Henry  Vs  reign  he  was  dean  of 
the  chapel  royal,  and  accompanied  the  king 
to  Agincourt  in  1415  (NICOLAS,  Ayincourt, 
p.  389).  On  8  Feb.  1416-17  he  was  granted, 
custody  of  the  temporalities  of  the  bishopric 
of  Hereford ;  the  pope  assented  to  his  election 
on  3  March,  and  Henry  V  was  present  at 
his  consecration  on  18  April.  In  1420  he 
was  translated  to  Exeter,  the  temporalities 
were  restored  on  31  Oct.,  and  he  was  installed 
on  29  March  1421.  In  that  year  he  preached 
before  Henry  V  at  Westminster  (WALSIXG- 
HA.M,  Hist.  Anyl.  ii.  337).  He  was  one  of 
Henry  Vs  executors,  but  seems  to  have  taken 
little  part  in  politics  in  the  following  reign, 


though  he  is  mentioned  in  a  political  satire 
about  1450  (BENTIYEY,  Excerpta  Historica, 
p.  162).  He  was  bishop  of  Exeter  for  thirty- 
five  years.  In  1434  he  was  excused  attend- 
ance at  parliament  on  account  of  his  bodily 
infirmities,  but  twenty  years  later  he  was 
fined  eighty  marks  for  not  being  present. 
He  died  at  Chudleigh  on  18  Sept.  1455,  and 
was  buried  on  the  north  side  of  the  choir  in 
Exeter  Cathedral.  His  tomb,  which  still 
remains,  was  long  the  resort  of  pilgrims. 
His  will,  proved  on  8  Oct.  1455,  is  lost,  but 
his  register,  covering  more  than  seventeen 
hundred  pages,  remains.  He  gave  various 
books  to  his  chapter,  and  made  other  benefac- 
tions to  the  diocese.  His '  Liber  Pontificalis' 
was  edited  from  an  original  fifteenth-century 
manuscript  (the  title-page  says  fourteenth 
century)  by  Ralph  Barnes  and  published  in 
1847  (Exeter,  8vo). 

[Preface  to.  Lacy's  Liber  Pontificalis ;  Oliver's 
Bishops  of  Exeter;  Rymer's  Fcedera,  ix.  404, 
422,  4oO;  Beckington  Corresp.  (Rolls  Ser.); 
Nicolas's  Ordinances  of  the  Privy  Council;  Rolls 
of  Parliament ;  Ramsay's  Lancaster  and  York, 
ii.  193;  Le  Neve's  Fasti  Eccl.,  ed.  Hardy,  passim  ; 
Godwin's  De  Prsesulibus  Anglise;  Stubbs's  Reg. 
Sacrum.]  A.  F.  P. 

LACY,  WALTER  (1809-1898),  actor, 
whose  real  name  was  Williams,  the  son 
of  a  coach-builder  in  Bristol,  born  in  1809, 
was  educated  for  the  medical  profession, 
went  to  Australia,  and  was  first  seen  on  the 
stage  in  Edinburgh,  in  1829,  as  Montalban 
in  the  '  Honeymoon,'  was  playing  there 
again  in  1832,  and  acted  also  in  Glasgow, 
Liverpool,  and  Manchester.  His  debut  in 
London  was  at  the  Haymarket  on  21  Aug. 
1838  as  Charles  Surface.  At  Govent  Gar- 
den he  appeared,  about  1841,  as  Captain  Ab- 
solute, and  at  Drury  Lane  as  Wildrake  in 
the  '  Love  Chase.'  With  Charles  Kean 
[q.  v.]  at  the  Princess's  he  was,  on  18  Sept. 
1852,  the  original  Rouble  in  Boucicault's 
'  Prima  Donna,'  and  made  a  great  success  as 
Chateau  Renaud  in  the  '  Corsicaii  Brothers.' 
With  Kean  he  played  John  of  Gaunt  in 
'  Richard  II,'  Edmund  in  '  Lear,'  Gratiano 
and  Lord  Trinket  in  the  'Jealous  W 
On  30  June  1860  he  was,  at  the  Lyceum, 
the  Marquis  of  Saint  Evremont  in  '  A  Tale 
of  Two  Cities,' and  at  Drury  Lane  on  17  Oct. 
1864  was  Cloten  to  Miss  Faucit's  Imogen. 
He  was  Flutter  in  the  '  Belle's  Stratagem  ' 
on  8  Oct.  1866  at  the  St.  James's,  where  he 
was  on  5  Nov.  the  first  John  Leigh  in 
'  Hunted  Down,  or  Two  Lives  of  John 
Leigh.'  In  two  Lyceum  revivals  of '  Romeo 
and  Juliet '  he  wasMercutio.  Onl2  Aug.  1868 
he  was,  at  the  Princess's,  the  original  Bel- 
lingham  in  Boucicault's '  After  Dark.'  Other 


it  in 
iano, 
rife.1 

aiim 


Lafontaine 


75 


Lafontaine 


parts  in  which  he  was  seen  were  Benedick.  | 
Comus,  Faulconbridge,  Mai  volio,  Touchstone, 
Prospero,  Roderigo,  Henry  VIII,  Young 
Marlow,  Sir  Brilliant  Fashion,  Goldfinch, 
Tony  Lumpkin,  Bob  Acres,  Dazzle,  Flutter, 
Dudley  Smooth,  Megrim  in  '  Blue  Devils,'  , 
Ghost  in '  Hamlet,'  My  Lord  Duke  in  '  High  j 
Life  below  Stairs,'  Jeremy  Diddler,  and 
Puff.  After  a  long  absence  from  the  stage, 
occupied  with  teaching  elocution  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  he  reappeared  at 
the*  Lyceum  in  April  1879  as  Colonel  Damas 
in  Sir  Henry  Irving's  revival  of  the  '  Lady 
of  Lyons.'  He  died  on  13  Dec.  1898  at  j 
1 3  Marine  Square,  Brighton,  and  was  buried  j 
at  Brompton  cemetery  on  the  17th.  Lacy  j 
was  a  respectable  light  comedian,  but  failed 
as  an  exponent  of  old  men  and  was  a 
wretched  Sir  Anthony  Absolute.  He  was  a 
familiar  figure  at  the  Garrick  Club,  which 
owns  a  portrait  of  him  in  oils,  and  was 
almost  to  the  last  a  man  of  much  vivacity, 
and  of  quaint,  clever,  unbridled,  and  cha- 
racteristic speech.  He  married  Miss  Taylor, 
an  actress  [see  L,ACY,  HARRIETTS  DEBORAH]. 
[Personal  knowledge  ;  Clark  Russell's  Repre- 
sentative Actors  (supplement) ;  Dibdin's  Edin- 
burgh Stage ;  Pascoe's  Dramatic  List ;  Scott 
and  Howard's  Blanehard  ;  Hollingshead's  Gaiety 
Chronicles;  Era,  1?  Dec.  1898;  Coles  Life  of 
Charles  Kean ;  Era  Almanack,  and  Sunday 
Times,  various  years;  private  information.] 

J.  K. 

LAFONTAINE,  SIR  LOUIS  HYPO-  ! 
LITE,  first  baronet  (1807-1864),  Canadian 
statesman,  born  at  Boucherville,  in  the 
county  of  Chambly,  Lower  Canada,  in  Oc- 
tober 1807,  was  the  third  son  of  Antoine  ' 
Medard  Lafontaine,  a  farmer  of  that  neigh- 
bourhood, by  his  wife  Marie  J.  Fontaine  j 
Bienvenu,  and  the  grandson  of  Antoine  Me- 
dard Lafontaine,  member  of  the  legislative 
assembly  of  Lower  Canada.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Montreal,  and  after  a  course  of  five 
years  proceeded  to  study  law,  entering  the 
office  of  Denis  Benjamin  Viger  [q.  v.]  His 
political  reputation  was  considerable  while 
he  was  yet  a  clerk,  and  after  his  call  to  the 
bar  he  quickly  acquired  a  large  practice 
among  the  French  Canadians.  He  joined 
Viger  in  organising  the  national  movement 
in  the  district  of  Montreal,  and  was  returned 
to  the  legislative  assembly  of  Lower  Canada 
at  the  general  election  of  1830  for  the  county 
of  Terrebonne,  for  which  he  continued  to 
sit  until  1837.  He  was  at  first  a  follower 
of  Louis  Joseph  Papineau  [q.  v.],  whom  he 
vigorously  urged  on  in  his  resistance  to  the 
home  government.  In  a  year  or  two,  how- 
ever, he  developed  from  the  follower  to  the 
rival  of  Papineau,  from  whom  eventually  he 


became  completely  estranged.  While  Papi- 
neau was  associated  with  the  parti  pretre, 
Lafontaine  led  that  of  la  jeune  France,  and 
was  regarded  by  the  orthodox  as  little 
better  than  an  infidel.  Although  he  in- 
dulged in  unmeasured  opposition  to  govern- 
ment, he  saw  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion 
of  1837  with  feelings  of  consternation,  being 
convinced  that  the  resources  of  the  insur- 
gents were  quite  inadequate.  The  govern- 
ment, however,  mindful  of  his  incendiary 
language  on  former  occasions,  issued  a 
warrant  against  him  for  high  treason.  La- 
fontaine escaped  to  England  and  thence 
to  France.  He  was  able  to  establish  his  in- 
nocence, and  returned  to  Canada  in  May 
1838.  He  was  imprisoned  on  7  Nov.  1838, 
during  the  hostile  expeditions  of  Robert 
Nelson  [see  NELSON,  WOLFRED]  from  the 
United  States,  but  was  released  Irom  lack  of 
evidence. 

After  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion  La- 
fontaine found  the  leadership  of  the  parti 
pretre  vacant  owing  to  Papineau's  exile.  He 
conciliated  the  priests  and  assumed  the 
position.  On  Papineau's  return  in  1847  he 
found  his  place  filled  and  was  compelled  to 
become  the  head  of  the  more  extreme  party 
which  Lafontaine  had  formerly  directed. 
Lafontaine  opposed  the  union  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  in  1840.  On  21  Sept,  1841, 
after  contesting  Terrebonne  unsuccessfully, 
he  was  returned  to  the  parliament  of  the 
united  provinces  for  the  fourth  riding  of 
York,  a  county  in  Upper  Canada,  chiefly 
thro  ugh  the  instrumentality  of  Robert  Bald- 
win [q.  v.  Suppl.]  He  was  at  once  recognised 
as  the  leader  of  the  French  Canadians  in  the 
new  assembly,  and  early  in  1842  declined 
an  offer  of  the  solicitor-generalship  of  Lower 
Canada  from  the  governor-general,  Charles 
Edward  Poulett  Thomson,  Baron  Syden- 
ham  [q.  v.],  made  to  him  on  the  condition 
that  he  should  support  the  governor's  policy. 
In  September  1842,  at  the  instance  of 
Sydenham's  successor,  Sir  Charles  Bagot 
[q.  v.  Suppl.],  he  joined  Baldwin  in  forming 
the  first  Baldwin-Lafontaine  administration, 
in  which  he  held  the  portfolio  of  attorney- 
general  for  the  lower  province.  During  his 
term  of  office  he  obtained  a  cessation  of  pro- 
ceedings against  the  political  offenders  of 
1837,  including  Papineau.  The  ministry 
resigned  on  28  Nov.  1843  in  consequence  of 
a  difference  with  Bagot's  successor,  Sir 
Charles  Theophilus  Metcalfe  (afterwards 
Baron  Metcalfe)  [q.  v.],  with  regard  to  the 
control  of  the  nomination  of  government 
officials.  In  November  1844  Lafontaine  was 
returned  for  Terrebonne,  which  he  repre- 
sented during  the  whole  period  of  his  pppo- 


Lafontaine  ; 

sition.  In  March  1848,  after  a  stormy 
election  in  which  several  persons  were  killed, 
he  was  returned  for  the  city  of  Montreal, 
which  he  represented  during  the  remainder 
of  his  public  life. 

In  March  1848  the  reform  party  triumphed 
at  the  general  election,  and  Baldwin  and  La- 
fontaine again  took  office,  Lafontaine  as 
premier  and  attorney-general  for  Lower 
Canada.  In  January  1849  he  passed  an 
amnesty  bill,  and  in  February  he  introduced 
the  famous  rebellion  losses  bill,  which  was 
intended  to  compensate  innocent  sufferers  in 
1837.  This  bill  was  bitterly  resented  both 
in  Canada  and  England,  because  it  was 
feared  that  it  would  benefit  disloyal  French 
Canadians,  and  it  gave  rise  to  the  most 
extraordinary  scenes  of  riot  in  Montreal 
[see  BRUCE,  JAMES,  eighth  EARL  OF  ELGIN]. 
Lafontaine's  house  was  partly  burnt  down 
and  he  himself  on  more  than  one  occasion 
exposed  to  imminent  peril.  In  consequence 
of  the  disorder  the  seat  of  government  was 
permanently  removed  from  Montreal.  In 
the  meantime  Lafontaine  felt  that  he  was 
growing  out  of  sympathy  with  the  younger 
reformers.  The  temper  of  his  mind  was 
naturally  aristocratic  and  conservative.  The 
movement  which  he  had  led  had  been  na- 
tional, and  when  questions  of  class  interest 
became  of  importance  he  found  himself  out 
of  accord  with  his  former  supporters.  He 
was  opposed  to  the  secularisation  of  the 
clergy  reserves  in  Upper  Canada  and  the 
abolition  of  the  seigneural  tenure  in  the 
lower  province,  both  of  them  measures 
steadily  demanded  by  a  large  section  of  the 
reform  party.  In  consequence  he  retired 
from  political  life  towards  the  close  of  1851. 
On  13  Aug.  1853  he  was  nominated  chief 
justice  of  Lower  Canada  in  succession  to  Sir 
James  Stuart  [q.  v.],  and  on  28  Aug.  1854 
he  was  created  a  baronet.  He  continued  to 
hold  the  office  of  chief-justice  until  his  death 
at  Montreal  on  26  Feb.  1864.  He  was  twice 
married  :  first,  on  9  July  1831,  to  Adele, 
daughter  of  Amable  Berthelot,  an  advocate 
at  Quebec.  She  died  without  issue  on 
27  May  1859,  and  he  married  secondly,  on 
30  Jan.  1861,  Jane  Morrison,  a  widow  of 
Montreal.  By  her  he  had  an  only  surviving 
son,  Louis  Hypolite,  on  whose  death,  in  1867, 
the  baronetcy  became  extinct. 

[Burke's  Peerage,  1900;  Dent's  Canadian 
Portrait  Gallery,  Toronto,  1881,  iii.  104-8 
(with  portrait) ;  David's  Biographies  et  Por- 
traits, Montreal.  1876,  pp.  96-113  (with  por- 
trait) ;  David's  Union  cles  deux  Canadas,  Mont- 
real, 1898;  Morgan's  Sketches  of  Celebrated 
Canadians,  Quebfc,  1862.  pp.  417-9;  David's 
Patriotes  de  1837-1838,  Montreal,  1886,  pp. 


Laing 


269-76;  Gerin-Lajoie's  Dix  Ans  au  Canada  de 
1840  a  1850,  Quebec,  1888;  Turcotte's  Canada 
sous  I'Union,  Quebec,  1871-2,  pts.  i.  and  ii. ; 
Dent's  Last  Forty  Years,  Toronto,  1881  ;  Kaye's 
Life  and  Corresp.  of  Lord  Metcalfe,  1858,  ii. 
329-425  ;  Hincks's  Reminiscences,  Montreal, 
1884  ;  Hincks's  Lecture  on  the  Political  History 
of  Canada  between  1840  and  1855,  Montreal, 
1877 :  Bibaud's  Pantheon  Canadien,  Montreal, 
1891.]  E.  I.  C. 

LAING,  SAMUEL  (1812-1897),  poli- 
tician, author,  and  chairman  of  the  Brighton 
Railway,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  on  12  Dec. 
1812.  He  was  the  son  of  Samuel  Laing 
[q.  v.],  the  author  of  the  well-known  '  Tours' 
in  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  who  was 
the  younger  brother  of  Malcolm  Laing  [q.  v.], 
the  historian  of  Scotland.  Laing  was  edu- 
cated at  Houghton-le-Spring  grammar  school, 
and  privately  by  Richard  Wilson,  a  fellow 
of  St.  John's,  Cambridge.  He  entered  that 
college  as  a  pensioner  on  5  July  1827,  gra- 
duated B.A.  as  second  wrangler  in  1831,  and 
was  also  second  Smith's  prizeman.  He  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  St.  John's  on  17  March 
1834,  and  remained  for  a  time  in  Cambridge 
as  a  mathematical  coach.  He  was  admitted 
a  student  of  Lincoln's  Inn  on  10  Nov.  1832, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  on  9  June  1837. 
Shortly  after  his  call  he  was  appointed  private 
secretary  to  Henry  Labouchere,  afterwards 
Lord  Taunton  [q.  v.],  then  president  of  the 
board  of  trade.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  rail- 
way department  of  that  office  in  1842  he  was 
appointed  secretary,  and  thenceforth  distin- 
guished himself  as  an  authority  upon  railways 
under  successive  presidents  of  the  board  of 
trade.  In  1844  he  published  the  results  of 
his  experience  in  '  A  Report  on  British  and 
Foreign  Railways,'  and  gave  much  valuable 
evidence  before  a  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons  on  railways.  To  his  suggestion 
the  public  are  mainly  indebted  for  the  con- 
venience of '  parliamentary '  trains  at  the  rate 
of  one  penny  per  mile.  In  1845  Laing  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  railway  com- 
mission, presided  over  by  Lord  Dalhousie, 
and  drew  up  the  chief  reports  on  the  railway 
schemes  of  that  period.  Had  his  recom- 
mendations been  followed,  much  of  the  com- 
mercial crisis  of  1846  would,  as  he  after- 
wards proved,  have  been  averted.  The  report 
of  the  commission  having  been  rejected  by 
parliament,  the  commission  was  dissolved, 
and  Laing,  resigning  his  post  at  the  board  of 
trade,  returned  to  his  practice  at  the  bar. 
In  1848  he  accepted  the  post  of  chairman 
and  managing  director  of  the  London,  Brigh- 
ton, and  South  Coast  Railway,  and  under  his 
administration  the  passenger  traffic  of  the 
line  was  in  five  years  nearly  doubled.  In 


Laing 


77 


Laing 


1852  he  became  chairman  of  the  Crystal 
Palace  Company,  from  which  he  retired  in 
1855,  as  well  as  from  the  chairmanship  of 
the  Brighton  line.  In  July  1852  he  was 
returned  to  parliament  in  the  liberal  interest 
for  the  Wick  district,  which  he  represented 
until  1857  (when  he  lost  his  seat  for  op- 
posing British  intervention  in  China).  He 
was  re-elected  in  April  1859,  and  was  financial 
secretary  to  the  treasury  from  the  following 

Tune  until  October  1860.  In  that  month 
he  was  appointed  to  the  important  post  of 
financial  minister  in  India,  on  the  council  of 
the  governor-general,  to  replace  James  Wil- 
son (1805-1860)  [q.  v.],who  had  died  within 
a  year  of  taking  up  this  newly  created  and 
lucrative  office  [see  FEEKE,  SIK  BAKTLE]. 
When  first  asked  to  go  to  India,  Laing  said 
'  Palmerston, '  You  want  me  to  go  to  India 
doctor  a  sick  budget  with  a  deficit  of  six 

lillions ;  that  is  a  question  of  military  re- 
duction, and  the  possibility  of  military  re- 
duction depends  on  peace.  Tell  me  candidly 

fhat  you  think  of  the  prospects  of  peace, 
that  I  rcay  regulate  my  financial  policy  ac- 

ardingly.'     Palmerston  replied,  '  I  do  not 

rust  the  man  at  the  Tuilleries  an  inch 
farther  than  I  can  see  him ;  but  for  the  next 
two  or  three  years,  which  is  enough  for  your 

urpose,  I  think  we  are  fairly  safe  of  peace ; 
therefore  go  in  for  reduction.' 

Having  effected  the  objects  of  his  mission 
upon  the  lines  laid  down  with  such  con- 
spicuous abilitv  by  Wilson,  Laing  was  again 
elected  M.P.  for  Wick  in  July  1865.  He 
was  rejected  for  that  constituency  in  1868, 

)ut  was  returned  for  Orkney  and  Shetland 
1872,  and  sat  without  interruption  until 

e  retired  from  parliament  in  1885.    Though 
staunch  liberal,  he  was  opposed  to  what 
ie  considered  the  anti-imperialist  leanings 
af  Gladstone ;  he  published  in  1884  a  careful 

id  moderate  indictment  of  what  would  now 
called  Little  Englandism  in  '  England's 

foreign  Policy.' 

In  1867  Laing  was  reappointed  chairman 
the  London,  Brighton,  and  South  Coast 
Railway  (a  post  which  he  held  down  to  1894), 
and  his  position  as  a  railway  magnate  intro- 
duced him  to  the  city.  Laing's  connections 
with  the  financial  world  were  not  unimpor- 
tant. During  his  tenure  of  the  chair  at  the 
board  of  the  London,  Brighton,  and  South 
Coast  Railway,  that  company  gradually  be- 
came highly  prosperous,  and  he  contributed 
to  the  result  not  only  by  his  business  ca- 
pacity, but  by  his  skill  in  choosing  and  sup- 
porting good  subordinates.  Noting  the 
constant  growth  of  Brighton  and  other  south- 
coast  towns,  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  to 
discern  that  the  line  had  a  great  future  before 


it.  His  confidence  was  more  than  shared  by 
a  number  of  London  stockbrokers  who  lived 
down  the  line,  and  knew,  or  thought  they 
knew,  a  great  deal  about  it.  Hence  the 
enormous  amount  of  speculation  that  took 
place  for  a  long  period  in  Brighton  Deferred 
Stock  ('Brighton  AV).  When  speculative 
operations  for  the  rise  turned  out  well,  their 
authors  naturally  regarded  the  management 
of  the  line  with  approval ;  but  when  they 
did  not,  Laing  came  in  for  more  than  a  fair 
share  of  abuse.  He  w*as  connected  with  two 
other  important  companies  in  which  his  know- 
ledge of  railways  was  useful.  These  were 
the  Railway  Share  Trust  and  the  Railway 
Debenture  Trust,  which,  as  chairman,  he 
conducted  with  a  much  greater  degree  of 
prudence  than  became  common  as  enterprises 
of  this  kind  multiplied. 

It  was  not  until  he  had  turned  seventy 
and  retired  from  parliament  that  Laing  came 
before  the  public  prominently  as  an  author. 
His  '  Modern  Science  and  Modern  Thought ' 
appeared  in  1885  and  was  very  widely  read, 
being  in  fact  an  admirable  popular  exposition 
of  the  speculations  of  Darwin,  Huxley,  and 
Spencer,  and  the  incompatibility  of  the  data 
of  modern  science  and  '  revealed  religion.' 
A  supplemental  chapter  to  the  third  edition 
(1886)  contained  a  fairly  crushing  reply  to 
Gladstone's  defence  of  the  book  of  Genesis. 
It  was  followed  by  '  A  Modern  Zoroastrian,' 
1887,  '  Problems  of  the  Future,  and  other 
Essays,'  1889,  '  The  Antiquity  of  Man,'  1891, 
and  '  Human  Origins,'  1892,  all  written  in  a 
similar  easy  and  interesting  style.  Without 
possessing  in  themselves  any  great  scientific 
value,  these  works  showed  Laing's  reading, 
especially  in  anthropology,  to  have  been  ex- 
tremely wide,  and  furnished  people  with 
general  ideas  onsubjectsof  importance  which, 
if  discussed  in  a  less  attractive  form,  would 
probaby  have  passed  unheeded. 

Laing  died,  aged  86,  at  Rockhills,  Syden- 
ham  Hill,  on  6  Aug.  1897,  and  was  buried 
on  10  Aug.  in  the  extramural  cemetery, 
Brighton.  He  married  in  1841  Mary,  daugh- 
ter of  Captain  Cowan,  R.N.,  and  left  two 
sons  and  three  daughters.  His  personalty 
was  sworn  at  94,643/.  {Railway  Times, 
18  Sept.  1897). 

Laing's  writings  are  remarkable  as  the 
relaxations  of  a  man  who  had  spent  over  half 
a  century  almost  exclusively  immersed  in 
affairs.  He  never  attained  to  quite  the  same 
thoroughness  and  grip  of  his  subject  as  his 
father,  but  he  had  much  the  same  gift  of 
lucid  exposition,  and  the  same  freedom  from 
self-consciousness  or  affectation.  Besides  the 
works  already  mentioned  and  some  pamphlets 
'Samuel  Laing  the  younger'  published: 


Lake 


Lambert 


1.  'India  and  China;'  England's  Mission  in 
the  East,  1863.  A  luminous  forecast  of  pro- 
babilities  in  the  Far  East.  2.  'Prehistoric 
Remains  of  Caithness.'  With  notes  on  the 
human  remains  by  T.  H.  Huxley,  1866. 
3.  '  A  Sporting  Quixote,'  1886,  an  agreeable 
if  somewhat  amateurish  fantasia  in  the  form 
of  a  novel  (cf.  Atkenaum,  1886,  i.  550). 

[The  Eagle,  December  1897;  Times,  7  and 
11  Aug.  1897;    Men  of  the  Time,  13th  edit.; 
Railway  Review,  13  Aug.  1897  ;  Railwa}?  Times,  J 
18  Sept.  1897;  Guardian,  12  Aug.  1897;    Alii- 
bone's  Diet,  of  Engl.  Lit. ;  Laing's  Works.] 

T.  S. 

LAKE,  WILLIAM  CHARLES  (1817- 
1897),  dean  of  Durham,  born  in  London  on 
9  Jan.  1817,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Captain 
Charles  Lake  of  the  Scots  fusilier  guards. 
Educated  at  Rugby  under  Dr.  Arnold,  he 
became  the  lifelong  friend  of  his  school-  I 
fellow,  Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley  [q.  v.] 
From  Rugby  he  went  to  Oxford  as  scholar  of 
Balliol  in  November  1834,  and  was  a  fellow- 
pupil  under  Archibald  Campbell  (afterwards 
archbishop)  Tait  of  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie, 
Edward  5leyrick  Goulburn,  and  Benjamin 
Jowett.  In  1838  Lake  was  elected  fellow  of 
his  college  at  the  same  time  as  Jowett,  and 
became  tutor  four  years  later.  In  1852-3  he 
was  senior  proctor  in  the  university.  He 
acted  with  the  moderate  party  who  opposed 
the  action  taken  against  William  George 
Ward  [q.  v.],  and  against  the  proposal  that 
the  vice-chancellor  should  have  power  to 
impose  a-  certain  form  which  a  member  of  the 
university  should  be  required  to  use  in  sub- 
scribing the  articles.  He  became  very  inti- 
mate with  Tait,  with  whom  he  generally 
spent  his  long  vacation  travelling  on  the 
continent,  and  was  one  of  the  first  who  urged 
him  to  stand  for  the  head-mastership  of 
Rugby.  Lake  himself  had  been  an  unsuc- 
cessful candidate  in  1849  when  Goulburn 
was  elected.  He  had  taken  orders  in  1842, 
and  in  1858  he  left  Oxford  to  become  rector 
of  Huntspill  in  Somerset.  Two  years  later 
he  was  named  prebendary  of  Wells.  Mean- 
while Lake's  linguistic  abilities  had  led  to 
his  appointment  by  Lord  Panmure  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  of  1856  to  report  on 
military  education  on  the  continent.  He  had 
won  the  prize  at  Oxford  in  1840  for  his  Latin 
essay  on  the  Roman  army  as  an  obstacle  to 
civil  liberty.  He  also  served  on  the  New- 
castle commission  of  1858  to  inquire  into 
popular  education,  and  on  the  royal  commis- 
sion upon  military  education  of  1868.  On 
9  Aug.  1869  Lake  was  nominated  by  Glad- 
stone for  the  deanery  of  Durham.  In  1881 
he  was  a  member  of  the  ecclesiastical  court's 
commission.  His  theological  position  was 


that  of  a  moderate  high  churchman,  and  in 
1880  he  joined  Dean  Church  and  others  in 
endeavouring  to  induce  Gladstone  and 
Archbishop  Tait  to  bring  forward  legislation 
modifying  the  Public  Worship  Regulation 
Act. 

During  Lake's  decanate  Durham  Cathedral 
was  restored.  He  exercised  an  important  in- 
fluence over  Durham  University  of  which  he 
was  warden,  and  education  in  the  north  of 
England  generally  owed  much  to  his  efforts. 
The  foundation  of  the  College  of  Science  at 
Newcastle  in  1871  was  very  largely  his  work. 
He  resigned  the  deanery,  owing  to  failing 
health,  in  1894,  and  went  to  live  at  Torquay. 
There  he  died  suddenly  on  8  Dec.  1897.  He 
married,  in  June  1881,  Miss  Katherine  Glad- 
stone, a  niece  of  the  premier,  who  survived 
him. 

Lake  published  nothing  separately  but  a 
few  sermons  and  a  pamphlet,  '  The  Inspira- 
tion of  Scripture  and  Eternal  Punishment, 
with  a  preface  on  the  Oxford  Declaration  and 
on  F.  D.  Maurice's  Letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don,' 1864.   But  he  contributed  to  the  'Life' 
of  his  friend  Tait  some  highly  interesting 
recollections,  and  especially  a  valuable  pic- 
ture of  the  independent  position  he  held  at 
Oxford,  and  an  account  from  intimate  know- 
ledge of  his  life  as  head  of  Rugby,  bishop  of 
j  London,  and  primate.    Lake  also  supplied  to 
Mr.  Wilfrid  Ward's  '  W.  G.  Ward  and  the 
I  Oxford  Movement  '(1889)  some  reminiscences 
'  of  Ward,  who  was  for  some  time  his  mathe- 
I  matical  tutor  at  Baliiol  and  exercised  some 
influence  over  his  tone  of  thought. 

[Men  of  the  Time,  13th  edit.;  Times,  9-14 
Dec.  1897  ;  Guardian,  15  Dec.  1897;  HI.  Lond. 
News,  18  Dec.  1897  (with  portrait);  Benham 
and  Davidson's  Life  of  Tait,  i.  102-9,  111,  128, 
137-40,  ii.  603-7;  Prothero's  Life  of  Dean 
Stanley,  i.  47,  87,  197,  212  ;  Life  and  Letters  of 
Dean  Church,  pp.  255,  273,  283-4;  Ward's 
W.  G.  Ward  and  the  Oxford  Movement,  pp. 
100-2,  119,  and  appendix;  Abbott  and  Camp- 
bell's Life  of  Jowett,  i.  97  ;  Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ; 
F.  Arnold's  Our  Bishops  and  Deans,  ii.  310. 
Letters  from  Dr.  Arnold  to  Lake  between  1835 
and  1840  are  in  Stanley's  Life  of  Arnold.] 

G.  LE  G.  N. 

LAMBERT,  SIR  JOHN  (1772-1847), 
general,  was  the  son  of  Captain  Robert 
Alexander  Lambert,  R.N.  (second  son  of 
Sir  John  Lambert,  second  baronet),  by 
Catherine,  daughter  of  Thomas  Byndloss  of 
Jamaica.  He  was  commissioned  as  ensign 
in  the  1st  foot  guards  on  27  Jan.  1791,  and 
promoted  lieutenant  and  captain  on  9  Oct. 
1793.  He  served  at  the  sieges  of  Valen- 
ciennes and  Dunkirk,  and  was  in  the  action 
of  Lincelles  in  1793.  He  was  adjutant  of 


Lambert 


79 


Lawes 


the  third  battalion  in  the  campaign  of  1794, 
served  with  it  in  Ireland  during  the  rebellion 
of  1798,  and  in  the  expedition  to  Holland 
in  1799.  He  was  promoted  captain  and 
lieutenant-colonel  on  14  May  1801.  He 
served  in  Portugal  and  Spain  in  1808,  and 
was  present  at  Corunna,  and  he  commanded 
the  light  companies  of  the  guards  in  theAVal- 
cheren  expedition  of  1809.  He  became 
colonel  in  the  army  on  25  July  1810,  and 
embarked  for  Cadiz  in  command  of  the  third 
battalion  on  30  May  1811.  In  January  1812 
he  was  sent  to  Carthagena  with  two  bat-  I 
talions.  He  remained  there  three  months,  i 
and  in  October  he  joined  Wellington's  army  j 
at  Salamanca. 

On  4  June  1813  he  was  promoted  major- 
general,  and  was  appointed  to  a  brigade  of  j 
the   sixth   division.     He   commanded  it  at 
the  battles  of  the  Nivelle,  Nive,  Orthes,  and 
Toulouse,  and  was  specially  mentioned  in 
despatches   for   the    Nivelle   and  Toulouse  : 
(13  Nov.  1813,  12  April  1814).    He  received 
the  thanks  of  parliament  and  the  gold  cross, 
and   was  made  K.C.B.    on    2  Jan.    1815. 
Having  been  sent  to  America,  he  joined  the 
army  under  Sir  Edward  Pakenham  [q.  v.] 
below  New  Orleans  on  6  Jan.  1815,  with 
the  7th  and  43rd  regiments.     In  the  unsuc- 
cessful  attack  on  the   American   intrench- 
ments,  made  two  days  afterwards,  he  com- 
manded   the     reserve.       Pakenham    being 
killed,  and  General  Gibbs  mortally  wounded, 
the  chief  command  devolved  on  Lambert.  ] 
He  decided  not  to  renew  the  attack,  with- 
drew the  troops  which  had  been  sent  across  | 
the  Mississippi,  and  retreating  on  the  18th,  ' 
re-embarked  his  force  on  the  27th  ( JAMES,  ii. 
543-7 ;  PORTER,  i.  363).     It  proceeded  to  j 
the  bay  of  Mobile,  where  Fort  Bowyer  was 
taken   on    12   Feb.,    and  next    day    news 
arrived  that  peace  had  been  signed. 

Lambert  returned  to  Europe  in  time  to  ; 
command  the  tenth  brigade  of  British  in-  j 
fantry  at  Waterloo.  The  brigade  joined  the 
army  from  Ghent  only  on  the  morning  of 
18  June,  and  was  at  first  posted  in  reserve 
at  Mont  St.  Jean.  After  3  P.M.  it  was 
moved  up  to  the  front  line  to  support  the 
fifth  (Picton's)  division,  and  one  of  its  regi- 
ments, the  27th,  which  had  to  be  kept  in 
square  near  La  IT  aye  Sainte,  lost  two-thirds 
of  its  men,  a  heavier  loss  than  that  of  any 
other  regiment  ( Wellington  Despatches, 
Supplementary,  x.  537;  Waterloo  Letters, 
pp.  391-402).  Lambert  was  mentioned  in 
Wellington's  despatch,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  parliament,  the  order  of  St. 
Vladimir  of  Russia  (3rd  class),  and  that 
of  Maximilian  Joseph  of  Bavaria  (com- 
mander). He  commanded  the  eighth  in- 


fantry brigade  in  the  army  of  occupation  in 
France. 

He  was  promoted  lieutenant-general  on 

27  May  1825,  and  general  on  23  Nov.  1841. 
He  was  given  the  colonelcy  of  the  10th  re- 
giment on  18  Jan.  1824,  and  the  G.C.B.  on 
19  July  1838.     He  died  at  Weston  House, 
Thames  Ditton,  on  14  Sept.  1847,  aged  75. 
In    1816   he  married   a  daughter   of  John 
Morant  of  Brocklehurst  Park,  New  Forest. 

[Gent.  Mag.  1847,  ii.  539;  Burke's  Peerage; 
Hamilton's  Grenadier  Guards ;  Eoyal  Military 
Crtlendar,  iii.  307;  Wellington's  "Despatches; 
Siborne's  Waterloo  Letters  ;  James's  Military 
Occurrences  of  the  War  between  Great  Britain 
and  America,  ii.  370-94,  543-7;  Porter's  Eoyal 
Engineers.]  E.  M.  L. 

LAMINGTON,  BARON.  [See  COCHRANE- 
BAILLIE,  ALEXANDER  DUNDAS  Ross  WISHART. 
1816-1890.] 

LAWES,  SIR  JOHN  BENNET,  first 
baronet  (1814-1900),  agriculturist,  was  the 
only  son  of  John  Bennet  Lawes  (d.  1822), 
lord  of  the  manor  of  Rothamsted,  near  St. 
Albans,  Hertfordshire,  and  his  wife  Marianne, 
daughter  of  John  Sherman  of  Drayton,  co. 
Oxford.  He  was  born  at  Rothamsted  on 

28  Dec.  1814.    He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  where  he  matri- 
culated on  14  March  1833 ;  but,  as  he  said  in 
an  autobiographical  note  contributed  to  the 
'  Agricultural  Gazette  '  for  3  Jan.  1888  (p. 
13),  '  in  his  days  Eton  and  Oxford  were  not 
of  much   assistance  to  those  whose  tastes 
were   scientific  rather  than  classical,   and 
consequently  his  early  pursuits  Avere  of  a 
most  desultory  character.'     He  left  Oxford 
without  a  degree.     From  his  earliest  years, 
however,  he  '  had  a  taste  for  chemistry,'  and 
he  described  how  at  the  age  of  twenty  he 
had  '  one  of  the  best  bedrooms  in  the  house 
fitted  up  with  stoves,  retorts,  and  all  the 
apparatus  necessary  for  chemical  research.' 
At  this  period  his  attention  was  chiefly  di- 
rected to  '  the  composition  of  drugs,  and  he 
almost  knew  the  Pharmacopoeia  by  heart ; ' 
he  also  spent  some  time  in  the  laboratory  of 
Anthony  Todd  Thomson  [q.  v.]  at  University 
College,  London. 

Lawes  entered  into  possession  of  the 
family  estate  in  1834  on  coming  of  age,  and 
made  experiments  with  growing  plants  (such 
as  poppy,  hemlock,  colchicum,  belladonna) 
which  contained  the  active  principles  of  drugs. 
He  says,  however,  that  '  for  three  or  four 
years  he  does  not  remember  any  connection 
between  agriculture  and  chemistry  crossing 
his  mind ;  but  the  remark  of  a  gentleman, 
Lord  Dacre,  who  farmed  near  him,  who 
pointed  out  that  in  one  farm  bones  were 


Lawes 


Lawes 


invaluable  for  the  turnip  crop,  and  on 
another  farm  they  were  useless,  attracted 
his  attention  a  good  deal.'  The  investigations 
which  Lawes  made  to  discover  the  reason 
for  this  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  the  germ 
of  the  Rothamsted  experiments,  which  sub- 
sequently became  world-famous. 

Observing  the  beneficial  results  upon  his 
own  turnip  crops  at  Rothamsted  by  dressing 
them  with  bones  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid, 
Lawes  took  out  in  1842  a  patent,  in  which 
he  showed  how  apatite  and  coprolite  and 
other  mineral  or  fossil  phosphates  might  be 
converted  into  a  potent  manure  by  treatment 
with  sulphuric  acid.  He  thus  laid  the 
foundation  for  what  speedily  became  and 
still  remains  a  very  important  industry,  and  he 
was  indeed  the  pioneer  of  the  now  very 
large  agricultural  manure  trade.  The  first 
factory  for  the  manufacture  of  mineral 
superphosphate  was  started  by  Lawes  at 
Deptford  in  1843 ;  he  built  a  second  and 
much  larger  factory  at  Barking  Creek  in 
1857  (see  historical  description  by  J.  C. 
Morton  in  Agric.  Gazette,  2  Jan.  1888,  p.  8). 
He  sold  the  manure  business  to  a  company 
in  1872  ;  but  he  had  at  that  time  embarked 
in  other  branches  of  chemical  manufacture 
(citric  and  tartaric  acid),  and  remained 
actively  engaged  in  business  in  London  up  to 
the  time  of  his  death. 

But '  all  the  time  he  was  accumulating  a 
fortune  by  business  in  London,  he  was  at 
home  spending  a  fortune  in  laborious  scien- 
tific agricultural  investigations '  (R.  War- 
ington,  F.R.S.,  in  Agric.  Gazette,  17  Sept. 
1900,  p.  180).  In  1843  he  started  on  a 
regular  basis  the  Rothamsted  agricultural 
experiment  station ;  and  in  June  of  that 
year  called  to  his  aid,  as  coadjutor  and 
technical  adviser,  Dr.  (afterwards  Sir)  Joseph 
Henry  Gilbert.  Together  Lawes  and  Dr. 
Gilbert  instituted  and  carried  out  a  vast 
number  of  experiments  of  enormous  benefit 
to  the  agricultural  community  at  large, 
the  details  of  which  were  recorded  in  the 
*  Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society,'  the  Journals  of  the  Chemical  Society 
and  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  and 
other  publications.  Two  main  lines  of  in- 
quiry were  followed — the  one  relating  to 
plants,  the  other  to  animals.  In  the  former 
case  the  method  of  procedure  is  described  in 
the  official  'Memoranda'  in  which  it  was 
shown  how  endeavours  had  been  made  '  to 
grow  some  of  the  most  important  crops  of 
rotation,  each  separately,  year  after  year,  for 
many  years  in  succession  on  the  same  land, 
without  manure,  with  farmyard  manure,  and 
with  a  great  variety  of  chemical  manures, 
the  same  description  of  manure  being  as  a 


rule  applied  year  after  year  on  the  same 
plot.  Experiments  on  an  actual  course 
of  rotation  without  manure  and  with  dif- 
ferent manures  were  also  made : '  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  beans,  clover  and  other  legumi- 
nous plants,  turnips,  sugar  beet,  mangels, 
potatoes,  and  grass  crops  having  been  thus 
experimented  on.  The  main  object  of  the 
experiments  on  animals  (commenced  in 
1847)  was  to  ascertain  how  they  could  be 
most  economically  fed  for  human  consump- 
tion ;  but  incidentally  information  of  great 
value  was  obtained  towards  the  solution  of 
such  problems  as  the  sources  in  the  food 
consumed  of  the  fat  produced  in  the  animal 
body,  the  characteristic  demands  of  the 
animal  body  (for  nitrogenous  or  non-nitro- 
genous constituents  of  food),  in  the  exer- 
cise of  muscular  power,  and  the  comparative 
characters  of  animal  and  vegetable  food  in 
human  dietaries. 

In  all  132  separate  papers  or  reports  on 
the  Rothamsted  experiments  were  published 
during  Lawes's  life,  most  of  them  in  the 
joint  names  of  himself  and  Dr.  Gilbert.  A 
full  list  of  these  is  contained  in  the  '  Memo- 
randa of  the  Origin,  Plan,  and  Results  of 
the  Field  and  other  Experiments  ...  at 
Rothamsted,'  now  issued  annually  by  the 
Lawes  Agricultural  Trust  Committee.  The 
'  Journal  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  of  Scotland'  for  1895  contains  a 
summary  (354  pages),  by  Sir  John  Lawes 
and  Sir  Henry  Gilbert  themselves,  of  several 
series  of  the  experiments,  with  photographic 
portraits  of  both  authors,  and  a  view  of  the 
manor  house. 

This  did  not,  however,  exhaust  Lawes's 
literary  activity,  for  he  was  occasionally 
prevailed  on  to  lecture  in  public  to  farmers' 
clubs,  and  a  lengthy  letter  by  him,  estimating 
the  produce  of  the  wheat  crop  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  was  an  annual  feature  of 
the  '  Times '  newspaper  in  every  autumn 
from  1863  to  1899.  He  would  often  more- 
over write  short  pithy  practical  papers  for 
the  agricultural  press  on  various  phases  of 
the  Rothamsted  experiments,  or  expressing 
in  terse  and  forcible  language  his  own  views 
on  some  agricultural  question  of  the  day. 

The  unique  feature  of  Rothamsted — which 
is  now  the  oldest  experiment  station  in  the 
world — is  the  long  unbroken  continuity  of 
the  investigations.  To  provide  for  their 
permanent  continuance,  Lawes  constituted 
by  deed,  dated  14  Feb.  1889,  three  trustees, 
to  whom  he  leased  the  laboratory  and  certain 
lands  at  Rothamsted  for  ninety-nine  years 
at  a  peppercorn  rent,  and  conveyed  to  such 
trustees  the  sum  of  100,000/.  as  an  endow- 
ment fund.  Under  that  deed  a  '  Lawes 


Lawes 


81 


Lawes 


Agricultural  Trust'  was  created,  which  is  ! 
to  be  administered  by  a  committee  of  nine 
persons,  four  nominated  by  the  Royal  Society,  I 
two  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  and  i 
one  each  by  the  Chemical  and  Linnean  So- 
cieties, the  ninth  trustee  being  the  owner  of 
Rothamsted  at    the  time    (Journal  Royal 
Agric.  Soc.  1896,  pp.  324-32). 

The  experiments  which  he  was  conducting 
at  Rothamsted  early  brought  Lawes  into 
prominence.  He  joined  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society  in  1846,  and  became  one  of 
its  governing  body  on  22  May  1848,  retain- 
ing his  seat  on  the  council  for  the  unpre- 
cedented period  of  over  fifty-  two  years.  He 
became  a  vice-president  in  1878,  and  a  trustee 
in  1891,  and  was  offered  the  presidency  in 
1893  (the  year  of  the  jubilee  of  the  Rot- 
hamsted experiments),  though  he  then  felt 
unequal,  through  advancing  years  and  in- 
creasing deafness,  to  accept  the  post.  In 
1854  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Societv,  and  received  the  society's  royal 
medar(with  Dr.  Gilbert)  in  1867.  "  In  1894  j 
he  also  received  (again  with  Dr.  Gilbert)  the 
Albert  gold  medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts. 
In  1877  he  became  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh,  in 
1892  D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  and  in  1894  Sc.D. 
of  Cambridge,  and  on  19  May  1882  he  was 
created  a  baronet. 

Lawes  acted  on  a  great  variety  of  com- 
missions and  committees,  including  the  royal 
commission  on  the  sewage  of  towns,  and  his 
advice  was  in  constant  demand  on  every 
variety  of  agricultural  subjects.  Rotham- 
sted was  for  many  years  before  his  death  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  for  men  of  science  from 
all  countries,  students,  farmers,  and  all  in- 
terested in  agricultural  research.  The  earliest 
laboratory  (an  old  barn)  was  replaced  in 
]s.").">  by  a  new  structure — still  in  use — 
which  was  erected  by  subscribers  as  a  testi- 
monial to  Lawes's  services  in  behalf  of  British 
agriculture ;  it  was  presented  to  him  with 
a  silver  candelabrum  at  a  public  meeting  at 
Rothamsted  on  19  July  1855  (Agric.  Gazette, 
21  Julyl855,p.491 :  for  Lawes's  speech  on  that 
occasion  see  Journal  R.A.S.E.  1900,  p.  519). 

In  1893,  when  the  Rothamsted  experi- 
ments had  been  conducted  for  a  period  of 
fifty  years,  Lawes  was  presented  by  public 
subscription  with  his  portrait,  by  Mr.'Hubert 
Herkouier,  R.A.,  a  huge  monolithic  boulder 
being  at  the  same  time  set  up  in  front  of  the 
laboratory,  with  an  inscription  that  it  was 
'  to  commemorate  the  completion  of  fifty 
years  of  continuous  experiments  (the  first  of 
their  kind)  in  agriculture  conducted  at 
Rothamsted  by  Sir  John  Bennet  Lawes  and 
Joseph  Henry  Gilbert,  A.D.  MDCCCXCIU.' 
Edward  VII,  then  prince  of  Wales,  placed 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


himself  at  the  head  of  the  movement  for  com- 
memorating the  Rothamsted  jubilee,  and 
signed  the  address  presented  by  the  sub- 
scribers, which  spoke  of  Lawes  'as  '  one  of 
the  most  disinterested  as  well  as  the  most 
scientific  of  our  public  benefactors.'  The 
portrait,  granite  memorial,  and  addresses 
from  learned  societies,  both  British  and 
foreign,  with  which  Lawes  was  connected, 
were  presented  at  a  public  ceremonial  at 
Rothamsted  on  29  July  1893,  over  which 
Mr.  Herbert  Gardner,  M.P.  (afterwards  Lord 
Burghclere),  then  minister  for  agriculture, 
presided. 

Lawes  was  below  the  middle  stature,  and 
was  careless  in  matters  of  dress ;  but  his 
rugged  and  striking  face  at  once  commanded 
attention,  and  his  exposition  of  his  experi- 
ments to  an  appreciative  listener  was  most 
telling  and  instructive.  He  was  fond  of 
deer-stalking  and  salmon-fishing,  and  until 
1895  went  regularly  to  Scotland  for  pur- 
poses of  sport,  though  his  greatest  enjoy- 
ment was  in  his  farming  experiments.  He 
found  time,  however,  to  interest  himself  in 
a  very  practical  manner  in  the  welfare  of 
the  villagers  and  labourers  at  Harpenden, 
near  Rothamsted,  starting  in  1852  allotment 
gardens  for  them,  and  increasing  the  num- 
ber from  time  to  time,  so  that  they  now 
number  334  (see  'Allotments  and  Small 
Holdings'  in  Journal  R.A.S.E.  1892,  pp. 
451-2).  From  the  beginning  he  gave  prizes 
for  the  best  gardens,  and  in  1857  he  built  for 
the  allotment  holders  a  clubhouse,  managed 
entirely  by  themselves  (ibid.  1877,  pp.  387- 
393).  Attempts  at  supplying  the  various 
wants  of  the  labourers  at  wholesale  prices, 
on  a  co-operative  system,  commenced  in 
1859,  and  Charles  Dickens  wrote  for  the  first 
number  of  '  All  the  Year  Round '  (30  April 
1859)  an  article  entitled  '  A  Poor  Man  and 
his  Beer,'  in  which  the  relations  of  Lawes 
(who  is  called  in  the  article  '  Friar  Bacon  ') 
and  his  labourers  are  described.  The  Pig 
Club  and  the  Flour  Club,  started  by  Lawes, 
and  the  Harpenden  Labourers'  Store  Society 
(subsequently  formed),  failed  after  a  time 
for  want  of  support  from  the  members,  but 
the  clubhouse  still  exists  and  is  a  perma- 
nent success.  In  1856  Lawes  started  a  sav- 
ings bank,  giving  five  per  cent,  interest  on 
deposits ;  and  as  he  found  after  a  time  that 
if  the  bank  were  to  prosper  he  must  receive 
the  money  himself,  it  became  his  custom  to 
spend  an  hour  every  Saturday  evening  in 
this  work,  which  continued  until  the  general 
introduction  of  post-office  savings  banks. 

Lawes  died  on  31  Aug.  1900,  and  was 
buried  at  Harpenden  in  the  presence  of  a 
large  and  representative  assemblage  of  agri- 

e 


Layard  s 

culturists  on  4  Sept.  1900.  The  portrait  by 
Mr.  Herkomer,  painted  by  subscription  in 
1893,  hangs  at  Rothamsted.  A  reproduction 
of  it  appears  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society'  for  30  Sept.  1900, 
with  a  memoir.  Lawes  married,  on  28  Dec. 
1842,  Caroline,  daughter  of  Andrew  Foun- 
taine  of  Warford  Hall,  Norfolk,  and  by  her, 
who  died  in  1895,  left  issue  one  daughter 
and  one  son,  Charles  Bennett  (b.  1843),  who 
succeeded  to  the  baronetcy. 

[Journal  Royal  Agric.  Soc.  1900,  pp.  511-24 
(memoir,  with  portrait),  and  earlier  vols.  quoted 
above  ;  Agricultural  Gazette,  2  Jan.  1888,  p.  13 
(autobiographical  note  of  his  earlier  years); 
Transactions  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society, 
1895  (portrait,  and  summary  of  experiments)  ; 
Reminiscences  of  Sir  John  Lawes  (three  articles 
in  Agricultural  Gazette  for  17  and  24  Sept.  and 
8  Oct.  1900,  by  R.  Wariugton,  F.R.S.,  a  for- 
mer assistant  in  the  Rothamsted  laboratory). 
Lawes  and  his  experiments  are  constantly  re- 
ferred to  in  the  agricultural  literature  of  the 
second  half  of  the  nineteenth  centurv.] 

E.  C-E. 

LAYARD,     SIR     AUSTEN    HENRY 

(1817-1894),  excavator  of  Nineveh  and  poli- 
tician, bom  in  Paris  on  5  March  1817,  of 
Huguenot  descent,  was  son  of  Henry  Peter 
John  Layard,  of  the  Ceylon  Civil  Service, 
and  of  Marianne,  daughter  of  Nathaniel 
Austen  of  Ramsgate.  Daniel  Peter  Layard 
[q.v.]  was  his  great-grandfather.  His  youth 
was  mainly  spent  in  Italy.  When  sixteen 
years  old  he  entered  the  office  of  his  uncle, 
Henry  Austen,  who  was  a  solicitor  in  Lon- 
don. There  he  remained  for  six  years,  but 
law  did  not  attract  him,  and  in  1839  he  de- 
cided to  leave  England  for  Ceylon,  as  a  rela- 
tive living  in  the  island  held  out  to  him  a 
prospect  of  more  congenial  employment 
He  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Edward 
Mitford,  a  young  man  about  ten  years  older 
than  himself,  who  was  setting  out  for  the 
same  destination,  and,  as  Mitford  disliked 
the  sea,  they  hit  upon  the  plan  of  making 
the  journey  overland  through  Asia.  Leav- 
ing England  on  8  July  1839,  Layard  joined 
Mitford  at  Brussels,  and  they  travelled  to- 
gether through  Roumelia  to  Constantinople. 
In  August  1840  they  reached  Hamadan, 
where  they  parted  company.  Layard  aban- 
doned the  journey  to  Ceylon,  and  remained 
for  a  time  in  Persia.  In  the  following  year 
it  became  necessary  for  him  to  obtain  fresh 
funds  from  home.  Having  written  to  his 
friends  in  London  from  Baghdad,  he  de- 
scended the  Tigris  to  Basra,  and  paid  a  second 
visit  to  Khuzistan.  His  expenses  were  not 
heavy,  as  he  adopted  the  Bakhtiyari  dress 
and  travelled  alone  or  with  one  servant.  On 


Layard 


returning  to  Baghdad  he  found  letters  from 
his  friends  which  necessitated  his  return  to 
England,  and  in  the  summer  of  1842  he  set 
out  for  Constantinople  on  the  return  journey. 
On  his  way  he  spent  several  days  at  Mosul 
with  Emil  Botta,  who  had  recently  been  ap- 
pointed French  consul  there,  and  who  had 
already  begun  his  excavations  in  the  great 
mounds  opposite  the  city  which  mark  the 
site  of  the  ruins  of  Nineveh.  Botta  had 
opened  trenches  in  the  largest  of  the  mounds, 
known  as  Kuyunjik,  and  Layard  visited  and 
examined  with  him  the  spot  where  he  him- 
self was  subsequently  to  undertake  excava- 
tions for  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum. 

On  his  arrival  at  Constantinople,  Layard 
called  at  the  British  embassy  to  deliver  a 
letter  entrusted  to  him  by  Colonel  Taylor, 
the  British  resident  at  Baghdad.  At  this 
time  the  relations  between  Turkey  and  Persia 
were  strained  owing  to  disputes  concerning 
the  frontier,  and  Layard  hoped  that  his  recent 
travels  in  Khuzistan  and  his  knowledge  of 
the  region  in  dispute  would  procure  him 
employment  in  some  form  or  other  at  the 
embassy.  His  first  reception  there  was  not 
encouraging ;  but  when  his  funds  were  ex- 
hausted, and  he  was  about  to  leave  for  Eng- 
land, he  received  an  offer  from  Stratford 
Canning  (afterwards  Viscount  Stratford  de 
Redcliffe)  [q.  v.],  the  British  ambassador  to 
Turkey,  that  he  should  travel  unofficially 
through  Western  Turkey  and  report  to  him 
on  the  state  of  affairs.  This  offer,  which  he 
readily  accepted,  was  the  turning-point  in 
Layard's  fortunes.  His  financial  difficulties 
ceased,  and  in  Canning  he  obtained  an  influ- 
ential patron  who  put  him  in  the  way  of 
his  future  discoveries.  Continuing  to  em- 
ploy Layard  privately,  Canning,  in  the 
spring  of  1844,  sent  him  on  a  mission  to 
Northern  Albania.  Meanwhile  he  had  re- 
commended him  for  an  appointment  at  the 
embassy,  but,  as  the  suggestion  met  with 
opposition  at  the  foreign  office,  he  found 
other  employment  for  his  protege.  Canning 
took  a  keen  interest  in  archaeology.  He  had 
read  the  memoir  of  Claudius  James  Rich 
[q.  v.]  on  the  site  of  Nineveh,  and  when 
Layard  described  to  him  the  mounds  which 
he  had  examined  with  Botta  he  decided  to 
undertake  the  exploration  of  that  site.  He 
!  used  his  influence  with  the  Porte  to  obtain 
|  the  necessary  firman;  he  paid  Layard  a 
salary  of  200/.  a  year ;  and  he  placed  at  his 
disposal  an  addicional  sum  for  defraying  the 
cost  of  excavation  (see  LANE-POOLE,  The 
\  Life  of  Stratford  Canning,  ii.  137  f.)  In 
|  the  early  part  of  October  1845  Layard  re- 
ceived his  final  instructions,  and  left  Con- 
stantinople for  Mosul. 


Layard 


Layard 


Tradition  had  always  pointed  to  the 
mounds  opposite  the  modern  town  of  Mosul 
as  marking  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Nineveh  (see  YAKUT,  ed.  Wustenfeld,  iv. 
683),  and  Layard  was  not  the  first  to  examine 
or  explore  them.  In  1820  and  1821  Claudius 
James  Rich  had  begun  the  investiga- 
tion, and  had  identified  the  mounds  of 
Kuyunjik  and  Nebi-Yunus  with  Nineveh. 
Botta,  however,  was  the  first  to  undertake 
systematic  excavations  at  Kuyunjik.  Dur- 
ing three  months  in  1842  he  opened  trenches 
in  the  mound,  but  as  he  did  not  meet  with 
encouraging  results  he  transferred  his  opera- 
tions to  Khorsabad,  the  site  ofDurSharrukin, 
the  city  of  Sargon  II.  The  fine  sculptures 
which  he  there  dug  up  led  him  to  form  the 
erroneous  belief  that  Khorsabad,  and  not 
Kuyunjik,  was  the  site  of  Nineveh,  and 
Layard  fell  into  a  similar  error  when  he 
opened  the  mound  at  Nimrud  and  wrongly 
identified  it  with  Nineveh.  It  was  not  until 
the  inscriptions  found  later  on  at  Kuyunjik 
had  been  deciphered  by  Sir  Henry  Creswicke 
Rawlinson  [q.  v.]  and  others  that  Rich's  view 
was  once  again  acknowledged  to  be  correct. 
Nimrud  was  afterwards  identified  as  the  site 
of  the  Assyrian  city  of  Calah.  The  large 
mound  of  Nimrud,  to  which  Layard,  influ- 
enced by  Botta's  want  of  success  at  Kuyun- 
jik, turned  his  attention,  lies  near  the  village 
of  that  name  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
about  twenty  miles  south-east  of  Mosul. 
He  continued*  to  dig  there  until  the  summer 
of  1846,  uncovering  what  were  subsequently 
identified  as  parts  of  the  palaces  of  Ashur- 
nasir-pal,  Esarhaddon,  and  Shalmaneser  II, 
which  were  situated  respectively  in  the 
north-west  and  south-west  corners  and  in 
the  centre  of  the  mound.  Layard  made 
periodical  reports  of  his  progress  to  Canning, 
who  in  May  procured  from  the  Turkish 
government  a  letter  authorising  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  excavations  and  the  removal 
of  such  objects  as  might  be  discovered. 
Layard  therefore  had  the  bas-reliefs  sawn  in 
half  to  lighten  their  weight,  and  the  sculp- 
tured portions  were  floated  down  the  Tigris 
to  Basra  for  transport  to  England.  Mean- 
while Canning  perceived  that  his  own 
means  would  not  suffice  to  carry  out  the 
excavations  with  success,  and  it  was  in 
consequence  of  his  representations  to  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  the  prime  minister  (see  Life  of 
Canning,  ii.  149  f.),  that  operations  were 
continued  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum. The  sultan  had  made  a  personal  gift 
to  Canning  of  the  antiquities  which  had 
hitherto  been  found  ;  these  Canning  gene- 
rously presented  to  the  nation,  and  the 
trustees  of  the  museum  availed  themselves 


of  his  advice  with  regard  to  the  future  con- 
duct of  the  excavations. 

At  the  beginning  of  November  1846  work 
was  resumed  at  Nimrud  on  a  more  extensive 
scale  for  the  British  Museum,  and  Layard 
also  superintended  excavations  at  Kal'at 
Skerkat  (the  site  of  the  city  of  Ashur), 
and  for  a  few  weeks  in  the  following  spring 
at  Kuyunjik.  In  June  1847  Layard  left 
Mosul  for  England,  where  he  prepared  an  ac- 
count of  the  excavations  with  the  assistance 
of  Samuel  Birch  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  of  the  British 
Museum.  The  work  was  entitled  '  Nineveh 
and  its  Remains  '  (1848-9),  for  Layard  in- 
correctly believed  that  Nimrud  was  within 
the  precincts  of  Nineveh.  The  book  made 
a  great  sensation,  and  in  recognition  of  his 
discoveries  Layard  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the  university  of 
Oxford  on  5  July  1848.  It  is  a  curious  fact, 
however,  that,  like  Botta's  '  Monuments  de 
Ninive,'  the  book  had  in  reality  little  to  do 
with  Nineveh  or  its  remains. 

On  5  April  1849  Layard  was  appointed 
an  attache  to  the  embassy  at  Constanti- 
nople, whither  he  returned ;  and  in  October 
of  that  year  he  again  superintended  excava- 
tions for  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum, 
a  grant  of  3,000/.  having  been  placed  at 
their  disposal  by  the  treasury  for  this  pur- 
pose. For  more  than  a  year  work  was 
carried  on,  and  palaces  of  Sennacherib  and 
A  shur-bani-pal  at  Kuyunjik  and  a  palace  of 
Sennacherib  and  Esarhaddon  at  Nebi- 
Yunus  were  partly  uncovered.  In  the 
spring  of  1851  Layard  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  the  excavations  were  continued 
by  Rawlinson,  then  consul  general,  and 
the  political  agent  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany at  Baghdad.  Layard  published  an 
account  of  his  second  series  of  excavations 
in  his  work  '  Nineveh  and  Babylon,'  which 
appeared  in  1853.  Layard's  discoveries 
brought  him  very  wide  reputation.  He  was 
presented  with  the  freedom  of  the  city  of 
London  in  1853,  and  in  1855  he  was  elected 
lord  rector  of  Aberdeen  University. 

He  did  not  return  to  Mesopotamia  after 
1851.  Thenceforth  he  devoted  himself  to 
politics,  in  which  his  main  interests  were 
confined  to  the  affairs  of  Eastern  Europe. 
On  7  July  1852  he  was  returned  as  a  liberal 
for  Aylesbury,  and  from  12  Feb.  to  18  Aug. 
held  the  post  of  under-secretary  for  foreign 
affairs  under  Lord  Palmerston.  He  r^pre- 
sented  Aylesbury  until  1857,  but  while  he 
held  the  seat  he  was  absent  from  England 
for  some  time.  In  1853  he  visited  at  Con- 
stantinople Lord  Stratford  de  RedclifFe  (Sir 
Stratford  Canning),  his  former  patron,  and, 
proceeding  to  the  Black  Sea  in  the  follow- 

G  2 


Layard 


84 


Layard 


ing  year  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean 
war,  witnessed  the  battle  of  the  Alma  from 
the  maintop  ot'H.M.S.  Agamemnon.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  gave  evidence  before 
the  committee  of  inquiry  with  regard  to  the 
condition  of  the  British  army  at  Sebasto- 
pol.  After  losing  his  seat  for  Aylesbury  at 
the  general  election  in  March  1857,  he  made 
a  tour  in  India  during  the  latter  part  of 
that  year  and  1858,  in  order  to  study  the 
causes  and  effects  of  the  Indian  mutiny. 
In  April  1859  he  unsuccessfully  contested 
York,  but  in  December  1860  was  returned 
as  one  of  the  members  for  Southwark.  In 
July  1861  he  again  became  under-secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  in  Lord  Palmerston's  ad- 
ministration, in  which  Lord  John  (first 
earl)  Russell  was  foreign  secretary.  On 
Palmerston's  death  in  October  1865,  Layard 
continued  to  hold  the  same  office  in  Lord 
Russell's  administration,  in  which  Lord 
Clarendon  was  foreign  secretary,  and  he  re- 
signed with  the  ministry  in  July  next  year. 
In  December  1868,  when  Gladstone  had 
become  prime  minister  for  the  first  time, 
Layard  was  appointed  to  the  post  of  chief 
commissioner  of  works,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  privy  council.  In  November  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  resigned  that  office,  and  his 
career  as  a  politician  was  brought  to  an  end 
by  his  acceptance  of  the  post  of  British  mini- 
ster at  Madrid. 

Layard  was  in  agreement  with  Lord  Bea- 
consfield's  political  opinions  in  regard  to 
Eastern  Europe.  On  31  March  1877  he  was 
accordingly  transferred  by  Lord  Beacons- 
field  from  Madrid  to  Constantinople,  in  suc- 
cession to  Sir  Henry  George  Elliot.  Within 
a  month  of  his  arrival  the  Russo-Turkish 
war  broke  out,  and  his  action  soon  became 
the  theme  of  excited  controversy  among  poli- 
ticians at  home.  His  sympathies  were  un- 
doubtedly with  Turkey,  but  in  a  despatch  to 
the  foreign  minister,  Lord  Derby,  of  February 
1878,  he  solemnly  denied  reports  that  he  had 
encouraged  Turkey  to  commence  or  continue 
the  war,  or  had  led  her  to  believe  that  Eng- 
land would  give  her  material  support.  He 
declared  he  had  always  '  striven  for  peace,' 
and  for  '  the  cause  of  religious  and  political 
liberty.'  In  June  1878  he  negotiated  the 
Anglo-Turkish  convention  for  the  British 
occupation  of  Cyprus.  In  June  1878  he  re- 
ceived the  order  of  the  grand  cross  of  the 
Bath  as  a  mark  of  recognition  of  his  advo- 
cacy of  Lord  Beaconsfield's  imperial  views. 
In  April  1880  a  general  election  took  place 
in  England,  and  it  resulted  in  the  resigna- 
tion of  Lord  Beaconsfield  and  his  ministry, 
and  in  the  formation  of  Gladstone's  se- 
cond administration.  Thereupon  Layard 


received  leave  of  absence  from  his  post  at 
Constantinople,  and  his  official  career  came 
to  an  end.  In  May  Mr.  G.  J.  (now  Viscount) 
Goschen  was  sent  to  Constantinople  in  his 
place  as  special  ambassador  and  minister- 
plenipotentiary  of  Great  Britain.  In  his 
later  years  Layard  lived  much  in  Italy, 
chiefly  at  Venice,  where  he  was  well  known 
as  a  social  figure  and  an  authority  on  art, 
which  had  always  been  a  subject  of  his  close 
study.  His  interest  in  Italian  art  was  very 
deep.  In  February  1806  he  was  appointed 
a  trustee  of  the  National  Gallery,  and  he 
became  honorary  foreign  secretary  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Arts.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don on  5  July  1894.  His  remains  were  cre- 
mated and  buried  at  Woking  on  9  July. 
In  1869  he  married  Mary  Evelyn,  daughter 
of  Sir  John  Guest ;  she  survived  him. 

Two  portraits  of  Layard  in  crayon  were 
made  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Watts,  R.A.,  the  one  for 
Mr.  John  Murray  in  1848,  the  other  a  few 
years  later  for  Layard's  own  collection  of 
pictures;  the  former  portrait  is  reproduced 
in '  Early  Adventures '  ( 2nd  edit.)  A  coloured 
picture  of  Layard,  taken  in  1843,  forms  the 
frontispiece  to  '  Early  Adventures '  (1st  edit.) 

Layard  made  a  greater  reputation  as  an  ex- 
cavator than  as  a  politician  or  a  diplomatist, 
but  he  was  without  the  true  archaeologist's 
feeling — a  fact  which  is  sufficiently  proved 
by  '  his  presenting  to  his  friends  neatly  cut 
tablets  containing  fragments  of  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  which,  of  course,  left  serious 
lacunae  in  priceless  historical  documents  ' 
(Athenceum,  14  July  1894).  His  best- 
known  works  are  those  that  deal  with  his 
excavations.  The  excavations  at  Nimrud 
were  described  in '  Nineveh  and  its  Remains ' 
(1849, 2  vols.) ;  and '  Discoveries  in  the  Ruins 
of  Nineveh  and  Babylon '  (1853)  recounts 
his  second  series  of  excavations ;  these  were 
his  principal  works.  Drawings  of  the  exca- 
vated bas-reliefs  were  published  in  two  series 
of  plates  entitled  '  The  Monuments  of  Nine- 
veh '  (1849)  and  'A  Second  Series  of  Monu- 
ments of  Nineveh  '  (1853).  In  '  Inscriptions 
in  the  Cuneiform  Character  from  Assyrian 
Monuments'  (1851)  he  printed,  with  Sir 
H.  C.  Rawlinson's  assistance,  copies  of  a  few 
of  the  monumental  texts  from  his  diggings, 
but  he  took  no  part  in  the  decipherment  of 
the  inscriptions — a  work  which  was  carried 
out  by  Rawlinson,  Dr.  Hinckes,  M.  Jules 
Oppert,  and  others.  In  1851  an  abridg- 
ment of  '  Nineveh  and  its  Remains '  was 
published  for  the  railway  bookstalls,  under 
the  title  'A  Popular  Account  of  Dis- 
coveries at  Nineveh,'  a  second  edition  of 
which  was  produced  in  1867  under  the  old 
title, '  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,'  together 


Layer 


with   a   companion   volume,  '  Nineveh  and 
Babylon,'  containing   a  similar  abridgment 
of  his  other  work.    In  1854  he  wrote  a  small 
guide  to  the  Nineveh  Court  in  the  Crystal 
Palace.     In  1887  he  published  an  account 
of  his  life  between  the  years  1839  and  1845 
under  the  title  '  Early  Adventures  in  Persia,  j 
Susiana,  and  Babylonia  '  (abridged  edition,  j 
1894). 

Layard  also  wrote  much  on  art.  In  1887 
he  revised  Kugler's '  Handbook  of  Painting;' 
in  1892  he  wrote  an  introduction  to  a  trans- 
lation of  Morelli's  '  Italian  Painters,'  and 
he  edited  a  'Handbook  of  Rome'  (1894). 
He  also  contributed  some  papers  to  the 
'  Proceedings  '  of  the  Huguenot  Society,  of  j 
which  he  was  president,  and  some  of  his 
speeches  in  the  House  of  Commons  were 
issued  in  pamphlet  form.  In  1890  he  was 
elected  a  foreign  member  of  the  Institut  de 
France. 

[Fragments  of  autobiography  in  Layard's 
Eai'ly  Adventures  (1st  ed.),  Nineveh  and  its  Re- 
mains (1st  ed.),  and  Nineveh  and  Babylon  (1st 
ed.) ;  Stanley  Lane-Poole's  Lite  of  Stratford 
Canning,  vol.  ii. ;  Lord  Aberdare's  Prefatory 
Notice  to  the  abridged  edition  of  Layard's  Early 
Adventures;  Men  and  Women  of  the  Time.  13th 
edit. ;  Celebrities  of  the  Century  (1890) ;  Tinvs, 
6  July  1894,  and  Athenaeum,  14  July  1894.] 

L.  W.  K. 

LAYER,  JOHN  (1585  P-1641),  Cam- 
bridge antiquary,  born  in  1585  or  1586,  pro- 
bably at  Lillings  Ambo  in  the  North  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  was  the  son  of  William  Layer, 
a  London  merchant,  by  his  wife  Martha, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Thomas  Wanton. 
He  was  educated  as  a  lawyer,  but  possessed 
sufficient  wealth  to  enable  him  to  devote 
most  of  his  time  to  antiquarian  pursuits. 
He  resided  at  Shepreth  in  Cambridgeshire. 
His  parochial  history  of  Cambridgeshire  is 
one  of  the  earliest  of  the  kind  written.  It 
was  never  published,  but  parts  of  it  are  still 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum  among 
the  Harleian  MSS.  (No.  6768),  which  con- 
tains a  transcript  of  the  portion  relating  to 
the  hundreds  of  Armingford,  Long  Stowe, 
Papworth,  North  Stowe,  Chesterton,  Wether- 
ley,  Thriplowe,  and  among  the  Additional 
MSS.  (Nos.  5819,  5823,  5849,  5954).  Other 
portions  of  it  are  extant  in  the  Bishop's 
Library  at  Ely,  and  at  the  library  at  Wim- 
pole  Hall,  Cambridge.  His  extracts  from 
the  registers  of  the  Bishop  of  Ely  are  in  the 
British  Museum  (Addit.  MSS.  5824-5828), 
and  his  Cambridge  pedigrees  are  in  the  same 
library  (Addit.  MS.  5812).  An  autograph 
manuscript  volume  by  Layer,  licensed  for 
printing  and  entitled  '  The  Reformed  Jus- 
tice, or  an  Alphabeticall  Abstract  of  all 


;  Leathes 

such  Articles  and  Matters  as  are  incident  and 
enquirable  at  the  generall  quarter  Sessions 
of  the  Peace  or  otherwise  belonginge  to  the 
knowledge  and  practice  of  a  Justice  of  the 
Peace,'  is  in  the  library  of  Caius  College, 
Cambridge.  It  is  a  handbook  for  justices  of 
the  peace,  and  is  dedicated  to  Sir  John  Cutts, 
'  Gustos  rotulorum  for  the  county  of  Cam- 
bridge '  in  1633.  In  an  epistle  to  the  reader 
notice  is  taken  of  a  book  recently  published, 
entitled  '  The  Compleat  Justice,'  of  which 
Layer  was  the  reputed  author.  This  work 
is  not  extant,  but  a  copy  of  a  legal  treatise 
by  Layer  entitled  '  The  Office  and  Duty  of 
Churchwardens,  Constables,  and  Overseers 
of  the  Poor '  (Cambridge,  1641,  8vo),  is  pre- 
served in  the  Bodleian  Library.  One  of 
Layer's  notebooks  is  among  the  Rawlinson 
MSS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library  (B.  278),  and 
another  entitled  '  Notes  of  the  Foundation 
of  several  Religious  Houses  from  the  Col- 
lections of  John  Layer '  is  in  Dodsworth  MS. 
90  (pp.  158-60). 

Layer  died  in  1641.  He  married  in 
1611  Frances,  daughter  of  Robert  Sterne 
of  Maltoii  in  Cambridgeshire.  By  her  he 
had  three  sons  and  two  daughters.  He 
may  be  truly  called  the  father  of  Cambridge 
archaeology,  and  William  Cole  (1714-1782) 
[q.v.]  owed  much  to  his  industry.  After 
his  death  his  manuscripts  eventually  fell 
into  the  hands  of  his  descendant,  John  Eyre, 
who  sold  his  estate  at  Shepreth  and  came 
to  London.  Eyre  was  afterwards  convicted 
of  felony  and  transported,  when  the  manu- 
scripts were  dispersed.  Several,  however, 
fell  into  Cole's  hands  and  were  incorporated 
by  him  in  his  collections.  An  undated  letter 
from  W.  Fairfax  of  Yorkshire  to  J.  Layer  is 
among  the  Bodleian  MSS.  (Rawlinson,  B. 
450,  f.  390). 

[Cole's  Manuscript  Collections  for  Cam- 
bridgeshire in  the  British  Museum  Library ; 
notes  kimily  furnished  by  Mr.  W.  M.  Palmer  of 
Royston  ;  Smith's  Catalogue  of  Manuscripts  in 
Caius  College  Library,  1849,  p.  21 1  :  Catalogues 
of  Manuscripts  in  the  Bodleian  Library.] 

E  I.C. 

LEATHES,  STANLEY  (1830-1900), 
hebraist,  son  of  Chaloner  Stanley  Leathes, 
rector  of  Ellesborough,  Buckinghamshire, 
was  born  at  Ellesborough  on  21  March  1830. 
He  was  educated  privately  and  at  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge,  in  which  university  he 
graduated  B.A.  in  18-52,  was  elected  first 
Tyrwhitt's  Hebrew  scholar  in  1853,  and  pro- 
ceeded M.A.  in  1855.  In  1885  he  was 
elected  honorary  fellow  of  Jesus  College. 
He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1856  and  priest 
in  1857,  and  was  curate  successively  of  St. 
Martin's,  Salisbury  (1856-8),  St.  Luke's, 


Leathes 


86 


Leclercq 


Berwick  Street,  Westminster  (1858),  and 
St.  James's,  AVestminster  ( 1 858-60),  in  which 
last  parish  he  was  appointed  in  1860  to  the 
freehold  office  of  '  clerk  in  orders,'  to  that 
of  priest  and  assistant  in  1865,  and  to  the 
perpetual  curacy  of  St.  Philip's,  Regent 
Street,  in  1869.  lie  was  elected  in  1863 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  King's  College,  Lon- 
don, and  in  1870  member  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment revision  committee,  in  the  labours  of 
which  he  took  an  assiduous  part  until  their 
conclusion  in  1885.  lie  was  Boyle  lecturer 
1868-70,  Hulsean  lecturer  1873,  Bampton 
lecturer  1874,  and  Warburton  lecturer  1876- 
1880.  He  was  installed  prebendary  of 
Addington  Major  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in 
1876,  and  instituted  in  1880  to  the  rectory 
of  Clifte-at-Hoo,  Kent,  which  he  exchanged 
in  1889  for  the  more  "valuable  benefice  of 
Much  Had  ham,  Hertfordshire,  where  he 
died  on  30  April  1900. 

Leathes'schurchmanship  was  of  the  mode- 
rate type,  equally  removed  from  ritualism 
and  rationalism  (see  his  Unity  of  the  Church, 
a  sermon,  London,  1868,  8vo  ;  Future  Pro- 
bation, London,  1876,  8vo  ;  and  '  Life  and 
Times  of  Irenseus '  in  Lectures  on  Eccle- 
siastical History,  ed.  Dean  Lefroy,  London, 
1896,  8vo).  He  was  a  sound  Hebrew  scho- 
lar, a  singularly  cautious  critic,  and  a  sober 
but  uncompromising  apologist.  The  follow- 
ing are  his  principal  works :  1.  '  The  Birth- 
day of  Christ :  its  Preparation,  Message,  and 
Witness.  Three  Sermons  preached  before 
the  University  of  Cambridge,'  Cambridge, 
1866,  8vo.  2." ' A  Short  Practical  Hebrew 
Grammar ;  with  an  Appendix  containing 
the  Hebrew  Text  of  Gen.  i-vi.  and  Psalms 
i-vi.,'  London,  1868,  8vo.  3.  Boyle  Lec- 
tures '  (three  series ) :  '  The  Witness  of  the 
Old  Testament  to  Christ,'  London,  1868, 8vo ; 
'  The  Witness  of  St.  Paul  to  Christ,'  Lon- 
don, 1869,  8vo  ;  '  The  Witness  of  St.  John 
to  Christ,'  London,  1870,  8vo.  4.  'The 
Evidential  Value  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,'  a 
lecture  printed  in  'Modern  Scepticism,' 
London  (C.E.S.),  1871,  8vo.  5.  '  Truth  and 
Life ;  or,  Short  Sermons  for  the  Day,'  Lon- 
don, 1872,  8vo.  6.  '  The  Cities  visited  by 
St.  Paul,'  London  (S.P.C.K.),  1873,  8vo. 
7.  '  The  Structure  of  the  Old  Testament : 
a  series  of  Popular  Essays,'  London,  1883, 
8vo.  8.  Hulsean  Lectures :  '  The  Gospel 
its  own  Witness,'  London,  1874,  8vo. 
9.  Bampton  Lectures:  '  The  Religion  of  the 
Christ:  its  Historic  and  Literary  Develop- 
ment considered  as  an  Evidence  of  its 
Origin,'  London,  1874,  8vo.  10.  'The 
Christian  Creed :  its  Theory  and  Practice,' 
London,  1877, 8vo.  11.  '  Grounds  of  Chris- 
tian Hope :  a  Sketch  of  the  Evidences  of 


Christianity,' London  (R.T.S.),  1877,  8vo. 
12.  '  The  Relation  of  the  Jews  to  their  own 
Scriptures,'  in  '  The  Jews  in  relation  to  the 
Church  and  the  World,'  ed.  Claughton, 
London,  1877,  8vo.  13.  '  Studies  in 
Genesis,'  London,  1880,  8vo.  14.  Warbur- 
ton Lectures  :  '  Old  Testament  Prophecy  : 
its  Witness  as  a  Record  of  Divine  Foreknow- 
ledge,'London,  1880, 8vo.  15.  'The  Founda- 
tions of  Morality  :  being  Discourses  on  the 
Ten  Commandments,  with  special  reference 
to  their  Origin  and  Authority,'  London, 
1882,  8vo.  16.  'Characteristics  of  Chris- 
tianity,' London,  1884,  8vo.  17.  'Christ 
and  the  Bible.  Four  Lectures,'  London, 
1885,  8vo.  18.  '  The  Law  in  the  Prophets,' 
London,  1891,  8vo.  19.  'The  Testimony 
of  the  Earlier  Prophetic  Writers  to  the 
Primal  Religion  of  Israel,'  in  '  Present  Day 
Tracts,'  vol.  xiv.,  London,  1898,  8vo. 

[(irad.  Cant. ;  Crockford's  Clerical  Directory, 
1899;  Men  of  the  Time,  1895;  Times,  1  May 
1900.]  J.  M.  R. 

LE  CARON,  MAJOR  HENRI.  [See 
BEACH,  THOMAS,  1841-1894.] 

LECLERCQ,  CARLOTTA  (1840P-1893) 
actress,  elder  daughter  of  Charles  Leclercq, 
actor  and  pantoraimist,  was  born  in  London 
about  1840.  A  brother  Charles  (d.  20  Sept. 
1 894)  was  a  member  of  Daly's  company,  and 
well  known  both  in  London  and  New  York. 
Other  members  of  the  family  were  connected 
with  the  stage.  Her  sister  Rose  is  noticed 
below. 

Carlotta  acted  at  the  Princess's  as  a  child. 
She  was  in  1853  Maddalina  in  'Marco 
Spada,'  and  in  the  following  years  played 
Marguerite  in  '  Faust  and  Marguerite,'  El- 
vira in  the  '  Muleteer  of  Toledo,'  with  other 
parts ;  was  Ariel  in  the  '  Tempest,'  Nerissa 
in  the  '  Merchant  of  Venice,'  Mrs.  Ford  and 
Mrs.  Page  in  the  '  Merry  Wives  of  Wind- 
sor,' Rosalind,  &c.  Her  original  parts  in- 
cluded Diana  in  'Don't  Judge  by  Appear- 
ances,' and  Mrs.  Savage  in  Brougham's 
'  Playing  with  Fire.'  With  Charles  Albert 
Fechter  [q.  v.]  at  the  Lyceum  she  played 
Zillah  in  the  'Duke's  Motto,'  Madame  de 
Pompadour  in  the  '  King's  Butterfly,'  Lucy 
Ashton  in  the  'Master  of  Ravenswood,' 
Ophelia  and  Pauline  Deschappelles.  With 
him  at  the  Adelphi  she  was  Mercedes  in 
'  Monte  Cristo'  and  Emily  Milburn  in '  Black 
and  White.'  She  accompanied  Fechter  to 
America,  returned  in  1877,  and  married 
John  Nelson,  an  actor.  She  played  with  her 
husband  principally  in  the  country  until  his 
death  on  25  July  1879.  Thenceforward  she 
was  rarely  seen  in  London.  She  died  in 
August  1893. 


Le  Despencer  - 

Her  younger  sister,  ROSE  LECLERCQ 
(1845P-1899),  was  born  in  Liverpool  about 
1845,  and  was  on  28  Sept.  1861  at  the  Prin- 
cess's the  first  Mrs.  Waverley  in  '  Playing 
with  Fire.'  She  was  at  Drury  Lane  the  ori- 
ginal Mary  Vance  in  Mr.  Burnand's  '  Deal 
Boatman,'  and  played  Astarte  in  '  Manfred  ' 
(10  Oct.  1863).  At  the  Princess's  (August 
1868)  she  was  Eliza  in  '  After  Dark,'  and  at 
the  Adelphi  Kate  Jessop  in  '  Lost  at  Sea.' 
She  was  Desdemona  to  the  Othello  of  Phelps, 
was  an  admirable  Mrs.  Page,  and  was  at 
Drury  Lane  the  first  Clara  Ffolliott  in  the 
'  Shaughraun.'  At  the  Vaudeville  she  was 
Sophia  in  an  adaptation  of  '  Tom  Jones,'  at 
the  Haymarket  was  Marie  Lezinski  in  the 
'  Pompadour,'  Lady  Staunton  in  '  Captain 
Swift,'  and  Madame  Fourcanard  in  'Esther 
Sandray,'  at  the  Garrick  the  Queen  in  '  La 
Tosca,'  and  at  the  Strand  La  Faneuse  in 
the  'Illusion'  of  her  brother  Pierre.  She 
was  the  original  Evelina  Foster  in  '  Beau 
Austin,'  Lady  Dawtry  in  the  '  Dancing  Girl,' 
Marchioness  in  the  '  Amazons,'  Lady  Ring- 
steadin  'The Princess  and  theButterfly,'Mrs. 
Fretwell  in  '  Sowing  the  Wind,'  and  Lady 
Wargrave  in  the  '  New  Woman.'  Her  last 
original  part  was  Mrs.  Beechinor  in  Mr. 
H.  A.  Jones's  '  Manoeuvres  of  Jane,'  pro- 
duced at  the  Haymarket  on  29  Oct.  1898. 
She  played  this  character  on  25  March  1899, 
and  died  on  2  April.  Both  the  Leclercqs 
developed  into  good  actresses.  Rose  Le- 
clercq  in  her  later  days  had  a  matchless 
delivery,  and  was  the  best,  and  almost  the 
only,  representative  of  the  grand  style  in 
comedy.  By  her  husband,  Mr.  Fuller,  she 
was  the  mother  of  the  actor,  Mr.  Fuller  Mel- 
lish. 

[Personal  recollections ;  Pascoe's  Dramatic 
List;  Dramatic  Peerage;  Scott  and  Howard's 
Blanchard;  Hollingshead's  Gaiety  Chronicles; 
Cook's  Nights  at  the  Play ;  Athenaeum,  Era, 
SundayTinies,andEraAlmanack,  various  years.] 

J.  K. 

LE  DESPENCER,  BARON.  [See  DASH- 
WOOD,  SIR  FRANCIS,  1708-1781.] 

LEE,  HOLME,  pseudonym.  [See  PARR, 
HARRIET,  1828-1900.] 

LEGGE,  JAMES  (1815-1897),  professor 
of  Chinese  at  the  university  of  Oxford,  son 
of  Ebenezer  Legge,  was  born  at  Huntly  in 
Aberdeenshire  in  1815.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Aberdeen  grammar  school,  and  gra- 
duated M.A.  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in 
1835.  From  his  earliest  years  he  had  de- 
sired to  enter  the  missionary  field,  and  for 
the  furtherance  of  this  object  he,  at  the  com- 
pletion of  his  course  at  Aberdeen,  came  to 
London  and  studied  at  the  theological  col- 


*7 Legge     

!  lege  at  Highbury.  In  1839  he  was  appointed 
by  the  London  Missionary  Society  to  the 
I  Chinese  mission  at  Malacca,  where  he  re- 
mained until  the  treaty  of  1842  enabled  him 
and  others  to  begin  missionary  work  in  China. 
In  1840  he  was  appointed  principal  of  the 
Anglo-Chinese  College  at  Malacca,  which 
Robert  Morrison  [q.v.]  had  founded  in  1825, 
and  in  the  following  year  the  council  of  the 
university  of  New  York  conferred  on  him 
the  degree  of  D.D.  In  1843  he  landed  in 
the  newly  established  colony  of  Hongkong, 
and  took  part  in  the  negotiations  which 
ended  in  the  conversion  of  the  Anglo-Chinese 
college  into  a  theological  seminary  and  its 
removal  to  Hongkong.  There  he  resumed 
his  position  as  principal.  His  health  having 
broken  down,  he  paid  a  visit  to  England  in 
1845,  and  three  years  later  returned  to  Hong- 
kong, where,  in  addition  to  his  missionary 
work,  he  undertook  the  pastoral  charge  of 
an  English  congregation.  In  1858  he  paid 
another  visit  to  England,  and  in  1873  he  re- 
turned permanently  to  this  country,  resign- 
ing the  principalship  and  other  posts.  In 
1870  the  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  on 
him  by  the  university  of  Aberdeen,  and  in 
1884  the  same  honour  was  granted  him  by 
the  university  of  Edinburgh.  In  1875  a 
|  number  of  merchants  interested  in  China, 
|  and  others,  collected  a  fund  for  the  endow- 
|  jnent  of  a  Chinese  professorship  at  Oxford, 
on  the  understanding  that  Legge  should  be 
the  first  occupant  of  the  chair.  The  uni- 
versity accepted  the  arrangement,  appointed 
him  professor,  and  the  authorities  of  Corpus 
Christ!  College  elected  him  a  fellow  of  their 
college.  His  inaugural  lecture  was  published 
in  1876.  At  Oxford  he  remained  until  his 
death.  He  died  at  his  residence  in  Keble 
I  Road  on  29  Nov.  1897.  Legge  was  twice 
I  married :  first,  on  30  April  1839,  to  Mary 
j  Isabella,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  John  Morison ; 
and  secondly,  in  1859,  to  Hannah  Mary, 
daughter  of  John  Johnstone,  esq.,  of  Hull, 
and  widow  of  the  Rev.  G.  WTilletts  of 
Salisbury.  By  both  wives  he  left  children. 

Legge  was  a  voluminous  writer  both  in 
Chinese  and  English,  and  did  much  to  in- 
struct his  fellow-countrymen  and  continental 
scholars  in  the  literature  and  religious  beliefs 
of  China.  He  bore  a  leading  part  in  the 
controversy  as  to  the  best  translation  into 
Chinese  of  the  term  '  God,'  and  published  a 
volume  called  '  The  Notions  of  the  Chinese 
[  concerning  God  and  Spirits '(Hongkong  and 
[  London,  1852,  8vo).  But  the  great  work  of 
his  life  was  the  edition  of  the  Chinese  classics 
— the  Chinese  text,  with  translation,  notes, 
and  preface.  This  task  he  began  in  1841, 
and  finished  shortly  before  his  death. 


Leighton 


Leighton 


The  publications  of  his  labours  commenced 
in  1861,  when  there  appeared  '  Confucian 
Analecta :  Doctrine  of  the  Mean  and  Great 
Learning,'  and  '  Works  of  Mencius.'  There 
quickly  followed  '  The  Shoo-king,  or  Book 
of  Historical  Documents,'  1865,  4th  edit. 
1875 ;  '  The  Shi-king,  or  Book  of  Poetry,' 
London,  1871,  8vo ;  and  '  The  Ch'un  Ch'iu : 
with  the  Tso  Chwan,'  1872.  He  received 
the  Julien  prize  from  the  French  Institut 
in  1875  for  these  works.  In  1876  there 
appeared  '  The  Book  of  Ancient  Chinese 
Poetry  in  English  Verse.'  The  last  volumes 
of  Legge's  edition  of  the  Chinese  classics 
appeared  in  the  series  called  '  The  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East,'  which  Friedrich  Max 
Miiller  fq.  v.  Suppl.j  edited  for  the  Clarendon 
Press.  To  this  series  Legge  contributed  vols. 
iii.  xvi.  xxvii.  xxviii.xxxix.xl., Oxford,  1879- 
1894,  8vo.  Of  these  the  first  four  volumes 
dealt  with  the  '  Texts  of  Confucianism,'  and 
the  last  two  with  the  '  Texts  of  Taoism.' 
Legge's  other  writings  on  Chinese  literature 
and  religion  were :  1.  'The  Life  and  Teach- 
ing of  Confucius,'  London,  1867  ;  4th  edit. 
1875.  2.  '  The  Life  and  Teaching  of  Men- 
cius,' London,  1875.  3.  '  The  Religions  of 
China :  Confucianism  and  Taoism,  described 
and  compared  with  Christianity,'  London, 
1880,  8vo.  4.  '  Record  of  Buddhistic  King- 
doms :  Travels  of  the  Buddhist  Pilgrim, 
Fa-hsien,  in  India,'  London,  1886,  4to. 
5.  '  The  Xestorian  Monument  of  Hsi-an-fu 
in  Shen-Hsi,  China,  relating  to  the  Diffu- 
sion of  Christianity  in  China  in  the  Seventh 
and  Eighth  Centuries,  with  a  Sketch  of 
subsequent  Missions  in  China,'  London, 
1888,  8vo. 

[Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886;  Brit. 
Mus.  Cat. ;  Men  of  the  Time.  1895.] 

R.  K.  D. 

LEIGHTON,  FREDERIC,  BARON  LEIGH- 
TON  OF  STRETTON  (1830-1896),  president  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  was  born  at 
Scarborough  on  3  Dec.  1830.  His  family 
came  originally  from  Shropshire.  His 
grandfather  and  father  were  both  physicians. 
His  grandfather  James  (afterwards  Sir  James) 
Boniface  Leighton  was  invited  to  the  Russian 
court,  and  was  court  physician  under  both 
Alexander  I  and  Nicholas  I.  His  son  Fre- 
deric Septimus  (1800-1892)  was  educated 
for  the  medical  profession  at  Edinburgh,  and 
practised  successfully  until  about  1843,  when 
increasing  deafness  compelled  him  to  retire. 
He  settled  for  a  time  at  Bath,  but  afterwards 
returned  to  Scarborough,  and  finally  to 
London,  where  he  died  on  24  Jan.  1892.  In 
spite  of  the  physical  disability  just  mentioned, 
he  was  a  man  of  great  social  talent  and  of 
most  agreeable  manners.  His  wife,  Lord 


Leighton's  mother,  was  Augusta  Susan, 
daughter  of  George  Augustus  Xash  of  Ed- 
monton. 

The  young  Frederic  Leighton  showed  an 
early  love  for  drawing  and  filled  many 
books  with  his  sketches,  but  these  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  of  a  kind  to  impress  his 
family  very  profoundly,  and  his  father,  it 
must  be  said,  disliked  the  idea  of  art  as  a 
profession.  While  the  boy  was  still  very 
young,  his  mother's  delicate  health  gave  him 
his  first  chance  of  seeing  foreign  countries. 
The  family  travelled  abroad,  and  in  the  year 
1839,  before  Frederic  was  ten  years  old,  he 
found  himself  one  day  in  the  studio  of  George 
Lance  in  Paris.  From  this  visit  his  father's 
acceptance  of  the  idea  that  possibly  nature 
had  made  the  boy  an  artist  appears  to  date. 
Dr.  Leighton  determined,  however,  that  his 
choice  should  not  be  limited  by  any  one- 
sided education.  In  London,  Rome,  Dres- 
den, Berlin,  Frankfort,  and  Florence,  his 
education  was  pursued,  with  the  result  that, 
in  one  particular  at  least,  it  was  vastly  more 
thorough  than  usual  with  an  English  boy  of 
his  condition.  He  became  an  accomplished 
linguist,  speaking  the  four  chief  modern  lan- 
guages with  almost  equal  facility.  It  was 
in  Florence  in  1844  that  his  profession  was 
finally  settled.  Dr.  Leighton  consulted 
Hiram  Power,  the  sculptor  of  'The  Greek 
Slave,'  as  to  whether  he  should  make  his 
sou  an  artist.  '  Sir,'  said  Power,  '  Nature 
has  done  it  for  you,'  adding  that  the  boy 
could  become  '  as  eminent  as  he  pleased.' 

Work  was  begun  in  earnest  in  the  Acca- 
demia  delle  Belle  Arti,  under  Bezzuoli  and 
Servolini,  whose  influence  did  little  but  harm. 
Leighton  soon  left  Florence  for  Frankfort, 
where  he  resumed  his  general  education. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  finally  left  school, 
and  worked  at  art  for  a  year  in  the  Staedel 
Institute.  In  1848  he  moved  with  his  family 
to  Brussels,  where  he  painted  one  or  two  pic- 
tures, including  a  'Cimabue  finding  Giotto.' 
In  1849  he  was  in  Paris,  copying  pictures  in 
the  Louvre,  and  attending  a  so-called  school 
of  art  in  the  Rue  Richer.  Leighton's  indi- 
viduality was  not  robust  enough  for  such 
constant  change,  and  it  is  probable  that  he 
would  have  been  a  greater  artist  than  he 
was,  had  his  early  training  been  more  favour- 
able to  concentration.  His  real  and  serious 
studentship  began  only  after  he  left  Paris, 
when  he  was  already  in  his  twentieth  year. 
He  returned  to  Frankfort,  and  there  worked 
strenuously  for  three  vears  under  Johann 
Eduard  Steinle  (1810-1886),  of  whom  he 
ever  afterwards  spoke  as  his  only  real  master. 
While  under  Steinle  he  painted  several  pic- 
tures, the  most  notable  perhaps  'The  Plague 


Leigh  ton 


89 


Leigh  ton 


of  Florence,'  a  cartoon  founded  on  Boccaccio's 
description. 

Late  in  1852  he  went  to  Rome,  where  his 
pleasant  manners  and  varied  accomplish- 
ments won  him  hosts  of  friends,  among  them 
Thackeray,  George  Sand,  Lord  Lyons,  Gib- 
son, George  Mason,  Hebert,  Mrs.  Kemble, 
Gerome,  Bouguereau,  and  others.  It  was 
after  meeting  him  here  that  Thackeray  wrote 
to  Millais,  who  was  Leighton's  senior  by 
rather  more  than  a  year,  'I  have  met  in  Rome 
a  versatile  young  dog  who  will  run  you  hard 
for  the  presidentship  one  day.'  Soon  after 
he  arrived  in  Rome,  Leighton  hegan  work 
on  the  picture  with  which  he  was  to  draw 
public  attention  to  himself  for  the  first  time. 
This  was  '  Cimabue's  "  Madonna  "  carried  in 
Procession  through  the  Streets  of  Florence,' 
now  in  Buckingham  Palace.  It  was  at  the 
academy  in  1855,  and  was  bought  by  Queen 
Victoria  for  600/.  After  a  happy  and  trium- 
phant season  in  London,  Leighton  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  came  under  the  spell  of 
yet  another  quasi  genius  in  Robert  Fleury. 
On  his  return  to  London  in  1858,  he  became 
intimate  with  the  members,  then  shaking 
apart,  of  the  Pre-Raphaelite  brotherhood, 
an  intimacy  to  which  perhaps  we  owe  the 
famous  drawings  of  '  A  Lemon  Tree '  and 
'  A  Byzantine  Well-head,'  which  drew  such 
inevitable  praise  from  John  Ruskin  [q.  v. 
Suppl.]  The  'Lemon  Tree'  drawing  was  made 
in  Capri  in  1859.  In  1860  Leighton  esta- 
blished himself  at  '2  Orme  Square,  Bays- 
water,  which  remained  his  home  until  he 
moved  into  his  famous  house  in  Holland 
Park  Road.  Between  1860  and  1866  he 
was  a  steady  exhibitor  at  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy, his  chief  contributions  being  '  Paolo 
and  Francesca,'  '  The  Odalisque,'  '  Dante  at 
Verona,'  '  Orpheus  and  Eurydice,'  '  Golden 
Hours,'  and  '  A  Syracusan  Bride  leading 
Wild  Beasts  in  Procession  to  the  Temple  of 
Diana.'  In  1866  he  was  elected  an  A.R.A., 
and  immediately  justified  his  election  by  ex- 
hibiting his  '  Venus  disrobing  for  the  Bath,' 
an  essay  in  the  nude  which  perhaps  he  never 
excelled.  This  year,  1866,  was  an  eventful 
one  in  his  career,  for  it  saw  his  migration 
to  the  fine  house  in  Holland  Park  Road, 
Kensington,  which  was  built  for  him  by 
Mr.  George  Aitchison,  R.A.,  and  also  the 
completion  of  his  fine  wall-painting  in  Lynd- 
hurst  church,  '  The  Parable  of  the  Wise  and 
Foolish  Virgins.' 

In  1868  Leighton  made  the  Nile  tour  in 
company  with  Lesseps,  who  was  then  near- 
ing  the  conclusion  of  his  own  great  work. 
This  journey  led  to  a  little  dabbling  in 
oriental  subjects,  which,  however,  took  no 
great  hold  on  his  imagination.  In  1869 


he  was  elected  a  royal  academician,  exhi- 
biting '  Electra  at  the  Tomb  of  Agamemnon ' 
and  '  Daedalus  and  Icarus,'  and  painting  a 
St.  Jerome  as  his  diploma  picture.  In  1870 
the  winter  exhibitions,  which  owed  much  to 
his  advocacy,  were  started  at  Burlington 
House.  The  two  succeeding  summer  exhi- 
bitions contained  three  of  Leighton's  best 
pictures,  the '  Hercules  wrestling  with  Death 
for  the  Body  of  Alcestis,' '  The  Condottiere,' 
and  '  The  Summer  Moon.'  In  1873  he  paid 
a  second  visit  to  the  East,  the  outcome  of 
which  was  a  series  of  oriental  pictures, '  The 
Egyptian  Slinger '  and  '  The  Moorish  Gar- 
den '  being  perhaps  the  best.  The  creation 
by  which,  in  some  quarters,  Leighton  is  best 
known  had  its  origin  in  this  eastern  tour. 
He  collected  a  number  of  fine  Persian  tiles, 
and  was  smitten  with  the  desire  to  make 
appropriate  use  of  them.  Hence  the  famous 
Arab  hall  in  his  house  at  Kensington.  To 
the  next  few  years  belong  some  of  his  best 
pictures,  e.g.  the  '  Daphnephoria '  and  the 
'  Portrait  of  Sir  Richard  Burton  '(1876),  'The 
Music  Lesson'  (1877),  'Winding  the 
Skein,'  and  <  Xausicaa  '  (1878).  In  1877  he 
burst  on  the  world  as  a  sculptor,  exhibiting 
the  '  Athlete  struggling  with  a  Python,' 
which  is  now  in  the  gallery  at  Millbank. 

In  1878  Sir  Francis  Grant  [q.  v.]  died,  and 
Leighton  succeeded  him  as  president  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  the  usual  knighthood  fol- 
lowing his  election  (25  Nov.  1878).  As  pre- 
sident he  completely  realised  the  hopes  of 
his  friends.  Punctual  almost  to  a  fault, 
tactful,  energetic,  and  equal  to  every  social 
demand  that  could  be  made  upon  him,  he 
filled  the  office  with  extraordinary  distinc- 
tion in  the  eyes  both  of  his  fellow-country- 
men and  of  strangers.  And  yet  the  years 
which  followed  his  election  were  among 
the  most  prolific  of  his  artistic  career.  Be- 
tween 1878  and  1895,  when  his  activity  was 
abruptly  closed  by  disease,  he  painted  the 
two  fine  wall-pictures  in  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum ;  he  completed  his  second 
statue,  '  The  Sluggard,'  which  now  stands 
at  Millbank  as  a  pendant  to  the  '  Athlete 
with  a  Python,'  as  well  as  a  charming 
statuette,  '  Needless  Alarms,'  which  he  pre- 
sented to  Sir  John  Millais ;  and  sent  the 
following  pictures,  among  others,  to  the 
exhibition  of  the  Royal  Academy :  '  Bion- 
dina '  (1879), '  Portrait  of  Signor  Costa '  and 
'Sister's  Kiss'  (1880),  his  own  portrait  for 
the  Uffizi  (1881);  '  Wedded,"  Daydreams,' 
and  '  Phryne  at  Eleusis '  (1882),' '  Cymon 
and  Iphigenia '  (1884),  '  Portrait  of  'Lady 
Sybil  Primrose '  (1885),  '  The  Last  Watch 
of  Hero'  (1887),  'Captive  Andromache' 
(1888),  '  Greek  Girls  playing  Ball '  (1889), 


Leighton 


Leighton 


« The   Bath  of    Psyche  '   (1890 ;   Millbank  \ 
Gallery), ' Perseus  and  Andromeda'  (1891),  | 
«  The  Garden  of  the  Hesperides  '  (1892),  and  [ 
'  Rizpah'  (1893).     His  last  important  works  i 
were  the  wall  decoration  on  canvas  for  the 
Royal  Exchange,  '  Phoenicians  trading  with 
the  Britons,'  finished  in  1895,  and  an  un- 
finished   'Clyde,'  which  was  at   the  1896 
academy.     On  11  Feb.  1886  Leighton  had 
been  created  a  baronet. 

Early  in  1895  his  health  had  given  dis- 
quieting signs  of  collapse.  He  was  ordered 
to  cease  all  work,  and  to  take  rest  in  a 
warm  climate.  Prompt  obedience  to  his 
doctor  gave  him  temporary  relief  from  his 
most  distressing  symptoms.  Sir  John  Mil- 
lais,  who  was  himself  beginning  to  suiter 
from  the  disease  which  was  afterwards  to 
prove  fatal,  took  his  place  at  the  academy 
dinner,  and  did  what  he  could  to  lighten 
his  colleague's  anxieties.  It  was  hoped  that 
these  prompt  measures  had  proved  more  or 
less  effectual,  and  when  Leighton  returned 
to  England  late  in  1895,  the  immediate 
danger  was  thought  to  have  passed  away. 
On  1  Jan.  1896  it  was  announced  that  he 
was  to  be  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Leighton  of  Stretton.  His  patent  bore  date 
24  Jan.,  and  on  the  following  day  Leighton 
died  at  his  house  in  Holland  Park  Road; 
his  peerage,  which  '  existed  but  a  day,  is 
unique'  (G.  E.  C[OKAYNE],  Complete  Peerage, 
viii.  245).  He  was  buried  on  3  Feb.  in  St. 
Paul's,  the  coffin  being  inscribed  with  his  | 
style  as  a  peer. 

Lord  Leighton  was  an  honorary  D.C.L. 
of  Oxford,  a  LL.D.  of  Cambridge,  and  a 
LL.D.  of  Edinburgh,  all  of  which  degrees 
were  conferred  in  1879.  He  was  a  member 
of  many  foreign  artistic  societies.  He  was  | 
president  of  the  international  jury  of  paint-  ; 
ing  for  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1878.  He  j 
was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in 
AVatercolours  from  1888  onwards.  He  was 
for  many  years  colonel  of  the  artists'  regi- 
ment of  volunteers,  but  resigned  the  post  in  | 
1883.  He  was  unmarried.  His  heirs  were 
his  two  sisters,  Mrs.  Sutherland  Orr  and 
Mrs.  Matthews.  After  his  death  a  move- 
ment was  set  afoot  to  establish  a  memorial 
museum  in  his  own  house  in  Kensington,  a 
project  which,  in  spite  of  controversy,  was 
realised.  A  large  number  of  those  drawings 
and  studies  on  which  his  fame  will  rest 
perhaps  most  securely  in  the  future  have 
found  a  home  in  what  was  once  his  studio. 

It  is  recorded  that  Leighton  used  to  assert 
of  himself  that  he  was  not  a  great  painter. 
'  Thank  goodness,'  he  also  declared,  '  I  was 
never  clever  at  anything ! '  The  first  of  these 
assertions  was  truer  than  the  second.  He 


was  not  a  great  painter.  He  lacked  both 
temperament  and  creative  power,  and  had 
nothing  particular  to  say  with  paint.  On 
the  other  hand  he  saw  beauty  and  could  let 
us  see  that  he  saw  it.  He  was  clever  in  the 
best  sense,  and  by  dint  of  taking  thought 
could  clothe  his  intentions  in  a  pleasant  en- 
velope. Occasionally  he  failed  disastrously 
through  pure  lack  of  humour,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  his  '  Andromeda  ; '  on  the  other 
hand,  the  frankness  of  his  objective  admira- 
tions led  him  occasionally  to  success  of  a 
very  unusual  kind  in  such  pictures  as 
'  Summer  Moon,'  '  The  Music  Lesson,'  and 
'Wedded/  In  spite  of  his  training  under 
various  good  draughtsmen,  Leighton  was  not 
a  great  draughtsman  himself.  His  forms  were 
soft,  the  attaches  especially — wrists,  ankles, 
&c. — being  nerveless  and  inefficient,  a  fault 
which  was  accentuated  by  the  unreality  of 
his  textures.  But  in  design,  as  distinguished 
from  draughtsmanship,  he  is  often  as  nearly 
great  as  a  man  without  creative  genius  can 
be.  His  studies  of  drapery  are  exquisite, 
and  nothing  could  well  be  more  rhythmical 
than  the  organisation  of  line  in  such  pictures 
as  the  three  just  mentioned.  Leighton 
contributed  designs  to  George  Eliot's  novel 
of  '  Romola '  and  to  '  Dalziel's  Bible,'  which 
take  a  very  high  place  among  illustrations 
in  black  and  white ;  also  one  design  each  for 
Mrs.  Browning's  poem, '  The  Great  God  Pan,' 
and  Mrs.  Sartoris's  '  Week  in  a  French  Coun- 
try House,'  both  published  in  the  '  Cornhill 
Magazine.' 

Lord  Leighton  delivered  biennially  eight 
discourses  at  the  Royal  Academy  between 
1879  and  1893.  They  formed  a  series  tracing 
the  development  of  art  in  Europe,  and  deal- 
ing philosophically  with  the  chief  phases 
through  which  it  passed ;  they  were  pub- 
lished as  '  Addresses  delivered  to  Students 
of  the  Royal  Academy,'  London,  1896, 8vo  ; 
2nd  ed.  1897. 

The  contents  of  Lord  Leighton's  studio 
were  sold  at  Christie's  in  July  1896,  when 
the  studies,  especially  those  of  landscape  in 
oil,  were  eagerly  competed  for.  A  catalogue 
of  his  principal  works  is  appended  to  the 
short  biography  by  Mr.  Ernest  Rhys,  pub- 
lished in  1900. 

His  portrait  by  himself  is  in  the  famous 
collection  of  artists'  portraits  in  the  Utfizi 
at  Florence  ;  another,  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Watts, 
R.A.,  is  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery, 
London. 

[Times,  26  Jan.  1896;  Athenaeum,  January 
1896  ;  Life  and  Work  of  Sir  Frederic  Leighton, 
P.R.A.,  by  Helen  Zimmeru;  Frederic,  Lord 
Leighton,  by  Ernest  Khys,  1895  ;  private  in- 
formation.] W.  A. 


Le  Keux 


Lenihan 


LE  KEUX,  JOHN  HENRY  (1812- 
1896),  architectural  engraver  and  draughts- 
man, son  of  John  Le  Keux  [q.  v.],  was  born 
in  Argyll  Street,  Euston  Road,  London,  on 
23  March,  1812.  After  studying  under 
James  Basire  [see  under  BASIRE,  ISAAC, 
1704-17681,  he  worked  for  a  time  as  assis- 
tant to  his  father.  He  engraved  the  plates 
for  many  works  of  an  architectural  charac- 
ter, including  Ruskin's  '  Modern  Painters' 
and  '  Stones  of  Venice,'  Weale's  '  Studies 
and  Examples  of  English  Architecture' 
(Travellers' Club),  1839;  C.  II.  Hartshorne's 
'  Illustrations  of  Alnwick,  Prudhoe,  and 
Warkworth,'  1857 :  and  Parker's  '  Mediaeval 
Architecture  of  Chester,'  1858.  The  Nor- 
wegian government  employed  him  to  exe- 
cute thirty-one  large  plates  of  Trondhjem 
cathedral.  Between  1853  and  1865  Le 
Keux  exhibited  architectural  drawings  at 
the  Royal  Academy.  He  contributed  papers 
on  mediaeval  arms  and  armour  to  the  '  Jour- 
nal of  the  Archaeological  Institute '  and 
similar  publications.  About  1864  he  retired 
to  Durham,  where  for  many  years  he  acted 
as  manager  to  Messrs.  Andrews,  a  firm  of 
publishers  with  which  his  wife  was  con- 
nected. His  latest  work  was  the  '  Oxford 
Almanack'  for  1870.  He  died  at  Durham 
on  4  Feb.  1896,  and  was  buried  in  St. 
Nicholas's  Church  in  that  city. 

[Athenaeum,  15  Feb.  1896.]        F.  M.  O'D. 

LENIHAN,  MAURICE  (1811-1895), 
historian  of  Limerick,  was  born  on  8  Feb. 
1811  at  Waterford,  where  his  father  was  a 
woollen  merchant.  He  was  one  of  a  family 
of  fifteen.  His  mother  was  a  native  of 
Carrick-on-Suir.  His  education  began  at 
AVaterford,  but  from  twelve  to  twenty  he 
was  at  Carlow  College,  where  he  was  a 
pupil  of  Dr.  Daniel  AVilliam  Cahill  [q.  v.], 
and  was  known  as  a  skilful  player  on  the 
violin.  On  the  completion  of  his  education 
he  began  his  career  as  a  journalist  by  a 
connection  with  the  '  Tipperary  Free  Press,' 
of  which  his  cousin  was  proprietor.  He  was 
next  attached  to  the  '  AA7aterford  Chronicle,' 
for  which  he  wrote  some  stirring  articles 
in  favour  of  the  agitation  against  tithes. 
In  1841,  when  the  'Limerick  Reporter' 
was  established,  he  was  appointed  editor,  but 
early  in  1843  left  it  to  join  the  staff  of  the 
'  Cork  Examiner,'  the  proprietor  of  which 
was  John  Francis  Maguire  [q.  v.l  During 
his  short  residence  in  Cork  Lenihan  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Father  Mathew,  who 
induced  him  to  take  the  temperance  pledge, 
and  became  his  lifelong  friend.  At  the  end 
of  a  year  he  was  asked  by  O'Connell  and 
Bishop  Power  of  Killaloe  to  conduct  a  paper 


in  the  interests  of  the  repeal  movement  at 
Nenagh ;  and  O'Connell  in  a  monster  meet- 
ing at  Limerick  announced  the  establish- 
ment of  the  'Tipperary  A'indicator'  under 
Lenihan's  editorship.  In  this  paper  Lenihan 
exposed  a  police  plot  known  as  '  The  Shinron 
Conspiracy,'  and  obtained  the  dismissal  of 
the  detective  Parker,  who  was  its  leader, 
and  of  eleven  policemen  who  had  assisted 
him.  In  1849  he  bought  up  the  '  Limerick 
Reporter '  and  incorporated  it  -with  the 
'  Tipperary  Vindicator.'  This  paper,  pub- 
lished at  Nenagh  and  Limerick,  he  continued 
to  conduct  with  great  ability  on  moderate 
nationalist  lines  till  the  closing  years  of  his 
life. 

Lenihan  became  much  interested  in  the 
history  of  Limerick,  and  from  time  to  time 
wrote  for  his  paper  articles  dealing  with  the 
sieges.  He  gradually  accumulated  much 
material,  and,  encouraged  by  several  well- 
known  Irish  antiquaries,  among  whom  he 
was  particularly  intimate  with  Eugene 
O'Curry  [q.  v.],  he  in  1866  published  at  the 
suggestion  of  Patrick  Leahy  [q.  v.l,  arch- 
bishop of  Cashel,  '  Limerick ;  its  History 
and  Antiquities.'  This  scholarly  and  well- 
written  volume  superseded  the  earlier  works 
by  Ferrar  and  Fitzgerald  and  John  James 
Macgregor  [q.  v.]  Two  of  his  primary  au- 
thorities, the  papers  of  the  Rev.  James 
AVhite,  and  the  Limerick  manuscripts  of 

j  John  D'Alton  [q.v.]  he  had  in  his  own  posses- 
sion ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  first  who  had 

j  access  to  the  manuscript  works  of  Dr.  Thomas 

i  Arthur  [q.  v.],  the  friend  of  AVare.  He  also 
consulted  the  chartularyof  Edmund  Sexton, 
and  obtained  valuable  matter  from  the  Carew 
MSS.  through  Lord-Gort,  and  the  papers  in 
the  possession  of  the  Hon.  John  A'ereker. 
In  addition  to  these  a  list  of  nearly  150  autho- 
rities utilised  for  the  work  is  given  in  the 
preface.  Good  maps,  copious  appendices,  and 
the  index,  so  rare  in  Irish  books,  add  much 
to  its  value. 

Lenihan,  besides  contributing  to  periodi- 

i  cals,  wrote  an  introduction  to  T.  F.  Arthur's 

I  '  Some  Leaves  from  the  Fee- book  of  a  Phy- 
sician,' 1874,  8vo.  He  had  collected  mate- 

}  rials  for  histories  of  Tipperary  and  Clare, 
but  they  were  never  utilised.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  municipal  affairs,  was  mayor 
of  Limerick  in  1884,  and  was  named  a  jus- 
tice of  the  peace  by  Lord  O'Hagan,  whose 
friendship  he  enjoyed.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  and  intimate 
with  many  of  its  leading  members.  He  died 
on  25  Dec.  1895  at  17  Catherine  Street, 
Limerick.  His  son,  James  Lenihan,  suc- 
ceeded him  as  editor  and  proprietor  of  his 

;  paper. 


Lennox 


Lennox 


[Limerick  Reporter,  31  Dec.  1895,  with  obi- 
tuary notice  from  Limerick  Chronicle ;  Times, 
26  Dec.  189  > ;  Brit.  Mus.  Cat.]  G.  LE  G.  N. 

LENNOX,  SIR  WILBRAHAM  GATES 
(1830-1897),  general  royal  engineers,  fourth 
son  of  Lord  John  George  Lennox  (1793- 
1873),  second  son  of  the  fourth  Duke  of 
Richmond,  was  born  on  4  May  1830  at 
Molecoinb  House,  Goodwood,  Sussex.  His 
mother  was  Louisa  Frederica  (d.  12  Jan. 
1863),  daughter  of  Captain  the  Hon.  John 
Rodney,  M.P.,  third  son  of  Admiral  Lord 
Rodney.  He  was  privately  educated  and, 
after  passing  through  the  Royal  Military 
Academy  at  Woolwich,  received  a  commis- 
sion as  second  lieutenant  in  the  royal  engi- 
neers on  27  June  1848  His  further  com- 
missions were  dated :  lieutenant  7  Feb.  1854, 
second  captain  25  Nov.  1857,  brevet  major 
24  March  1858,  brevet  lieutenant-colonel 
26  April  1859,  first  captain  1  April  1863, 
brevet  colonel  26  April  1867,  regimental 
major  5  July  1872,  lieutenant-colonel  10  Dec. 
1873,  major-general  13  Aug.  1881,  lieute- 
nant-general 12  Feb.  1888,  general  28  June 
1893. 

Lennox  went  through  the  usual  course  of 
professional  instruction  at  Chatham,  served 
for  a  few  months  at  Portsmouth,  and  em- 
barked for  Ceylon  on  20  Nov.  1850.  In 
August  1854  he  went  direct  from  Ceylon 
to  the  Crimea,  where  he  arrived  on  30  Sept., 
and  was  employed  under  Major  (afterwards 
General  Sir)  Frederick  Chapman  [q.  v. 
Suppl.]  in  the  trenches  of  the  left  attack  on 
Sevastopol,  and  had  also  charge  of  the  engi- 
neer park  of  the  left  attack.  He  was  pre- 
sent at  the  battle  of  Inkerman  on  5  Nov., 
having  come  oft'  the  sick  list  for  the  purpose. 
On  20  Nov.  he  won  the  Victoria  Cross  '  for 
cool  and  gallant  conduct  in  establishing  a 
lodgment  in  Tryon's  rifle  pits,  and  assisting 
to  repel  the  assaults  of  the  enemy.  This 
brilliant  operation  drew  forth  a  special  order 
from  General  Canrobert.'  On  9  Dec.  he  was 
appointed  adjutant  to  the  royal  engineers  of 
the  left  attack.  He  acted  as  aide-de-camp 
to  Chapman  with  Eyre's  brigade  at  the 
attack  of  the  Redan  on  18  June,  and  was 
present  in  September  at  the  fall  of  Sebastopol, 
after  which  he  was  adjutant  of  all  the  royal 
engineer  force  in  the  Crimea  until  the  army 
was  broken  up.  He  arrived  home  on  5  Aug. 
1856.  For  his  services  he  was  mentioned  in 
despatches  (London  Gazette,  21  Dec.  1855), 
received  the  war  medal  with  two  clasps,  the 
Sardinian  and  Turkish  medals,  the  5th  class 
of  the  Turkish  order  of  the  Medjidie,  and  on 
24  Feb.  1857  the  Victoria  Cross. 

Lennox  was  adjutant    of  the  royal   en- 


gineers at  Aldershot  until  he  again  left  Eng- 
land on  25  April  1857  as  senior  subaltern  of 
the  23rd  company  of  royal  engineers  to  take 
part  in  the  China  war.  On  arrival  at  Singa- 
pore the  force  for  China  was  diverted  to 
India  for  the  suppression  of  the  mutiny,  and 
Lennox  reached  Calcutta  on  10  Aug.  On 
the  march  to  Cawnpore  he  took  part  on 
2  Nov.  in  the  action  at  Khajwa  under 
Colonel  Powell.  The  captain  of  his  com- 
pany was  severely  wounded  on  this  occasion, 
and,  Colonel  Goodwyn  of  the  Bengal  en- 
gineers having  fallen  sick  on  14  Nov., 
Lennox  became  temporarily  chief  engineer 
on  the  staft'  of  Sir  Colin  Campbell.  In  this 
position  he  served  at  the  second  relief  of 
Lucknow.  He  submitted  a  plan  of  attack 
which  was  adopted  by  Sir  Colin.  He  took 
a  conspicuous  part  in  the  operations,  and 
the  relief  was  accomplished  on  17  Nov.  He 
continued  to  act  as  chief  engineer  in  the 
operations  against  the  Gwalior  contingent, 
and  in  the  battle  of  Cawnpore  on  6  Dec. 
He  commanded  a  detachment  of  engineers 
at  the  action  of  Kali  Naddi  under  Sir  Colin 
Campbell  on  2  Jan.  1858,  and  at  the  occu- 
pation of  Fathghar.  He  was  assistant  to 
the  commanding  royal  engineer,  Colonel 
(afterwards  Sir)  Henry  Drury  Harness  [q.  v.], 
in  the  final  siege  of  Luckuow  from  2  to 
21  March. 

After  the  fall  of  Lucknow  Lennox  com- 
manded the  engineers  of  the  column  under 
Brigadier-general  (afterwards   Sir)    Robert 
Walpole  [q.  v.]  for  the  subjugation  of  Rohil- 
khand,  was  present  at  the  unsuccessful  attack 
on  Fort  Ruiya  on  15  April,  its  occupation  on 
\  the  following  day,  and  the  action  of  Alaganj 
on  22  April.     Having  rejoined  Lord  Clyde 
he  commanded  the  engineers  at  the  battle  of 
Bareli  on  5  May  and  the  occupation  of  the 
town.     In  June  Lennox  took  his  company 
!  to  Rurki,  and  in  September  to  Allahabad, 
where  he  was  appointed   commanding   en- 
gineer to  the  column  under  Lord  Clyde  for 
the  subjugation  of  Oude.     He  was  present 
at  the  capture  of  Amethi  on  10  Nov.,  and  of 
Shankarpur  on  the  16th,  and  at  the  action 
of  Dundia  Khera  or  Buxar  on  24  Nov.     On 
30  Nov.  he  left  Lucknow  as  commanding 
royal  engineer  of  the  column  under  Briga- 
;  dier-general  Eveleigh  to  settle  the  country 
I  to  the  north-east,  and  was  present  at  the 
[capture   of    Urnria   on   2,  Dec.      He   com- 
j  manded  the  23rd  company  royal  engineers 
at  the  action  on  26  Dec.  under  Lord  Clyde 
at  Barjadua  or  Chandu  in  the  Trans-Gogra 
campaign,  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Majadua 
on  the  27th,  and  at  the  action  at  Banki  on 
the  Rapti  on  31  Dec.     Lennox  was  included 
in  the  list  of  officers  honourably  mentioned 


Lennox 


93 


Lennox 


for  the  siege  of  Lucknow  by  the  commander- 
in-chief  in  general  orders  of  16  April  1858, 
and  was  repeatedly  mentioned  in  despatches 
during  the  several  campaigns  (London 
Gazette,  5,  16,  and  29  Jan.,  25  May,  and 

17  and  28  July   1858).     He  was  rewarded 
with  a  brevet  majority  and  a  brevet  lieu-  j 
tenant-colonelcy,  and  received   the    Indian  ( 
mutiny  medal  with  two  clasps. 

Lennox  left  India  in  March  1859,  and  on 
his    arrival    home    was    appointed   to   the  i 
Brighton  subdivision  of   the  south-eastern 
military  district.     From  14  June  1862  until 
31    Oct.    1865     he     was     deputy-assistant  \ 
quartermaster-general   at   Aldershot.       On 
30  March  1867  he  was  made  a  companion 
of  the  Bath,  military  division,  for  his  war 
services.     From  November  1866  lie  held  for  \ 
five   years   the   post  of   instructor  in  field  ! 
fortification  at  the  school  of  military  engi-  j 
neering  at  Chatham,  where  his  energy  and  \ 
experience  were  of  great  value.     He  origi- 
nated  a   series  of  confidential  professional  j 
papers  to  keep  his  brother  officers  au  coitrant 
with  matters  which  could  not  be  published, 
and  also  a  series  of  translations  of  important 
foreign  works  on  military  engineering  sub- 
jects.    He  also  started  the  Royal  Engineers' 
Charitable  Fund,  which  has  been  of  much 
benefit  to  the  widows  and  children  of  soldiers 
of  his   corps.     In  1868  he  visited  Coblenz 
and    reported    on    the   experimental   siege 
operations  carried  on  there.    In  the  following 
year  he  was  on  a  committee  on  spade-drill 
for  infantry,  and  accompanied  Lieutenant- 
general   Sir   William    Coddrington   to   the 
Prussian  army  manoeuvres.     In  the  summer 
of   1870  he  visited  Belgium  to  study  the 
fortifications  of  Antwerp. 

From  November  1870  to  March  1871  he 
was  attached  officially  to  the  German  armies 
in  France  during  the  Franco-German  war ; 
was  present  at  the  siege  of  Paris  under  the 
crown  prince  of  Prussia  from  11  to  15  Dec. 
1870 :  at  the  siege  of  Mezieres  from  24  Dec. 
1870  to  its  surrender  on  2  Jan.  1871 ;  at  the 
siege  of  Paris  under  the  German  emperor 
from  10  Jan.  to  4  Feb. ;  and  at  the  siege  of 
Belfort  from  7  Feb.  to  the  entry  of  the 
German  troops  under  von  Treskow  on 

18  Feb. 

On  13  Nov.  1871  Lennox  was  appointed 
assistant  superintendent  of  military  disci- 
pline at  Chatham,  and  was  on  a  committee 
on  pontoon  drill  in  December.  In  1872  he 
again  attended  the  military  manoeuvres  in 
Prussia.  In  December  1873  he  went  to 
Portsmouth  as  second  in  command  of  the 
royal  engineers,  and  remained  there  until 
his  appointment  on  24  Oct.  1876  as  military 
attache  at  Constantinople.  He  visited 


Montenegro  in  connection  with  the  armi- 
stice on  the  frontier,  and  arrived  in  Con- 
stantinople in  December. 

In  April  1877  he  joined  the  Turkish 
armies  in  Bulgaria  during  the  Russo-Turkish 
war,  and  was  present  during  the  bombard- 
ment of  Nikopolis  in  June,  at  Sistova  when 
the  Russians  crossed  the  Danube  on  27  June, 
at  the  bombardment  of  Ruschuk,  at  the 
battles  of  Karahassankeui  on  30  Aug., 
Katzelevo  on  5  Sept.,  Bejin  Verboka  on 
21  Sept.,  and  Pyrgos  Metha  on  12  Dec. 
1877.  On  18  Dec.  he  accompanied  Suleiman 
Pasha's  force  from  Varna  to  Constantinople. 
He  received  the  Turkish  war  medal. 

On  his  return  home  in  March  1878  he 
went  to  the  Curragh  in  Ireland  as  com- 
manding royal  engineer  until  his  promotion 
to  major-general  in  August  1881.  From 
2  Aug.  1884  he  commanded  the  garrison  of 
Alexandria,  and  during  the  Nile  campaign 
of  1884-5  organised  the  landing  and  despatch 
to  the  front  of  the  troops,  the  Nile  boats, 
and  all  the  military  and  other  stores  of  the 
expedition.  From  Egypt  he  was  transferred 
on  1  April  1887  to  the  command  of  the 
troops  in  Ceylon,  but  his  promotion  to  lieu- 
tenant-general vacated  the  appointment  in 
the  following  year,  and  he  returned  home 
via  Australia  and  America.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  be  K.C.B.  on  30  May  1891.  He 
was  director-general  of  military  education 
at  the  war  office  from  22  Jan.  1893  until 
his  retirement  from  the  active  list  on  8  May 
1895.  Great  energy,  unbending  resolution, 
and  masterful  decision  fitted  him  for  high 
command,  while  his  kindness  of  heart  and 
Christian  character  endeared  him  to  many. 
He  was  engaged  in  writing  a  memoir  of 
Sir  Henry  Harness's  Indian  career  when  he 
died  in  London  on  7  Feb.  1897,  and  was 
buried  in  the  family  vault  at  Brighton 
cemetery  on  15  Feb. 

Lennox  married,  first,  at  Denbigh,  on 
16  July  1861,  Mary  Harriett  (d.  22  July 
1863),  daughter  of  Robert  Harrison  of  Pla's 
Clough,  Denbighshire,  by  whom  he  left  a 
son,  Gerald  Wilbraham  Stuart,  formerly  a 
lieutenant  in  the  Black  Watch.  He  mar- 
ried secondly,  in  London,  on  12  June  1867, 
Susan  Hay,  who  survived  him,  youngest 
daughter  of  Admiral  Sir  John  Gordon  Sin- 
clair, eighth  baronet  of  Stevenson,  by  whom 
he  had  three  sons. 

He  contributed  to  the '  Professional  Papers 
of  the  Royal  Engineers '  papers  on  the 
'  Demolition  of  the  Fort  of  Tutteah,'  '  The 
Engineering  Operations  at  the  Siege  of  Luck- 
now,  1858,'  '  Description  of  the  Passage  of 
the  Wet  Ditch  at  the  Siege  of  Strasburg, 
1870,'  and  others.  He  compiled  '  The  Engi- 


Leslie 


94 


Liddell 


neers'  Organisation  in  the  Prussian  Army 
for  Operations  in  the  Field,  1870-1,'  pub- 
lished in  London,  1878,  8vo. 

[War  Office  Records;  Royal  Engineers'  Re- 
cords ;  Despatches ;  private  sources ;  Times, 
8  Feb.  1897  ;  Royal  Engineers  Journal,  April 
and  May  1898;  Kinglake's  Crimean  War;  Offi- 
cial Journal  of  the  Engineers'  Operations  at  the 
Siege  of  Sebastopol,  1859,  4to,  vols.  i.  and  ii.; 
Kayo's  Hist,  of  the  Sepoy  War  ;  Malleson's  Hist. 
of  the  Indian  Mutiny ;  Holmes's  Hist,  of  the 
Indian  Mutiny ;  Medley's  A  Year's  Campaigning 
in  India,  1857-8  ;  Thackeray's  Two  Indian  Cam- 
paigns; Shadwell's  Life  of  Lord  Clyde  ;  Histo- 
rical Narrative  of  the  Turco-Russian  War,  1878, 
4to ;  Official  Hist,  of  the  Soudan  Campaign  of 
1884-5  ;  Army  Lists  ;  Burke's  Peerage.] 

R.  H.  V. 

LESLIE,  FREDERICK,  whose  real 
name  was  FREDERICK  HOBSON  (1855-1892), 
actor,  son  of  a  military  outfitter  at  Woolwich, 
was  born  on  1  April  1855,  was  educated  at 
Woolwich,  at  Netting  Hill,  and  in  France, 
and  under  the  name  of  Owen  Hobbs  acted 
as  an  amateur  at  Woolwich  and  elsewhere. 
His  first  appearance  in  London  took  place 
in  1878  at  the  Royalty  as  Colonel  Hardy  in 
'  Paul  Pry.'  He  then  played  at  the  Folly, 
the  Alhambra,the  Standard,  and  the  Avenue 
as  Faust  in  '  Mefistofele  II,'  Don  Jose  de 
Mantilla  in  '  Les  Manteaux  Noirs,'  Le  Mar- 
quis de  PontsablS  in  '  Madame  Favart,'  the 
Duke  in  '  Olivette,'  and  other  characters  in 
light  opera,  and  more  than  once  visited  the 
United  States,  playing  at  the  Casino,  New 
York.  His  Rip  van  Winkle  in  Planquette's 
opera  at  the  Comedy  on  14  Oct.  1882  raised 
his  reputation  to  the  highest  point  it  reached, 
and  sustained  comparison  with  that.of  Joseph 
Jefferson,  whose  greatest  part  it  was.  At 
the  Alhambra  he  was  seen  in  the  '  Beggar 
Student,'  at  the  Opera  Comique  in  the  '  Fay 
o'  Fire,'  and  at  the  Comedy  in  the  '  Great 
Mogul.'  His  first  appearance  at  the  Gaiety 
took  place  on  26  Dec.  1885  as  Jonathan  Wild 
in  '  Little  Jack  Sheppard,'  and  resulted  in 
his  fine  comic  gifts  being  thenceforward 
confined  to  burlesque.  In  company  with  his 
eminently  popular  associate,  Miss  Ellen 
Farren,  he  became  during  many  years  a 
chief  support  of  the  house,  appearing  as 
Noirtier  in  '  Monte  Cristo,  Junr.,'  Don  Caesar 
de  Bazan  in  '  Ruy  Bias,  or  the  Blase  Roue,' 
the  Monster  in  '  Frankenstein,'  and  many 
similar  characters.  In  the  composition  of 
not  a  few  of  these  burlesques  he  took  part 
under  the  pseudonym  of  '  A.  C.  Torr.'  With 
Miss  Farren  and  the  Gaiety  company  he 
visited,  in  1888-9,  America  and  Australia, 
reappearing  at  the  Gaiety  on  21  Sept.  1889. 
On  26  July  1890  he  took  part  in  'Guy 


Fawkes,  Esq.,'  and  on  24  Dec.  1891  in 
'  Cinder-Ellen  up  too  Late,'  having  a  share 
in  the  authorship  of  both  pieces.  He  was 
playing  in  the  burlesque  last  named  when 
he  was  taken  ill,  and  on  7  Dec.  1892  he  died ; 
he  was  buried  on  the  10th  at  the  Charlton 
cemetery.  Leslie  was  seen  on  occasions  as 
Sir  Peter  Teazle,  Sir  Anthony  Absolute, 
Dr.  Ollapod,  the  Governor  of  Tilbury  Fort 
in  the  '  Critic,'  Barlow  in  '  100,000/.,'  and 
Sir  John  Vesey  in  •'  Money.'  He  had  high 
gifts  in  light  comedy,  and  his  burlesque  per- 
formances often  had  more  than  a  touch  of 
comedy.  His  voice,  his  figure,  and  his  me- 
thod alike  qualified  him  for  burlesque,  in 
which  in  his  line  he  has  had  no  equal.  A 
good  portrait  is  in  Hollingshead's  '  Gaiety 
Chronicles.' 

[Personal  recollections  ;  Hollingshead's  Gaiety 
Chronicles;  Era,  10  Dec.  1892;  Scott  and 
Howard's  Blnnchard ;  Dramatic  Peerage ; 
Theatre  and  Era  Almanack,  various  years.] 

J.  K. 

LIDDELL,  HENRY  GEORGE  (1811- 
1898),  dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and 
Greek  lexicographer,  born  at  Binchester, 
near  Bishop  Auckland,  6  Feb.  1811,  was  the 
eldest  child  of  the  Rev.  Henry  George  Lid- 
|  dell  (1787-1872),  brother  of  Sir  Thomas 
Liddell,  bart.,  who  was  created  Baron 
Ravensworth  at  the  coronation  of  George  IV. 
His  mother,  Charlotte  Lyon,  was  niece  of 
the  eighth  Earl  of  Strathmore.  His  younger 
brother,  Charles  Liddell  (1813-1894),  en- 
gineer, was  assistant  to  George  and  then  to 
Robert  Stephenson.  During  the  Crimean 
war  he  laid  a  cable,  between  Varna  and 
Balaclava,  but  most  of  his  work  was  done 
on  railway  construction ;  among  the  lines 
he  built  were  the  Taff  Vale  and  Aber- 
gavenny  line  and  the  Metropolitan  extension 
to  Aylesbury.  He  died  at  24  Abingdon 
Street,  Westminster,  on  10  Aug.  1894 
(Times,  18  Aug.) 

Liddell  was  educated  at  Charterhouse 
School  under  Dr.  John  Russell  (1787-1863) 
[q.  v.],  and  entered  Christ  Church  as  a  com- 
moner at  Easter  1830,  being  appointed  by 
Dean  Smith  to  a  studentship  in  December 
of  the  same  year.  In  June  1833  he  gained  a 
double  first-class,  among  his  companions  in 
the  class  list  being  George  Canning  (go- 
vernor-general of  India),  R.  Lowe  (Viscount 
Sherbrooke),  W.  E.  Jelf,  Robert  Scott,  and 
Jackson  (bishop  of  London).  He  graduated 
B.A.  in  1833,  M.A.  in  1835,  and  B.D.  and 
D.D.  in  1855.  He  became  in  due  course 
tutor  (1836)  and  censor  (1845)  of  Christ 
Church,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  elected 
to  White's  professorship  of  moral  philosophy, 
and  appointed  Whitehall  preacher  by  Bishop 


Liddell 


95 


Liddell 


Blomfield.  In  January  1846  he  was  made 
domestic  chaplain  to  H.Tt.H.  Prince  Albert, 
and  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year  was 
nominated  by  Dean.  Gaisford  to  the  head- 
mastership  of  Westminster  School,  vacant 
by  the  retirement  of  Dr.  "Williamson. 

It  was  during  his  residence  as  tutor  at 
Oxford  that  Liddell  published  the  '  Greek- 
English  Lexicon'  which  will  always  be  asso- 
ciated wich  his  name.  This  important  work 
was  undertaken  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother-student  and  contemporary,  Robert 
Scott  (1811-1887)  [q.  v.],  and  the  first 
edition  was  published,  after  labours  ex- 
tending over  nine  years,  in  the  summer  of 
1843.  It  was  based  upon  the  '  Greek- 
German  Lexicon  '  of  F.  Passow,  professor  at 
Breslau  and  pupil  of  Jacobs  and  Hermann. 
Passow's  name  appeared  on  the  title-page  of 
the  first  three  editions,  but  was  afterwards 
omitted,  as  the  book  increased  in  volume,  and 
a  vast  amount  of  new  matter  was  continually 
added.  Passow  himself  had  spent  his  first 
efforts  on  the  Greek  of  Homer  and  Hesiod ; 
to  this  he  had  added  the  Ionic  prose  of 
Herodotus ;  but  his  early  death  in  1833,  at 
the  age  of  forty-six,  had  left  his  work  quite 
incomplete.  Much  remained  to  be  done, 
not  only  in  the  arrangement  and  method  of 
treatment  and  illustration  of  the  different 
meanings  of  words,  but  also  in  adding  com- 
plete references  to  the  principal  Greek  au- 
thors of  various  ages.  The  '  Lexicon '  was 
the  constant  companion  of  Liddell  in  spare 
moments  throughout  his  life,  long  after  Scott 
had  ceased  to  be  his  coadjutor.  The  dates 
of  the  several  editions  are :  1st  1843.  2nd 
1845, 3rd  1 849,  4th  1855, 5th  1861,  6th  1869, 
7th  (revised  by  Liddell  alone)  1883, 8th  1897. 
The  last  two  editions  were  electrotyped, 
and  the  last,  embodying  much  new  matter, 
was  published  when  Liddell  was  in  his 
eighty-seventh  year.  An  abridgment  of 
the  '  Lexicon '  for  the  use  of  schools,  pub- 
lished immediately  after  the  first  edition, 
and  an  '  Intermediate  Lexicon,'  published  in 
1889,  have  rendered  the  labours  of  Liddell 
and  Scott  accessible  to  the  beginners  of 
Greek,  as  well  as  to  the  most  advanced 
scholars. 

AVestminster  School  had  much  fallen  in 
numbers  when  Liddell  undertook  the  duties 
of  head-master.  Many  changes  were  needed 
to  restore  its  ancient  reputation.  New  assis- 
tant-masters had  to  be  appointed, newschool- 
books  introduced,  the  range  of  subjects  of 
study  enlarged,  and  many  old  abuses  swept 
away.  Under  Liddell's  wise  guidance,  and 
through  his  own  unsparing  efforts,  much 
good  was  effected,  and  the  number  of  boys 
soon  rose  from  between  eighty  and  ninety  to 


about  140.  He  was  in  many  respects  a  very 
remarkable  ruler,  and  his  appointment  in 
1852  as  a  member  of  the  first  Oxford  Uni- 
versity Commission  showed  the  confidence 
reposed  in  him  by  the  government  of  the 
day.  But  the  labours  of  that  commission 
formed  a  serious  addition  to  his  school  work, 
and  an  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever,  an  unfor- 
tunate result  of  Dean  Buckland's  sanitary 
reforms,  led  to  grave  anxieties,  and  to  a 
serious  diminution  in  the  numbers  of  the 
boys.  Unable  to  carry  out  his  wish  to  move 
the  school  to  a  new  home  in  the  country, 
and  despairing  of  its  growth  and  expansion 
in  London,  Liddell  was  glad  to  accept  Lord 
Palmerston's  offer  of  the  deanery  of  Christ 
Church  in  June  1855,  on  the  death  of  his 
old  chief,  Dean  Gaisford. 

He  held  the  deanery  from  the  summer  of 
1855  till  his  retirement  in  December  1891 — 
a  period  of  more  than  thirty-six  years,  a 
longer  tenure  of  the  office  than  any  former 
dean  had  enjoyed.  It  covered  also  an  event- 
ful epoch  in  the  history  of  Christ  Church. 
The  recommendations  of  the  commission  of 
which  he  had  been  an  influential  member 
were  embodied  in  an  ordinance  which  be- 
came law  in  1858,  under  which  two  of  the 
eight  canonries  were  suppressed,  and  the 
powers  of  the  dean  and  chapter  were  largely 
curtailed,  their  ancient  right  of  nominating 
to  studentships  being  taken  away,  and  a 
board  of  electors  established,  consisting  of 
the  dean,  six  canons,  and  the  six  senior 
members  of  the  educational  staff,  who  were 
to  examine  and  select,  after  open  competi- 
tion, all  students  except  those  who  were 
drawn  from  Westminster  School.  Instead 
of  the  old  number  of  101  students,  there 
were  for  the  future  to  be  twenty-eight  senior 
students  (answering  in  some  respects  to 
fellows  of  other  colleges)  and  fifty-two 
junior  studentships,  twenty-one  annexed  to 
Westminster  School,  and  the  rest  open  to 
competition. 

This  ordinance  remained  in  force  till  1867. 
But  it  satisfied  nobody  ;  the  senior  students 
especially  demanding  a  place  in  the  admini- 
stration of  the  property  of  their  house,  of 
which  the  dean  and  chapter  had  always  en- 
joyed the  sole  management.  After  much 
controversy  a  private  commission  of  five  dis- 
tinguished men  was  appointed,  who  drew 
up  a  new  scheme  of  government,  which  all 
parties  agreed  to  abide  by,  and  which  was 
embodied  in  the  Christ  Church  Oxford  Act, 
1867.  Under  this  act  a  new  governing 
body  was  created,  consisting  of  the  dean, 
canons,  and  senior  students,  who  were  to  be 
the  owners  and  managers  of  the  property. 
The  rights  of  the  chapter— as  a  cathedral 


Liddell 


96 


Lindley 


body — were  at  the  same  time  carefully 
guarded.  Liddell  had  taken  a  prominent 
part  in  both  these  reforms,  and  lived  to  see 
and  to  guide  a  third  change,  which  came 
after  the  parliamentary  commission  of  1877, 
by  which  the  studentships  were  divided  into 
two  classes,  with  different  conditions  of 
tenure  and  emoluments. 

Dean  Liddell's  time  will  always  be  asso- 
ciated with  great  alterations  and  additions 
to  the  buildings  of  Christ  Church.  The  new 
block  of  buildings  fronting  the  meadow  was 
erected  in  1862-5,  the  great  quadrangle  was 
brought  to  its  present  state,  and  the  cathe- 
dral, chapter-house,  and  cloisters  were  care- 
fully restored. 

In  all  matters  relating  to  the  university 
Dean  Liddell  exercised  considerable  autho- 
rity during  many  years.  The  Clarendon 
Press  owes  very  much  to  his  enlightened 
and  prudent  guidance  ;  his  refined  artistic 
tastes,  and  lifelong  friendship  with  Ruskin, 
led  him  to  take  a  deep  interest  in  the  uni- 
versity galleries.  He  was  vice-chancellor 
1870-4,  and  discharged  with  singular  dignity 
and  efficiency  the  duties  of  that  important 
office,  which  had  not  been  held  by  a  dean 
of  Christ  Church  since  the  days  of  Dean 
Aldrich  (1692-4).  As  a  ruler  of  his  college 
he  was  somewhat  stern  and  unsympathetic 
in  demeanour,  but  he  became  more  kindly 
as  he  advanced  in  years,  and  his  rare  and 
noble  presence,  high  dignity,  and  unswerving 
justice  gained  the  respect  and  gradually  the 
affection  of  all  members  of  his  house.  He 
was  created  hon.  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1884,  and  hon.  D.C.L.  of  Oxford 
in  1893.  On  Stanley's  death  he  was  offered 
but  refused  the  deanery  of  Westminster. 

After  his  resignation  of  the  deanery  in 
December  1891  he  lived  in  retirement  at 
Ascot  till  his  death  there  on  18  Jan.  1898. 
His  body  lies  at  Christ  Church,  outside  the 
southern  wall  of  the  sanctuary  of  the  cathe- 
dral, close  by  the  grave  of  his  daughter 
Edith,  who  died  in  1876. 

Dean  Liddell  married,  on  2  July  1846, 
Lorina,  daughter  of  James  Reeve,  a  member 
of  a  Norfolk  family.  Three  sons  and  four 
daughters  survived  him. 

In  addition  to  the  '  Greek  Lexicon,' 
Dean  Liddell  published  in  1855  '  A  History 
of  Ancient  Rome,'  2  vols.  This  work  was 
subsequently  (1871)  abridged,  and  as  '  The 
Student's  History  of  Rome  to  the  Establish- 
ment of  the  Empire '  has  a  permanent  circu- 
lation. He  rarely  published  sermons  ;  the 
best  known  of  them,  preached  before  the 
university  of  Oxford  on  3  Nov.  1867,  dealt 
with  the  philosophical  basis  of  the  real 
presence. 


There  are  two  portraits  in   oil  of  Dean 
!  Liddell ;  one,  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Watts,  R.A.,  is  in 
1  the  hall  of  Christ  Church.     This  was  pre- 
sented to  the  dean,  at  the  gaudy  of  1876, 
in  commemoration  of  the  completion  of  his 
twentieth  year  of  office.     The  other,  by  Mr. 
Hubert  Herkomer,  II.  A.,  was  painted  in  1891, 
|  and  presented  by  the  painter  to  the  university 
galleries.     There  is  also  an  exquisite  crayon 
drawing  by  George  Richmond,  R.A.  (1858), 
which  has  been  engraved.     These,  together 
with  a  portrait  of  Liddell  at   the  age   of 
twenty-eight  by  George  Cruikshank,  are  re- 
produced in  the  present  writer's  '  Memoir  ' 
(1899). 

[Memoir  of  H.   G.  Liddell,  D.D.,   1899,  by 
the  present  writer.]  H.  L.  T. 

LILFORD,  BAKON.    [See  POWYS,  THO- 
j  MAS  LITTLETON,  1833-1896.] 

LINDLEY,  WILLIAM  (1808-1900), 
civil  engineer,  son  of  Joseph  Lindley  of 
Heath,  Yorkshire,  was  born  in  London  on 
7  Sept.  1808.  He  was  educated  at  Croydon 
and  in  Germany,  in  which  country  he  was 
afterwards  to  make  his  name  as  an  engineer. 
In  1827  he  became  a  pupil  of  Francis  Giles, 
and  was  chiefly  engaged  in  railway  work. 
!  He  was  in  1838  appointed  engineer-in-chief 
]  to  the  Hamburg  and  Bergedorf  railway,  and 
it  was  in  the  city  of  Hamburg  that  the  en- 
|  gineering  work  by  which  he  will  be  remem- 
bered was  carried  out  for  the  next  twenty- 
j  two  years.  He  designed  and  supervised  the 
I  construction  of  the  Hamburg  sewerage  and 
water  works,  of  the  drainage  and  reclama- 
'  tion  of  the  low-lying  '  Hamrnerbrook'  dis- 
trict, much  of  which  is  now  a  valuable  part 
of  the  city,  and  he  drew  out  the  plans  for 
rebuilding  the  city  after  the  disastrous  fire 
of  May  1842.  He  was  in  fact  responsible 
for  most  of  the  engineering  and  other  works 
which  have  changed  the  ancient  Hanseatic 
city  into  one  of  the  greatest  modern  seaports 
of  Europe.  His  water  supply  for  Hamburg 
was  the  first  complete  system  of  the  kind, 
now  usually  adopted  on  the  continent,  and  his 
sewerage  arrangements  contained  many  prin- 
ciples novel  at  that  time,  though  since  com- 
monly adopted.  He  left  Hamburg  in  1860, 
and  in  1865  he  was  appointed  consulting  en- 
gineer to  the  city  of  Frankfort-on-Main.  He 
designed  and  carried  out  complete  sewerage 
works  for  that  city.  Here  again  many  im- 
provements were  for  the  first  time  adopted, 
and  this  system  has  become  more  or  less 
typical  for  similar  works  on  the  continent. 
He  retired  from  active  work  in  1879.  He 
joined  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  in 
1842,  and  was  for  many  years  a  member  of 


Lindsay 


97 


Lindsay 


the  Smeatonian  Society  of  Engineers,  be- 
coming president  of  it  in  1864.  He  died  at 
his  residence,  74  Shooter's  Hill  Road,  Black- 
heath,  on  22  May  1900. 

[Obituary  notices  ;  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers, 
cxxxvi.]  '  T.  H.  B. 

LINDSAY,  COLIN  (1819-1892),  founder 
of  the  English  Church  Union,  born  at  Mun- 
caster  Castle  on  6  Dec.  1819,  was  fourth 
son  of  James  Lindsay,  twenty-fourth  earl  of 
Crawford  and  seventh  earl  of  Balcarres,  by 
his  wife  Maria  Margaret  Frances,  daughter 
of  John  Penington,  first  baron  Muncaster. 
After  some  private  tuition  he  was  sent  to 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  came 
under  the  influence  of  the  high-church 
movement.  He  did  not  graduate,  and  on 
29  July  1845  married  Lady  Frances,  daughter 
and  coheiress  of  William  Howard,  fourth 
earl  of  Wicklow.  His  early  married  life 
was  passed  on  his  father's  estate  near  Wigan, 
and  he  took  an  active  part  in  local  affairs. 
As  churchwarden  of  All  Saints',  Wigan,  he 
was  largely  responsible  for  the  careful 
restoration  of  that  church.  He  was  founder 
and  president  of  the  Manchester  Church 
Society,  which  through  his  exertions  amal- 
gamated with  other  similar  associations  and 
became  in  1860  the  English  Church  Union. 
Of  this  body  Lindsay  was  president  from 
1860  to  1867,  and  he  devoted  himself  en- 
thusiastically to  the  work  of  the  society. 
During  these  years  he  lived  at  Brighton, 
but  in  1870  he  removed  to  London. 

Meanwhile  his  researches  in  ecclesiastical 
history  convinced  him  of  the  untenability 
of  the  Anglican  position.  His  wife  had 
already  joined  the  Roman  catholic  church 
on  13  Sept.  1866,  and  on  28  Nov.  1868 
Lindsay  was  himself  received  into  that 
church  by  Cardinal  Newman  at  the  Bir- 
mingham Oratory.  He  gave  an  account  of 
the  reasons  for  his  secession  in  the  intro- 
ductory epistle  to  his  '  Evidence  for  the 
Papacy'  (London,  1870,  8vo).  In  that 
work  Lindsay  appeared  as  a  staunch  cham- 
pion of  extreme  papal  claims,  and  he  further 
expounded  these  views  in  his  '  De  Ecclesia 
et  Cathedra,  or  the  Empire  Church  of  Jesus 
Christ'  (London,  1877,  2  vols.  8vo).  He 
also  defended  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  in 
'  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  her  Marriage 
with  BothwelT  (London,  1883,  8vo;  re- 
printed from  the  'Tablet'),  in  which  he 
declared  that  there  remained  '  not  a  single 
point  in  her  moral  character  open  to  attack.' 
In  1877  Lindsay  retired  to  Deer  Park, 
Honiton,  which  his  wife  had  inherited  in 
1856.  The  pope  granted  him  the  rare  privi- 
lege of  having  mass  celebrated  there  or  in 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


whatever  house  he  might  be  living.  He  died 
in  London  at  22  Elvaston  Place,  Queen's 
Gate,  on  28  Jan.  1892.  He  and  his  wife,  who 
died  on  20  Aug.  1897,  were  buried  at  St. 
Thomas's  Roman  catholic  church,  Fulham. 
He  left  five  sons  and  three  daughters,  of 
whom  the  eldest  son,  Mr.  William  Alexander 
Lindsay,  K.C.,  is  Windsor  herald. 

Besides  the  writings  mentioned  above, 
Lindsay  was  author  of  various  minor  works, 
of  which  a  full  bibliography  is  given  in  Mr. 
Joseph  Gillow's  '  Dictionary  of  English 
Catholics.'  The  most  important  is  'The 
Royal  Supremacy  and  Church  Emancipa- 
tion '  (London,  1865, 8vo),  in  which  Lindsay 
defined  the  view  taken  of  the  establishment 
by  the  English  Church  Union. 

[Works  in  Brit.  Mus.  Libr. ;  English  Church 
Union  Calendar;  Burke's  Peerage  ;  Times, 
30  Jan.  1892-  Manchester  Guardian,  1  Feb. 
1892;  Tablet,  Ixxix.  233;  Boase's  Modern 
English  Biography ;  Gillow's  Dictionary  of 
English  Catholics.]  A.  F.  P. 

LINDSAY,  JAMES  BOWMAN  (1799- 
1862),  electrician  and  philologist,  was  born 
at  Carmyllie,  Forfarshire,  on  8  Sept.  1799. 
But  for  the  delicacy  of  his  constitution  he 
would  have  been  a  farmer,  like  his  father, 
who  apprenticed  him  to  a  local  hand-loom 
weaver.  From  an  early  age  he  displayed  a 
taste  for  study,  and  matriculated  at  St. 
Andrews  University  in  October  1822,  work- 
ing at  his  trade  duringthe  recess,  and  earning 
some  money  by  private  tuition.  Having 
finished  his  arts  course  he  entered  on  the 
study  of  theology  and  completed  his  curri- 
culum, but  was  never  licensed  as  a  preacher. 
He  had  gained  special  honours  in  mathe- 
matics and  physical  science,  and  in  1829  he 
was  appointed  lecturer  on  these  subjects  at 
the  Watt  Institution,  Dundee,  and  organised 
classes  in  electricity  and  magnetism.  In  a 
fragment  of  autobiography,  preserved  in  the 
Dundee  Museum,  he  states  that  on  Oersted's 
discovery  of  the  deflection  of  the  magnetic 
needle  by  an  electric  current  in  1820  he 
'  had  a  clear  view  of  the  application  of  elec- 
tricity to  telegraphic  communication.'  The 
electric  light,  which  had  been  produced  and 
described  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  [q.  v.l  in 
1812,  attracted  his  attention,  and  he  devised 
'  many  contrivances  for  augmenting  it  and 
rendering  it  constant.'  In  the  local  news- 
papers it  is  recorded,  on  25  July  1835,  that 
Lindsay  delivered  a  lecture,  at  which  he  ex- 
hibited the  electric  light,  and  foretold  that 
'  the  present  generation  may  yet  have  it 
burning  in  their  houses  and  enlightening 
their  streets.'  Unfortunately  a  philological 
craze  diverted  him  from  his  experiments. 

H 


Lindsay 


98 


Linton 


While  at  the  university  he  had  become  in- 
terested in  comparative  philology,  and  in 
1828  he  had  begun  to  compile  a  Pente- 
contaglossal  dictionary,  from  which  he  ex- 
pected to  obtain  a  high  reputation.  For 
more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  he  devoted 
all  his  spare  time  to  it,  but  it  was  not  com- 
pleted at  his  death,  and  the  manuscript  is 
now  in  the  Dundee  Museum,  a  gigantic 
monument  of  misapplied  labour.  To  direct 
attention  to  his  plan,  Lindsay  published  in 
1846  his  '  Pentecontaglossal  Paternoster,' 
being  versions  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  fifty 
different  languages.  In  1858  he  published 
the  '  Chrono-Astrolabe,  a  full  set  of  Astro- 
nomical Tables,'  intended  to  assist  in  calcu- 
lating chronological  periods,  and  in  1861  'A 
Treatise  on  Baptism.' 

So  early  as  1832  he  had  demonstrated  the 
possibility  of  an  electric  telegraph  by  ex- 
periments in  his  class-room.  About  the  same 
time  Schilling,  and  in  1833  Gauso  and 
Weber,  set  up  practical  electric  telegraphs. 
In  the  '  Dundee  Advertiser '  for  6  May  1845 
Lindsay  described  a  new  method  of  tele- 
graphing messages,  which  he  called  the  auto- 
graph electric  telegraph.  Instead  of  the 
twenty-four  wires  then  used  for  telegraphing 
he  suggested  that  two  would  be  sufficient ; 
and  he  proposed  that  the  return  current,  say 
from  Arbroath  to  Dundee,  could  be  carried 
by  water  if  one  plate  was  inserted  in  the 
sea  at  Arbroath  and  another  in  the  Tay  at 
Dundee.  In  a  letter  to  the  'Northern 
Warder,'  a  Dundee  newspaper,  on  26  June 
1845,  Lindsay  proposed  a  transatlantic  tele- 
graph, by  means  of  uninsulated  copper  wire, 
and  suggested  that  the  wire  joints  might  be 
welded  by  electricity.  In  1853  he  announced, 
in  a  lecture  on  telegraphy  delivered  in 
Dundee  on  15  March,  that  by  establishing  a 
battery  on  one  side  of  the  Atlantic  and  a 
receiver  on  the  other,  a  current  could  be 
passed  through  the  ocean  to  America  with- 
out wires.  He  patented  this  method  of  wire- 
less telegraphy  on  5  June  1854,  and  during 
that  year  made  experiments  on  this  plan  at 
Earl  Grey  dock,  Dundee ;  across  the  Tay,  near 
Dundee;  and  at  Portsmouth.  The  latter 
experiments  are  described  in  'Chambers's 
Journal'  for  1854.  In  September  1859 
Lindsay  read  a  paper  '  On  Telegraphing 
without  Wires '  before  the  British  Associa- 
tion at  Aberdeen,  and  conducted  practical 
experiments  at  Aberdeen  docks,  which  were 
highly  commended  by  Lord  Rosse,  Professor 
Faraday,  and  Sir  G.  B.  Airy. 

While  Lindsay  was  thus  experimenting 
he  was  living  in  extreme  penury.  In  March 
1841  he  was  appointed  teacher  in  Dundee 
prison  at  a  salary  of  50/.  per  annum,  and 


I  this  post   he   retained    till  October   1858, 
j  when  the  Earl  of  Derby,  then  prime  mini- 
j  ster,  conferred  upon  him  a  pension  of  1001. 
\  '  in  recognition    of  his  great  learning  and 
extraordinary  attainments.'    He  thencefor- 
ward devoted  himself  to  scientific  pursuits. 
j  For  years   before   he    had   starved  himself 
I  that  he   might  purchase  books  and  scien- 
tific  instruments,  and  when   disease  came 
upon  him   his  emaciated   frame  could   not 
throw  it  off.     In  1862  he  became  seriously 
ill,  and,  after  five  days'  extreme  suffering, 
he  died  on  29  June,  and  was  interred  in  the 
Western  cemetery,  Dundee.     By  a  strange 
error  his  tombstone  gives  1863  as  the  year 
of  his  death.     Despite   his   straitened   cir- 
cumstances, the  library  which  he  left  was 
valued  at  1,300 A     An  enlarged  photograph 
of  Lindsay  is  in  the  Dundee  Museum,  and 
a  marble  bust  of  him,  by  George  Webster, 
was  presented  to  Dundee  by  ex-Lord  Provost 
McGrady   in    1899,   on    the   centenary   of 
Lindsay's  birth,  and  is  in  the  Dundee  Pic- 
ture Gallery. 

[Information  kindlysuppliedbyDr.C.  H.  Lees; 
Rosenberger,  Geschichte  der  Physik,  vol.  ii. 
passim;  Nome's  Dundee  Celebrities,  p.  112; 
Kerr's  Wireless  Telegraphy ;  Fahie's  Wireless 
Telegraphy,  1899  ;  Dundee  Advertiser.  31  July, 
30  Oct.  1835,  18  March  1853,  7  Sept.  1899; 
Spectator,  January  1849;  Report  of  the  British 
Association,  1859,  p.  13;  Robertson's  James 
Bowman  Lindsay,  1896 ;  Electrical  Engineer, 
January  1899.]  A.  H.  M. 

LINTON,  ELIZA  LYNN  (1822-1898), 
novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  the 
youngest  daughter  of  the  Rev.  James  Lynn, 
vicar  of  Crosthwaite,  Cumberland,  and  Char- 
lotte, daughter  of  Samuel  Goodenough  [q.  v.l, 
bishop  of  Carlisle,  and  was  born  at  Keswick 
on  10  Feb.  1822.  Her  mother  died  when  she 
was  an  infant,  and  Mrs.  Lynn  Linton's  youth 
was  spent  uneasily  from  her  inability  to  ac- 
commodate herself  to  the  ideas  of  her  family. 
In  1845  she  departed  for  London,  provided 
with  a  year's  allowance  from  her  father,  and 
resolved  to  establish  herself  as  a  woman  of 
letters.  With  little  knowledge  of  the  world, 
she  had  a  large  stock  of  antique  learning  de- 
rived from  her  father's  library ;  and  her  first 
attempts  in  fiction  not  unnaturally  dealt  with 
the  past.  Neither  her  scholarship  nor  her 
imagination  was  equal  to  recreating  Egypt 
or  Greece,  but '  Azeth  the  Egyptian  '  (1846) 
and  '  Amymone,  a  Romance  of  the  Days  of 
Pericles'  (3  vols.  1848), manifested  vehement 
eloquence  and  brilliant  colouring.  These  gifts 
were  no  adequate  equipment  for  the  delinea- 
tion of  modern  life ;  and  Miss  Lynn's  next 
novel, though  entitled  'Realities'  (1851),  was 
universally  censured  for  its  glaring  unreality. 


Linton 


99 


Linton 


Discouraged,  as  would  appear,  she  accepted 
an  engagement  as  newspaper  correspondent 
at   Paris,  where  she    remained  till   about 
1854,    and   almost    abandoned  fiction    for 
several  years  ;  her  chief  work  of  this  period, 
'  Witch  Stories,'  being  founded,  if  not  pre- 
cisely   upon   fact,   yet    upon    superstitions 
accepted  as  facts  in  their  day,  and  of  the 
most  dismal   and  repulsive   nature.     They 
originally  appeared  in  'All  the  Year  Round,' 
and  were  reprinted  in  1861  (new  edit.  1883). 
In  the  interim  she  had  gained  the  friendship 
of  Landor,  who  treated  her  with  paternal 
affection.     She  was  bitterly  dissatisfied  with 
Forster's  biography  of  him,  and  criticised  it 
with  extreme  severity  in  the  '  North  British 
Review.'     She  was  also  brought  into  relation 
with  Dickens  by  his  purchase  of  the  house 
at  Gad's  Hill  which  she  had  inherited.     In 
1858   she   married  William  James   Linton 
[q.  v.  Suppl.],  the  engraver.     Linton  was  a 
widower,  and  it  has  been  said  that  her  motive 
was  a  wish  to  test  her  theories  of  education 
upon  his  orphan  children ;  but  it  was  more 
probably  compliance  with  the  wish  of  the 
deceased  wife,  whom  she  had  nursed  in  her 
last   illness.      However  this  may  be,   the 
mutual  incompatibility  was  soon  apparent, 
and  the  parties  amicably  separated,  although 
Mrs.  Linton  visited  her  husband  from  time 
to  time  until  his  departure  for  America  in 
1867,  and  one  of  the  orphans  continued  to 
reside  with  her  stepmother  for  some  time, 
and  she  never  ceased  to  correspond  with  her 
husband.     She  also  wrote  a  description  of 
the  Lake  country  (1864,  4to),  where  she  re- 
sided during  her  domestication  with  her  hus- 
band, by  whom  it  was  illustrated.     Mrs. 
Linton,  on  her  separation  from  her  husband, 
returned  to  fiction,  adopting  a  manner  widely 
dissimilar  to  that  of  her  early  works.     Hav- 
ing previously  been  romantic  and  imagina- 
tive, she  now  demonstrated  that  experience 
of  the  world  had  made  her  a  very  clear- 
headed and  practical  writer,  excellent  in 
construction,    vigorous    in    style,    entirely 
competent   to   meet  the  demands    of    the 
average    novel-reader,   but    bereft    of    the 
glow  of  enthusiasm  which  had  suffused  her 
earlier  works.     There  were  nevertheless  two 
notable  exceptions  to  the  generally  mechani- 
cal manifestations  of  her  talent.     '  Joshua 
Davidson,'  which  was  published  in  1872,  and 
went  through  six  editions  in  two  years,  is  a 
daring  but  in  no  respect  irreverent  adapta- 
tion of  the  gospel  story  to  the  circumstances 
of  modern  life,  placing  the  antithesis  be- 
tween humane  sentiment  and  '  the  survival 
of  the  fittest '  in  a  light  which  commanded 
attention,    and   with  a  force  which   irre- 
sistibly  stimulated    thought.      Her    other 


remarkable    book,  'The  Autobiography  of 
Christopher  Kirkland'  (1885),  is  remarkable 
indeed  as  achieving  what  it  is  said  that  even 
an  act  of  parliament  cannot  do — turning  a 
woman  into  a  man.     It  is  in  a  large  mea- 
sure her  own  autobiography,  curiously  in- 
verted by  her  assumption  of  a  masculine 
character,  and,  apart  from  the  interest  of 
the  narrative  itself,  this  strange  metamor- 
phosis, once  perceived,  is  a  source  of  con- 
tinual entertainment.     It   gives  her   own 
version  of  her  conjugal  incompatibilities,  and 
has  striking  portraits  of  Panizzi,  Douglas 
Cook,  and  other   remarkable  persons  with 
whom  she  had  been  brought  into  contact. 
Of  her  more  ordinary  novels,  all  popular  in 
their  day,  the  most  remarkable  were  '  Grasp 
your  Nettle'    (1865),   'Patricia    Kemball' 
(1874),  '  The  Atonement  of  Learn  Dundas' 
(1877),  and  '  Under  which  Lord  ? '  (1879). 
Mrs.    Linton  had    a    special    talent  for 
journalism ;   she   had   contributed    to    the 
'  Morning  Chronicle '  as  early  as  1848,  and 
continued  a  member  of  its  staff  until  1851. 
Writing  for  the  press  became  more  and  more 
her  vocation  during  her  latter  years.     She 
became  connected  with  the  '  Saturday  Re- 
view' in  1866,  and  for  many  years  was  a 
much-valued  contributor  of  essays  to  the 
middle  part  of  the  paper.     One  of  these, 
'  The  Girl  of  the  Period  '(14  March  1868),  an 
onslaught  on  some  modern  developments  of 
feminine  manners  and  character,  created  a 
great  sensation,  and  the  number  in  which  it 
had  appeared  continued  to  be  inquired  for  for 
many  years.     It  was  certainly  incisive,  and 
was  probably  thought  opportune  ;  but,  like 
her  kindred  disquisitions  unfriendly  to  the 
cause  of  '  women's  rights,'  it  estranged  and 
offended  many  of  her  own  sex.     These  papers 
were  reprinted  as  '  The  Girl  of  the  Period, 
and  other  Essays '  (1883, 2  vols.)     A  similar 
series  of  essays  was   entitled  '  Ourselves ' 
(1870 ;  new  edit.  1884).    She  contributed  to 
many  other  journals  and  reviews,  and  always 
with   effect.      In  1891  she  published  '  An 
Octave  of  Friends,'  and  in   1897  wrote   a 
volume  on  George  Eliot  for  a  series  entitled 
'  Women    Novelists    of   Queen    Victoria's 
Reign.'  This  displayed  a  regrettable  acerbity, 
which  might  easily  be  attributed  to  motives 
that  probably  did  not  influence  her.     She 
was  kind-hearted  and  generous,  and  especially 
amiable  to  young  people  of  intellectual  pro- 
mise ;  but  her  speech  and  pen  were  sharp,  and 
she  was  prone  to  act  upon  impulse.     She 
hated  injustice,  and  was  not  always  suffi- 
ciently careful  to  commit  none  herself.    Her 
independent  spirit  and  her  appetite  for  work 
were  highly  to  her  honour.     Her  last  book, 
'  My  Literary  Life,'  was  published  posthu- 

H2 


Linton 


100 


Linton 


mously,  with  a  prefatory  note  by  Miss  Bea- 
trice Harraden,  in  1899.  She  usually  lived 
in  London,  but  about  three  years  before  her 
death  retired  to  Brougham  House,  Malvern. 
She  died  at  Queen  Anne's  Mansions,  London, 
on  14  July  1898.  A  posthumous  portrait 
was  painted  by  the  Hon.  John  Collier  for 
presentation  to  the  public  library  at  Keswick, 
and  a  drawing  by  Samuel  Laurence,  taken 
when  she  was  twenty,  is  in  the  possession  of 
the  Rev.  Augustus  Gedge,  her  brother-in-law. 
[The  principal  authority  for  Mrs.  Linton's 
life  is  Eliza  Lynn  Linton,  her  Life,  Letters,  and 
Opinions,  by  George  Somes  Layard,  1901.  See 
also  My  Literary  Life,  1899  ;  Men  and  Women 
of  the  Time;  Athenaeum,  23  July  1898.] 

R.  G. 

LINTON,  WILLIAM  JAMES  (1812- 
1898),  engraver,  poet,  and  political  reformer, 
was  born  in  Ireland's  Row,  Mile  End 
Road,  on  7  Dec.  1812.  His  father,  whose 
calling  is  not  recorded,  was  of  Scottish  ex- 
traction, the  son  of  '  an  Aberdeen  ship 
carpenter  with  some  pretensions  to  be 
called  an  architect.'  His  younger  brother, 
Henry  Duff  Linton  (1812-1899),  who  was 
also  a  wood-engraver,  and  was  associated 
with  W.  J.  Linton  in  many  of  his  earlier 
productions,  died  at  Norbiton,  Surrey,  in 
June  1899  (Times,  23  June  1899). 

Linton  received  his  education  at  a  school 
in  Stratford,  and  in  1828  was  apprenticed 
to  the  wood-engraver  George  WilmotBonner, 
•with  whom  he  continued  for  six  years.    He 
subsequently  worked  with  Powis  and  with 
Thompson,  and  in  1836  became  associated 
with  John  Orrin  Smith  [q.  v.],  then  intro- 
ducing  great   improvements    into    English 
wood-engraving.    About  the  same  time  he 
married  the  sister  of  Thomas  Wade  [q.  v.]  the 
poet,  after  whose  death  he  wedded  another 
sister.     He  now  began  to  mingle  in  literary 
circles,  and  to  make  himself  conspicuous  as 
a  political  agitator.     Under  the  influence  of 
his  enthusiasm  for  Shelley  and  Lamennais, 
whose  '  Words  of  a  Believer '  were  among 
the  gospels  of  the  time,  he  had   adopted 
advanced  views    in   religion    and   extreme 
views  in  politics,  and,  while  throwing  him- 
self with  ardour   into    the  chartist  move- 
ment, went  beyond  it  in  professing  himself 
a  republican.     He  was  especially  connected 
with  Henry  Hetherington  [q.  v.J  and  James 
Watson  (1799-1874)  [q.  v.J,  the  publishers 
of  unstamped    newspapers,    and    in    1839 
himself  established  '  The  National,'  designed 
as  a  vehicle  for  the  reprint  of  extracts  from 
political  and  philosophical  publications  in- 
accessible to  working  men.     It  had  no  long 
existence. 

In  1842  Linton  became  partner  with  his 


employer,  Orrin  Smith,  but  the  partnership 
was  dissolved  by  the  latter's  death  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  During  their  connection  Linton 
had  done  much  important  work,  especially  on 
'  The  Illustrated  News,'  established  in  1842. 
He  was  also  active  in  literature.  Through 
his  brother-in-law  Wade  he  had  become  in- 
timate with  the  circle  that  gathered  around 
W.  J.  Fox  and  R.  H.  Home  in  the  latter 
days  of '  The  Monthly  Repository,'  and  with 
their  aid,  after  an  unsuccessful  experiment 
in  '  The  Illustrated  Family  Journal,  he  suc- 
ceeded (1845)  Douglas  Jerrold  as  editor  of 
The  Illuminated  Magazine,'  where  he  pub- 
lished many  interesting  contributions  from 
writers  of  more  merit  than  popularity. 
Among  these  were  'A  Royal  Progress,'  a 
poem  of  considerable  length  by  Sarah  Flower 
Adams  [q.  v.],  not  hitherto  printed  else- 
where, and  specimens  of  the  '  Stories  after 
Nature'  of  Charles  Jeremiah  Wells  [q.  v.], 
almost  the  only  known  copy  of  which  Linton 
himself  had  picked  off  a  bookstall.  Their 
publication  elicited  a  new  story  from  Wells, 
which  Linton  subsequently  dramatised 
under  its  own  title  of  '  Claribel.' 

As  a  politician  Linton  was  at  this  time 
chiefly  interested  in  the  patriotic  designs 
of  Mazzini,  with  whom  he  formed  an  in- 
timate friendship,  and  the  violation  of  whose 
correspondence  at  the  post  office  in  1844  he 
was  instrumental  in  exposing.  The  chartist 
movement  had  passed  under  the  direction 
of  Feargus  O'Connor  [q.  v.],  whom  Linton 
distrusted  and  despised,  and  he  had  little 
connection  with  it ;  of  the  free-trade  leaders, 
W.  J.  Fox  excepted,  he  had  a  still  worse 
opinion,  and  continued  to  denounce  them 
with  virulence  throughout  his  life.  An 
acquaintance  with  Charles  (now  Sir  Charles) 
Gavan  Duffy  led  him  to  contribute  political 
verse  to  the  Dublin  '  Nation '  under  the 
signature  of  '  Spartacus.'  In  1847  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  founding  the  '  International 
League  '  of  patriots  of  all  nations,  for  which 
the  events  of  the  following  year  seemed  to 
provide  ample  scope,  but  which  came  to 
nothing.  The  more  limited  and  practical 
movement  of  '  The  Friends  of  Italy  '  was 
supported  by  him.  In  1850  he  was  con- 
cerned with  Thornton  Hunt  and  G.  H. 
Lewes  in  the  establishment  of  'The 
Leader,'  which  he  expected  to  make  the 
organ  of  republicanism,  but  he  soon  dis- 
covered his  associates'  lukewarmness  in 
political  matters,  and  quitted  '  The  Leader ' 
to  found  '  The  English  Republic,'  a  monthly 
journal  published  and  originally  printed 
at  Leeds.  After  a  while  Linton  carried 
on  the  printing  under  his  own  superinten- 
dence at  Brantwood,  a  house  which  he  had 


Linton 


Linton 


acquired  in  the  Lake  country,  since  cele- 
brated as  the  residence  of  Ruskin.  He  had 
previously  lived  at  Miteside  in  Northumber- 
land, which,  as  well  as  his  intimate  friendship 
with  William  Bell  Scott  [q.  v.],  had  made 
him  acquainted  with  a  circle  of  zealous 
political  reformers  at  Newcastle ;  there 
he  published  anonymously  in  1852  '  The 
Plaint  of  Freedom,'  a  series  of  poems  in 
the  metre  of  '  In  Memoriam,'  which  gained 
him  the  friendship  and  the  encomiums,  for 
once  not  undeserved,  of  Walter  Savage 
Landor.  In  1855  '  The  English  Republic  ' 
was  discontinued,  and  Linton  commenced  an 
artistic  periodical,  '  Pen  and  Pencil,'  which 
did  not  enjoy  a  long  existence.  In  this  year 
he  lost  his  wife  and  returned  to  London, 
where,  devoting  himself  anew  to  his  profes- 
sion, he  firmly  established  his  reputation  as 
the  best  wood-engraver  of  his  day,  and  was 
in  special  request  for  book  illustration.  His 
engravings  of  the  pre-Raphaelite  artists'  de- 
signs for  Moxon's  illustrated  Tennyson  were 
among  his  most  successful  productions;  if 
iustice  was  not  always  done  to  the  original 
drawing,  the  fault  was  not  in  the  engraver, 
but  in  the  imperfections  of  engraving  pro- 
cesses upon  wood  before  the  introduction  of 
photography.  In  1858  Linton  married  Miss 
Eliza  Lynn,  the  celebrated  novelist,  best 
known  under  her  married  name  of  Linton 
[q.  v.  Suppl.]  The  union  did  not  prove  for- 
tunate :  the  causes  are  probably  not  unfairly 
intimated  in  Mrs.  Linton's  autobiographical 
novel  of  '  Christopher  Kirkland  '  (1885).  It 
terminated  in  an  amicable  separation,  in- 
volving the  disposal  of  the  house  at  Brant- 
wood  to  Ruskin,  'pleasantly  arranged,'  says 
Linton,  '  in  a  couple  of  letters.'  He  re- 
mained for  some  time  in  London,  following 
his  profession.  The  covers  of  the '  Cornhill' 
and  '  Macmillan's '  magazines  were  engraved 
by  him  ;  he  brought  out '  The  Works  of  De- 
ceased British 'Artists,'  and  illustrated  his 
wife's  work  on  the  Lake  country.  In  1865 
he  published  his  drama  of  '  Claribel,'  with 
other  poems,  including  two  early  ones  of  re- 
markable merit,  a  powerful  narrative  in 
blank  verse  of  Grenville's  sea-fight  celebrated 
in  Tennyson's  '  Revenge,'  and  an  impressive 
meditation  symbolising  his  own  political 
aspirations,  put  into  the  mouth  of  Henry 
Marten  [q.v.]  imprisoned  in  Chepstow  Castle. 
In  November  1866  Linton  went  to  the 
United  States.  He  had  intended  only  a 
short  visit  in  connection  with  a  project  for 
aiding  democracy  in  Italy,  but  he  found  a 
wider  field  for  the  exercise  of  his  art  opened 
to  him  than  at  home,  and  he  mainly  devoted 
the  rest  of  his  life  to  the  regeneration  of 
American  wood-engraving.  He  established 


himself  at  Appledore,  a  farmhouse  near 
New  Haven  in  Connecticut,  gathered  dis- 
ciples around  him,  and  by  precept  and 
example  was  accomplishing  great  things, 
when  his  career  was  checked  by  the  intro- 
duction of  cheap  '  process '  methods,  inevi- 
table when  the  art  has  become  so  largely 
popularised,  but  always  regarded  by  him 
with  the  strongest  objection.  At  first 
he  sent  his  blocks  to  New  York,  but  ulti- 
mately bought  a  press,  and  conducted  both 
printing  and  engraving  under  his  own  roof. 
For  the  literary  furtherance  of  his  views  on 
art  he  produced  '  Practical  Hints  on  Wood 
Engraving,'  1879 ;  'A  History  of  Wood  En- 
graving in  America/  1882,  and  '  Wood  En- 
graving, a  Manual  of  Instruction/  1884. 
During  a  visit  to  England  in  1883  and  1884 
he  began  his  great  work  called  'The  Masters 
of  Wood  Engraving.'  This  book  was  based 
upon  two  hundred  photographs  from  the 
works  of  the  great  masters,  which  he  began 
in  1884  in  the  print-room  of  the  British 
Museum.  Returning  to  New  Haven  he 
wrote  his  book,  printed  it  in  three  copies, 
and  mounted  the  photographs  himself,  and 
in  1887  returned  to  England,  bringing  one 
of  the  copies  to  be  reproduced  under  his 
superintendence  in  London.  The  work  ap- 
peared in  folio  in  1890. 

Meanwhile  his  private  press  at  Appledore 
had  been  active  in  another  department,  pro- 
ducing charming  little  volumes  of  original 
verse,  much  prized  by  collectors,  such  as 
'  Windfalls,' '  Love  Lore/  and  '  The  Golden 
Apples  of  Hesperus/  the  latter  an  anthology 
of  little-known  pieces,  partly  reproduced  in 
another  collection  edited  by  him,  'Rare 
Poems  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth 
Centuries '  (New  Haven,  1882, 8vo).  In  1883 
he  published  an  extensive  anthology  of  Eng- 
lish poetry  in  conjunction  with  R.  H.  Stod- 
dard.  In  1879  he  wrote  the  life  of  his  old 
friend,  James  Watson,  the  intrepid  pub- 
lisher, and  contributed  his  recollections  to 
the  republished  poems  of  another  old  friend, 
Ebenezer  Jones  [q.v.]  In  1889  '  Love  Lore/ 
with  selections  from  '  Claribel '  and  other 
pieces,  was  published  in  London  under  the 
title  of  '  Poems  and  Translations.'  A  collec- 
tion of  pamphlets  and  contributions  by 
himself  to  periodical  literature,  comprising 
twenty  volumes  (1836-86),  and  entitled 
'  Prose  and  Verse/  is  in  the  British  Museum 
Library.  After  his  final  return  to  America 
in  1892,  though  upwards  of  eighty,  he 
produced  a  life  of  Whittier  in  the  '  Great 
Writers '  series  (1893),  and  his  own  'Me- 
mories/ an  autobiography  full  of  spirit  and 
buoyancy,  which  might  with  advantage 
have  been  more  full,  in  1895.  He  died  at 


Lloyd 


102 


Lloyd 


New  Haven,  Connecticut,  U.S.A.,  on  1  Jan. 
1898. 

Linton's  fame  as  an  engraver  is  widely 
spread,  but  he  has  never  received  justice  as 
a  poet.  His  more  ambitious  attempts, 
though  often  true  poetry,  are  of  less  account 
than  the  little  snatches  of  song  which  came 
to  him  in  his  later  years,  bewitching  in 
their  artless  grace,  and  perhaps  nearer  than 
the  work  of  any  other  modern  poet  to  the 
words  written  for  music  in  the  days  of 
Elizabeth  and  James.  Produced  at  so 
late  a  period  of  life,  these  lyrics  evince 
an  indomitable  vitality.  They  were  dedi- 
cated to  a  coeval,  William  Bell  Scott  [q.v.], 
who  wrote :  '  All  his  later  poems  are  on  love,  I 
a  fact  that  baffles  me  to  understand.'  His  j 
translations  of  French  lyrics  are  masterly, 
and  his  anthologies  prove  his  acquaintance 
with  early  and  little-known  English  poetry. 
As  a  man  he  was  amiable  and  helpful,  full 
of  kind  actions  and  generous  enthusiasms. 
His  indifference  to  order  and  impatience  of 
restraint,  though  trying  to  those  most  nearly 
connected  with  him,  were  not  incompatible 
with  exemplary  industry  in  undertakings  j 
that  interested  him.  His  most  serious  de- 
fect, the  'carelessness  of  pecuniary  obliga- 
tion,' which  he  himself  imputes  to  Leigh 
Hunt,  mainly  sprang  from  the  sanguine 
temperament  which  so  long  preserved  the 
freshness  of  the  author  and  the  vigour  of  the 
man. 

Photographic  portraits  of  Linton  at  ad- 
vanced periods  of  life  are  prefixed  to  his 
'  Poems  and  Translations  '  (1889),  and  to  his 
'  Memories,'  1895. 

[Linton's  Memories,  1895;  G.  S.  Layard's 
Life  of  Mrs.  Lynn  Linton,  1901  ;  Mr.  A.  H. 
Bullen  in  Mi les's  Poets  of  the  Century;  article 
on  W.  J.  Linton  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Kitto  in  English 
Illustrated  Magazine,  1891  ;  Times,  3  Jan. 
1898;  Athenaeum,  8  and  15  Jan.  1898  ;  personal 
knowledge.]  R.  Gr. 

LLOYD,  WILLIAM  WATKISS  (1818- 
1893),  classical  and  Shakespearean  scholar, 
the  second  son  of  David  Lloyd  of  Newcastle- 
under-Lyme,  was  born  at  Homerton,  Mid- 
dlesex, 11  March  1813.  He  was  educated 
at  the  grammar  school  of  Newcastle- under- 
Lyme,  Staffordshire,  and  made  so  much 
progress  that  the  master,  the  Rev.  John  An-  j 
derton,  offered  to  contribute  towards  the 
fees  of  a  university  course.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen,  however,  he  was  placed  in  the 
counting-house  of  his  cousins,  Messrs.  John 
and  Francis  Lloyd,  the  tobacco  manufac- 
turers of  77  Snow  Hill,  London,  of  which  i 
firm  he  afterwards  became  a  partner ;  he 
retired  from  business  in  1864.  For  a  period 
of  thirty-six  vears  his  davs  were  devoted  j 


to  uncongenial  duties  and  his  nights  to 
books.  At  one  time  he  lived  at  Snow  Hill, 
and  for  many  years  never  left  London. 
With  an  inborn  love  for  learning  he  added 
to  a  solid  basis  of  Greek  and  Latin  a  wide 
knowledge  of  modern  languages  and  litera- 
tures, as  well  as  of  ancient  art,  history,  and 
archaeology.  To  these  pursuits  every  leisure 
hour,  even  to  the  close  of  his  life,  was 
applied.  The  firstfruit  of  his  studies  was 
an  historical  and  mythological  essay  on  the 
'  Xanthian  Marbles  :  the  Nereid  Monument ' 
(1845),  followed  by  other  contributions  on 
subjects  of  Greek  antiquities,  some  printed 
in  the  '  Classical  Museum.'  In  1854  he  sup- 
plied certain  '  Arguments '  to  Owen  Jones's 
'  Apology  for  the  Colouring  of  the  Greek 
Court  in  the  Crystal  Palace.'  In  the  same 
year  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Dilettanti,  chiefly  through  the  friendly 
offices  of  Monckton  Milnes  (afterwards  Lord 
Houghton).  Until  his  death  he  '  was  one  of 
the  principal  guides  and  advisers  of  the  Dilet- 
tanti in  their  archaeological  undertakings,' 
and  acted  temporarily  as  secretary  and  trea- 
surer in  1888  and  1889  (CusT,  History  of 
the  Soc.  of  Dilettanti,  1898,  pp.  187,  206). 

As  a  labour  of  love  he  supplied  essays  on 
the  life  and  plays  of  Shakespeare  to  S.  W. 
Singer's  edition  of  the  poet  published  in 
1856  (2nd  ed.  1875).  The  essays  show  acute 
criticism  and  thorough  knowledge  of  Eliza- 
bethan literature,  and  were  collected  by  the 
author  in  a  private  reprint  (1858,  and  re- 
issued without  the  life  in  1875  and  1888). 
A  memoir  on  the  system  of  proportion  em- 
ployed in  the  design  of  ancient  Greek  temples 
was  added  by  him  to  C.  R.  Cockerell's 
'  Temples  of  Jupiter  Panhellenius  at  ^Egina 
and  of  Apollo  Epicurius,'  published  in  1860. 
The  subject  was  also  treated  in  '  A  General 
Theory  of  Proportion  in  Architectural  De- 
sign and  its  Exemplification  in  Detail  in  the 
Parthenon,  with  illustrative  engravings ' 
(London,  1863,  4to ;  lecture  delivered  before 
the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects, 
13  June  1859),  his  most  original  work,  of 
which  the  conclusions  have  since  met  with 
wide  approval.  His  literary  interests  were 
now  turned  in  a  different  direction,  and  he 
published  '  The  Moses  of  Michael  Angelo :  a 
Study  of  Art,  History,  and  Legend'  (1863, 
8vo),  followed  by  '  Christianity  in  the  Car- 
toons, referred  to  Artistic  Treatment  and 
Historic  Fact '  (1865,  8vo),  in  which  artistic 
criticism  is  coupled  with  a  free  treatment  of 
religious  matters,  and  '  Philosophy,  Theo- 
logy, and  Poetry  in  the  Age  and  Art  of 
Rafael '  (1866,  large  8vo).  In  1868  he  mar- 
ried Ellen  Brooker,  second  daughter  of  Lionel 
John  Beale,  and  sister  of  Dr.  Lionel  S.  Beale. 


Lloyd 


103 


Loch 


Ancient  Greek  history  and  art  were  the  sub- 
jects of  his  next  two  publications,  perhaps 
the  most  generally  interesting  of  his  writings: 
'  The  History  of  Sicily  to  the  Athenian  War, 
with  Elucidations  of  the  Sicilian  Odes  of 
Pindar '  (1872,  8vo),  and  '  The  Age  of  Peri- 
cles :  a  History  of  the  Politics  and  Arts  of 
Greece  from  the  Persian  to  the  Peloponne- 
sian  War'  (1875,  2  vols.  8vo),  the  last  a 
complete  conception  of  the  social  life  and 
art  of  Greece  at  its  highest  point.  In  1882 
he  delivered  four  lectures  on  the  '  Iliad  '  and 
'  Odyssey '  at  the  Royal  Institution,  of  which 
body  he  acted  as  one  of  the  managers  from 
1879  to  1881.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Athenaeum  Club  in  1875,  and  for  many 
years  was  an  active  member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  the  London  Library.  He  was  a 
correspondent  of  the  archaeological  societies 
of  Rome  and  Palermo. 

Lloyd  died  at  43  Upper  Gloucester  Place, 
Regent's  Park,  on  22  Dec.  1893  in  his  eighty- 
first  year,  leaving  a  widow  (d.  1900),  a  son, 
and  a  daughter.  His  portrait  by  Miss  Bush 
was  bequeathed  to  the  Society  of  Dilettanti 
(CusT,  History,  p.  236).  Another  portrait 
by  Sir  William  Richmond,  R.A.,  is  in  the 
possession  of  the  family. 

Watkiss  Lloyd  was  a  remarkable  instance 
of  a  lifelong  devotion  to  learning,  stamped 
by  disinterested  self-denial.  Without  a 
university  training,  and  never  recognised 
by  any  academic  body,  he  had  the  strong 
qualities  and  some  of  the  weaknesses  of  the 
self-taught.  His  books  manifest  con- 
scientious industry,  originality,  and  sound 
scholarship;  but  while  his  judgment  was 
solid  and  his  thought  clear,  he  was  not  en- 
dowed with  the  faculty  of  expressing  his 
ideas  in  attractive  literary  form.  Power  of 
condensation  and  artistic  arrangement  of 
materials  were  wanting.  One  half  of  his  life 
was  passed  in  solitude,  but  during  the  last 
half  he  mixed  in  the  world,  and  the  angu- 
larities of  the  student  became  softened. 
He  was  a  charming  talker,  modest,  unpe- 
dantic,  and  a  staunch  friend.  In  personal 
appearance  he  was  tall  and  impressive  ;  even 
to  the  end  he  was  strikingly  upright  in  car- 
riage, and  showed  few  outward  signs  of  his 
advanced  age. 

Besides  the  books  above  mentioned,  he 
published:  1.  'Explanation  of  the  Groups 
in  the  Western  Pediment  of  the  Parthenon,' 
London,  1847,  8vo  (from  '  Classical  Mu- 
seum,' pt.  18)  ;  '  The  Central  Group  of  the 
Panathenaic  Frieze '  (from  '  Trans.  Roy. 
Soc.  Lit.'  n.s.  vol.  v.  1854) ;  '  The  Eastern 
Pediment  of  the  Parthenon'  (from  ib.  n.s. 
vol.  vii.  1862).  2.  'Artemis  Elaphebolos: 
an  Archaeological  Essay,'  London,  1847,  8vo 


(privately  printed).  3.  '  The  Portland  Vase,' 
London,  1848,  8vo.  4.  'Homer,  his  Art 
and  Age,'  London,  1848,  8vo  (Nos.  3  and 
4  reprinted  from  the  '  Classical  Museum '). 
5.  '  The  Eleventh  of  Pindar's  Pythian  Odes,' 
London,  1849,  8vo.  6.  '  On  the  Homeric 
Design  of  the  Shield  of  Achilles,'  London, 
1854,  large  8vo.  7.  '  Pindar  and  Themisto- 
cles,'  London,  1862,  8vo  (a  prose  translation 
of  Pindar's  eighth  Nemean  ode).  8.  'Panics 
and  their  Panaceas :  the  Theory  of  Money, 
Metallic  or  Paper,  in  relation  to  Healthy 
or  Disturbed  Interchange,'  London,  1869, 
8vo.  9.  '  Shakespeare's  "  Much  Ado  about 
Nothing,"  now  first  published  in  fully  re- 
covered Metrical  Form  with  a .  Prefatory 
Essay,'  London,  1884,  8vo  (he  contended 
that  all  the  plays  were  written  in  blank 
verse).  10. 'Elijah  Fen  ton:  his  Poetry  and 
Friends,' Lond.  1894,  sm.  8vo  (posthumous). 

Lloyd  contributed  many  articles  to  the 
'  Classical  Museum,'  the  '  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Literature,'  the  '  Architect,' 
the  '  Athengeum,'  and  the  '  Journal  of  Hel- 
lenic Studies,'  and,  although  he  published 
much,  left  behind  a  great  quantity  of  un- 
printed  manuscripts,  among  them  being 
'  The  Battles  of  the  Ancients ' — military 
history  always  attracted  him — others,  be- 
queathed to  the  British  Museum,  include  'A 
Further  History  of  Greece,'  treating  of  the 
later  Athenian  wars ;  '  The  Century  of  Mi- 
chael Angelo,'  a  treatise  on  '  The  Nature  of 
Man,'  '  Shakespeare's  Plays  metrically  ar- 
ranged,' '  Essays  on  the  Plays  of  ^Eschylus 
and  Sophocles,'  and  upon  the  Neopla- 
tonists,  a  translation  of  the  Homeric  poems 
in  free  hexameters,  translations  of  Theo- 
critus, Bion,  and  the  odes  of  Pindar,  besides 
materials  for  the  history  of  architecture, 
painting,  and  sculpture. 

[Information  from  Col.  E.  M.  Lloyd ;  see 
also  Memoir  by  Sophia  Beale,  •with  list  of  works 
aiid  photogravure  portrait  included  in  Lloyd's 
Elijah  Fenton,  1894;  Times,  27  Dec.  1893  and 
17  Jan.  1894;  Athenaeum,  30  Dec.  1893,  p.916; 
Architect,  23  Dec.  1893,  p.  399;  Publishers' 
Circular,  30  Dec.,  p.  752  ;  Allibone's  Diet,  of 
English  Literature,  1870,  ii.  1111  ;  Kirk's 
Suppl.  to  Allibone,  1891,  ii.  1010.]  H.  K.  T. 

LOCH,  HENRY  BROUGHAM,  first 
BARON  LOCH  OF  DRYLAW  (1827-1900),  born 
on  23  May  1827,  was  the  son  of  James 
Loch,  M.P.,  of  Drylaw  in  the  county  of 
Midlothian,  by  his  wife  Ann,  the  daughter 
of  Patrick  Orr.  He  entered  the  royal  navy 
in  1840,  but  left  it  as  a  midshipman  in  1842 
and  was  gazetted  to  the  3rd  Bengal  cavalry 
in  1844.  Though  only  seventeen  years  of 
age,  he  was  chosen  by  Lord  Gough  as  his 
aide-de-camp,  and  in  that  capacity  served 


Loch 


104 


Loch 


through  the  Sutlej  campaign  of  1845.  In 
1860  he  was  appointed  adjutant  of  the 
famous  irregular  corps,  Skinner's  Horse.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war  his  gift  of 
managing  Asiatic  soldier}-  led  to  his  being 
selected  in  1854  to  proceed  to  Bulgaria  and 
assist  in  organising  the  Turkish  horse.  He 
served  throughout  the  war,  and  at  its  close  he 
was  signalled  out  for  the  employment  which 
was  destined  to  close  his  military  career.  In 
1857  James  Bruce,  eighth  earl  of  Elgin  [q.v.] 
was  despatched  on  a  special  embassy  to  China 
to  arrange,  as  was  supposed,  the  final  terms 
of  settlement  of  the  war  that  was  then  raging, 
and  Captain  Loch  was  attached  to  his  staff. 
He  was  present  at  the  taking  of  Canton  on 
28  Dec.  and  the  seizure  of  Commissioner 
Yeh,  and  he  subsequently  proceeded  with 
Lord  Elgin  on  his  mission  to  Japan,  and  in 
1868  he  was  sent  back  to  England  with  the 
treaty  of  Yeddo,  concluded  by  Great  Britain 
with  that  country.  In  1860  the  failure  to 
obtain  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  Tien- 
tsin and  the  repulse  of  the  English  gunboats 
before  the  Taku  forts  had  involved  the  Anglo- 
French  expedition  under  Sir  James  Hope 
Grant  [q.  v.]  and  General  Montauban,  after- 
wards Count  Palikao.  Lord  Elgin  was 
again  sent  out  as  minister  plenipotentiary, 
and  mindful  of  Captain  Loch's  services  he 
took  him  with  him  as  private  secretary.  In 
conjunction  with  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  Harry 
Smith  Parkes  [q.  v.J,  Loch  conducted  the 
negotiations  which  led  to  the  surrender  of 
the  Taku  forts,  and  he  shared  in  the  advance 
on  Pekin. 

On  18  Sept.  he  formed  one  of  the  small 
party  which  was  treacherously  seized  by  the 
Chinese  officials  on  returning  from  Tung- 
chau,  whither  they  had  been  to  arrange  the 
preliminaries  of  peace.  Loch  had  actually 
made  his  way  through  the  enemy's  lines  to 
the  English  camp  and  had  given  warning  of 
the  intended  treachery,  but  he  chivalrously 
returned  in  order  to  try  and  save  his  com- 
rades. For  three  weeks  he  endured  the 
most  terrible  imprisonment,  loaded  with 
chains,  tortured  by  the  gaolers,  and  herded 
with  the  worst  felons  in  the  common  prison. 
So  frightful  was  the  state  of  his  surround- 
ings that  a  single  abrasion  of  the  skin  must 
have  led  to  a  terrible  death  from  the  poisonous 
insects  that  swarmed  in  his  cell.  His  situa- 
tion was  rendered  more  deplorable  by  his 
inability  to  speak  the  Chinese  language  with 
any  fluency.  Fortunately  the  loyalty  and 
determination  of  his  fellow-prisoner,  Parkes, 
led  first  to  the  amelioration  of  his  condition, 
and  eventually  to  their  joint  release.  They 
anticipated  by  only  ten  minutes  the  arrival 
of  an  order  from  the  emperor  imperatively 


commanding  their  execution.  On  8  Oct. 
they  rejoined  the  British  camp,  but,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  Indian  troopers,  the 
rest  of  the  party — French,  English,  and 
native — died  in  prison  from  horrible  mal- 
treatment, and  Loch  himself  never  fully 
recovered  his  health. 

In  1860  he  was  sent  home  in  charge  of 
the  treaty  of  Tientsin,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  finally  quitted  the  army,  and  was 
appointed  private  secretary  to  Sir  George 
Grey  [q.  v.J,  who  was  then  secretary  of  state 
at  the  home  office.  In  1863  he  was  made 
governor  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  a  post  which  he 
occupied  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  the 
islanders  until  1882.  In  1880  he  had  received 
the  distinction  of  a  K.C.B.  In  1882  he  was 
transferred  to  a  commissionership  of  woods 
and  forests  and  land  revenue,  and  his  career 
outside  the  somewhat  narrow  bounds  of  the 
English  civil  service  seemed  at  an  end.  In 
1884,  however,  he  was  sent  to  Australia  by 
Gladstone  as  governor  of  Victoria.  During 
his  five  years'  tenure  of  that  office  his  kind- 
ness and  tact  endeared  him  to  all  classes  of 
the  population,  and  he  left  the  most  affec- 
tionate remembrance  behind  him  when  in 
1889  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury,  the  conser- 
vative prime  minister,  chose  him  to  succeed 
Sir  Hercules  Robinson  (afterwards  Lord 
Rosmead)  [q.v.  Suppl.],  who  had  just  com- 
pleted his  first  term  of  office  as  governor  of 
the  Cape  and  high  commissioner  in  South 
Africa. 

It  was  during  Loch's  residence  at  the 
Cape  that  the  South  African  question  first 
began  to  assume  the  threatening  proportions 
which  led  to  the  war  of  1899.  In  the  Cape 
Colony  itself  matters  were  peaceful  enough, 
owing  to  the  temporary  combination  of  Mr. 
Cecil  Rhodes  with  the  Afrikander  party. 
There  were  few  constitutional  difficulties, 
and  Sir  Henry  found  himself  generally  in 
accord  with  his  constitutional  advisers,  and 
able  to  work  with  them  with  but  little  fric- 
tion. Outside  the  borders,  however,  the 
elements  of  unrest  were  beginning  to  fer- 
ment, and  Loch  had  scarcely  the  requisite 
knowledge  of  South  African  problems  to 
enable  him  to  adequately  master  the  situa- 
tion. He  was  alive,  however,  to  the  great- 
ness of  Mr.  Rhodes's  conceptions,  and  to  the 
danger  that  would  inevitably  attend  any 
expansion  of  the  Transvaal  Republic.  He 
assisted  the  expeditions  which  led  to  the 
annexation  of  Mashonaland  and  Matabele- 
land,  and  he  allowed  the  Bechuanaland 
police  force  to  be  sent  up  to  threaten  the 
Matabele  from  the  west  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  of  1893. 

The  most  striking  episode  in  his  South 


Loch 


105         Locker-Lampson 


African  career  was  his  mission  to  Pretoria, 
in  1894,  to  interfere  on  behalf  of  tbe  British 
subjects  who  had  been  commandeered  by 
the  Boers  in  their  operations  against  Mala- 
boch,  the  Matabele  chieftain.  He  was  suc- 
cessful in  obtaining  the  abandonment  of  the 
claim  of  the  Boer  government ;  but  it  was 
thought  he  had  hardly  pressed  the  English 
case  with  sufficient  vigour.  It  was  from 
the  rough  treatment  accorded  to  President 
Kruger  at  Johannesburg  on  this  occasion,  in 
contrast  with  the  enthusiastic  reception  ac- 
corded to  the  high  commissioner,  that  much 
of  the  former's  hostility  to  Great  Britain 
and  to  the  Johannesburgers  is  said  to  have 
arisen. 

Earlier  in  his  term  of  office  Sir  Henry  had 
succeeded  in  putting  strong  pressure  on 
President  Kruger  to  prevent  the  incursions 
to  the  north  and  west  of  roving  Boer  fili- 
busters. He  had,  however,  made  to  the 
Transvaal  government  an  offer  of  a  way  of 
access  to  the  sea-coast  on  condition  that  the 
president  should  moderate  his  attitude  of 
hostility  and  join  the  Cape  customs  union, 
which  it  was  fortunate  for  the  empire  that 
Kruger  refused. 

Loch's  Transvaal  policy  failed  locally  to 
create  the  impression  of  any  great  strength 
or  decision.  Fortunately  for  his  peace  of 
mind  his  term  of  office  expired  at  the  be- 
ginning of  1895,  and  he  left  Africa  before 
the  disasters  of  the  Jameson  raid. 

On  his  return  to  England  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  but  he  took  small  part  in 
politics,  voting  with  the  liberal  unionists. 
When,  in  December  1899,  the  reverses  to 
the  British  arms  in  Natal  and  Cape  Colony 
at  the  hands  of  the  Boers  gave  rise  to  the 
call  for  volunteers  from  England,  Loch  threw 
himself  heartily  into  the  movement,  and  took 
aleading  share  in  raising  and  equippinga  body 
of  mounted  men  who  were  called,  after  him, 
'  Loch's  Horse.'  He  lived  to  see  the  decisive 
vindication  of  British  supremacy  by  the  oc- 
cupation of  Pretoria,  but  his  health  had  been 
failing,  and  he  died  after  a  short  illness  in 
London,  of  heart  disease,  on  20  June  1900. 

Loch  married,  in  1862,  Elizabeth  Villiers, 
niece  of  the  fourth  earl  of  Clarendon,  and 
had  by  her  two  daughters  and  a  son.  The 
latter,  Edward  Douglas,  second  baron,  en- 
tered the  grenadier  guards  and  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Nile  expedition  of  1898 
and  in  the  Boer  war  of  1899-1900,  receiving 
a  severe  wound  in  the  latter  campaign. 

There  is  a  painting  of  Loch  by  Plenry 
W.  Phillips,  an  engraving  of  which  is  ap- 
pended to  the  third  edition  of  his  '  Personal 
Narrative  of  Occurrences  during  Lord  Elgin's 
Second  Embassy  to  China.'  Originally  pub- 


lished in  1869,  this  little  book  is  a  most  ad- 
mirable account  of  the  expedition,  and, 
written  in  a  simple  and  unaffected  style, 
gives  a  highly  pleasing  impression  of  the 
courage,  loyalty,  and  ability  of  the  writer 
under  circumstances  of  great  danger  and 
hardship.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that 
by  Lord  Elgin's  desire  Loch  abandoned  his 
intention  of  publishing  a  detailed  account  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  embassy  of  1860. 

[There  is  no  memoir  yet  published  of  Loch.  See 
the  Personal  Narrative  above  referred  to  ;  Times, 
21  June  1900;  Froude's  Oceana ;  Fitzpatrick's 
Transvaal  from  Within ;  Speeches  of  Cecil  J. 
Rhodes,  ed.  Vindex.]  J.  B.  A. 

LOCKER,  ARTHUR  (1828-1893), 
novelist  and  journalist,  second  son  of 
Edward  Hawke  Locker  [q.  v.],  and  brother 
of  Frederick  Locker-Lampson  [q.  v.  Suppl.], 
was  born  at  Greenwich  on  2  July  1828. 
He  was  educated  at  Charterhouse  School 
and  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
matriculated  on  6  May  1847,  but,  after 
graduating  B.A.  in  1851,  he  entered  upon  a 
mercantile  life  in  an  office  at  Liverpool.  The 
next  year,  however,  smitten  by  the  preva- 
lent gold  fever,  he  emigrated  to  Victoria. 
Not  succeeding  at  the  gold-fields,  he  took  to 
journalism,  and  also  produced  some  tales 
and  plays  which  have  not  been  reprinted  in 
England.  He  returned  in  1861,  with  the 
determination  of  devoting  himself  to  litera- 
ture. He  wrote  extensively  for  newspapers 
and  magazines,  and  in  1863  obtained  a  con- 
nection with  the  '  Times,'  which  he  kept 
until  1870,  when  he  was  appointed  editor  of 
the  '  Graphic  '  illustrated  newspaper,  which 
had  been  established  about  six  months 
previously  [see  THOMAS,  WILLIAM  LTTSON, 
Suppl.]  He  proved  a  most  efficient  editor, 
and  was  greatly  beloved  for  his  general 
urbanity,  and  his  disposition  to  encourage 
young  writers  of  promise.  In  December 
1891  the  state  of  his  health  compelled  him 
to  retire,  and  after  visiting  Madeira  and  the 
Isle  of  Wight  in  the  vain  hope  of  recovery,  he 
died  at  79  West  Hill,  Highgate,  on  23  June 
1893.  He  was  twice  married.  After  his 
return  to  England  he  published  some  works 
of  fiction,  chiefly  based  on  his  Australian  ex- 
periences ;  '  Sweet  Seventeen,'  1866 ;  '  On 
a  Coral  Reef,'  a  tale  for  boys,  1869;  '  Stephen 
Scudamore  the  Younger,'  1871,  and  'The 
Village  Surgeon,'  1874. 

[Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886;  Brit. 
Mus.  Cat. ;  Times,  26  June  1893  ;  Graphic,  1  July 
1893.]  R.  G. 

LOCKER-LAMPSON,    FREDERICK 

(1821-1895),  poet,  more  commonly  known 
as  FBEDEKICK  LOCKER,  was  born  on  29  May 


Locker-Lampson         106         Locker-Lampson 


1821  at  Greenwich  Hospital,  where  his  father, 
Edward  Hawke  Locker  [q.  v.],  held  the  office 
of  civil  commissioner.  His  mother,  Eleanor 
Mary  Elizabeth  Boucher,  was  the  daughter 
of  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Boucher  [q.  v.],  vicar 
of  Epsom,  a  book  collector  and  a  former  friend 
of  George  Washington.  Frederick  Locker 
was  the  second  son  of  his  parents,  a  younger 
brother  being  Arthur  Locker  [q.  v.  Suppl.] 
After  an  education  at  various  schools — at 
Clapham,  at  Yateley  in  Hampshire,  at  Clap- 
ham  again,  and  elsewhere — he  became,  in 
September  1837,  a  junior  clerk  in  a  colonial 
broker's  office  in  Mincing  Lane.  This  uncon- 
genial calling  he  followed  for  little  more  than 
ayear.  Then,  in  March  1841,  heobtained  from 
Lord  Minto,  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  and  son 
of  the  governor-general  of  India,  a  temporary 
clerkship  in  Somerset  House,  and  in  Novem- 
ber 1842  he  was  transferred  to  the  admiralty, 
where  he  was  placed  as  a  junior  in  Lord 
Haddington's  private  office,  and  subsequently 
became  deputy  reader  and  precis  writer.  In 
his  posthumous  recollections  ('  My  Confi- 
dences,' 1896,  pp.  135-50)  he  gives  an  account 
of  his  official  life,  the  tedium  of  which  he 
had  already  begun  to  enliven,  apparently 
with  the  approval  of  his  chief,  by  the  practice 
of  poetry.  A  rhyming  version  of  a  petition 
from  an  importunate  lieutenant  seems  to 
have  sent  Lord  Haddington  into  ecstasies 
(ib.  p.  136).  Locker's  experiences  as  an  ad- 
miralty clerk  were  prolonged  under  Sir  James 
Graham  and  Sir  Charles  Wood.  In  1849 
his  health,  never  good,  broke  down,  and  he 
obtained  a  long  leave  of  absence.  In  July 
1850  he  married  Lady  Charlotte  Bruce,  a 
daughter  of  Thomas  Bruce,  seventh  earl  of 
Elgin  [q.v.],  who  brought  the  famous  Elgin 
marbles  to  England.  Not  long  afterwards  he 
quitted  the  government  service.  In  1857  he 
published,  with  Chapman  &  Hall,  his  first 
collection  of  verse, '  London  Lyrics,'  a  small 
volume  of  ninety  pages,  and  the  germ  of  all 
his  subsequent  work.  Extended  or  rearranged 
in  successive  editions,  the  last  of  which  is 
dated  1893,  this  constitutes  his  poetical 
legacy.  In  1 867  he  published  the  well-known 
anthology  entitled  'Lyra  Elegantiarum,' 
being '  some  of  the  best  specimens  of  vers  de 
societe  and  vers  d 'occasion  in  the  English 
language,'  and  in  1879  '  Patchwork,'  justly 
described  by  Mr.  Augustine  Birrell  as  '  a 
little  book  of  extracts  of  unrivalled  merit.' 
During  all  this  time  he  was  assiduously 
cultivating  his  tastes  as  a  virtuoso  and  book 
lover,  of  which  latter  pursuit  the  '  Rowfant 
Library,'  1886,  is  the  record.  Chronic  ill- 
health  and  dyspepsia  made  it  impossible  for 
him  to  follow  any  active  calling.  But  he 
went  much  into  society,  was  a  member  of 


several  clubs,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of 
many  distinguished  persons  of  all  classes. 
He  knew  Lord  Tennyson,  Thackeray,  Lord 
Houghton,  Lord  Lytton,  George  Eliot, 
Dickens, Trollope,  Dean  Stanley  (his  brother- 
in-law),  Hayward,  Kinglake,  Cruikshank, 
Du  Maurier,  and  others,  and  he  had  seen  or 
spoken  to  almost  every  contemporary  of  any 
note  in  his  own  day.  In  April  1872  Lady 
Charlotte  Locker  died,  and  was  buried  at 
Kensal  Green.  Two  years  later  (6  July 
1874)  he  married  Hannah  Jane  Lampson, 
only  daughter  of  Sir  Curtis  Miranda  Lampson, 
bart.  [q.v.],  of  Rowfant,  Sussex,  and  in  1885 
took  the  name  of  Lampson.  At  Rowfant, 
subsequent  to  his  second  marriage,  he  mainly 
resided,  and  he  died  there  on  30  May  1895. 
Locker's  general  characteristics  are  well 
summed  up  by  his  son-in-law,  Mr.  Augustine 
Birrell,  in  the  Appendix  to  the  Rowfant 
Library,  1900.  He  was  '  essentially  a  man 
of  the  world ;  he  devoted  his  leisure  hours 
to  studying  the  various  sides  of  human 
nature,  and  drawing  the  good  that  he  could 
out  of  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men.  His 
delicate  health  prevented  him  from  taking 
any  very  active  share  in  stirring  events ;  but 
he  was  content,  unembittered,  to  look  on, 
and  his  energies  were  continually  directed 
towards  gathering  about  him  those  friends 
and  acquaintances  who,  with  their  intel- 
lectual acquirements,  combined  the  charms 
of  good  manners,  culture,  and  refinement.' 
As  a  poet  he  belonged  to  the  school  of 
Prior,  Praed,  and  Hood,  and  he  greatly  ad- 
mired the  metrical  dexterity  of  Barham. 
His  chief  endeavour,  he  said,  was  to  avoid 
flatness  and  tedium,  to  cultivate  directness 
and  simplicity  both  in  language  and  idea, 
and  to  preserve  individuality  without  oddity 
or  affectation.  In  this  he  achieved  success. 
His  work  is  always  neat  and  clear ;  re- 
strained in  its  art,  and  refined  in  its  tone  ; 
while  to  a  wit  which  rivals  Praed's,  and  a 
j  lightness  worthy  of  Prior,  he  not  unfre- 

•  quently  joins  a  touch  of  pathos  which  recalls 
I  the  voice   of  Hood.      His  work  mellowed 
j  as  he  grew  older,  and  departed  further  from 
|  his  first  models — those  rhymes  galamment 

composes  which  had  been  his  youthful  am- 
|  bition ;  but  the  majority  of  his  pieces,  at  all 
j  times,  by  their  distinctive  character  and  per- 
sonal note,  rise  far  above  the  level  of  the 
i  mere  vers  (f  occasion  or  vers  de  societe  with 

•  which  it  was  once  the  practice  to  class  them. 

Locker  left  children  by  both  his  wives. 

Eleanor,  his  daughter  by  Lady   Charlotte, 

married,    first,   in    1878,    Lord    Tennyson's 

younger  son,  Lionel,  and  secondly,  in  1888, 

;  Mr.  Augustine  Birrell,  K.C.     By  his  second 

,  wife  Locker  had  four  children,  the  eldest  of 


Locker- Lampson          107 


Lockhart 


whom,  Mr.  Godfrey  Locker-Lampson,  is  an 
attach^  in  the  foreign  office. 

'London  Lyrics,'  Locker's  solitary  volume 
of  original  verse,  has  appeared  in  many  forms 
since  its  first  issue  in  1857.  A  second  edi- 
tion followed  in  1862,  and  in  1865  Messrs. 
Moxon  included  a  selection  from  its  pages 
in  their  '  Miniature  Poets.'  This  was  illus- 
trated by  Richard  Doyle  [q.  v.]  A  second 
impression  followed  in  1868,  and  the  Doyle 
illustrations  were  subsequently  employed  in 
an  issue  of  1874  prepared  for  presentation  to 
the  members  of  the  Cosmopolitan  Club.  In 
1868  an  edition  of '  London  Lyrics'  was  pri- 
vately printed  for  John  Wilson  of  Great 
Russell  Street,  with  a  frontispiece  by  George 
Cruikshank,  illustrating  the  poem  called 
'  My  Mistress's  Boots.'  To  this  succeeded 
editions  in  1870,  1872,  1874,  1876,  1878, 
1885  ('Elzevir  Series'),  1891  and  1893. 
Besides  these  Locker  prepared  a  privately 
printed  selection  in  1881,  entitled  'London 
Lyrics,'  and  in  1882  a  supplemental  volume, 
also  privately  printed,  entitled  '  London 
Rhymes.'  Of  the  former  of  these  volumes 
a  few  large-paper  copies  were  struck  off, 
which  contained  a  frontispiece  ('  Bramble- 
Rise')  by  Randolph  Caldecott  (sometimes 
found  in  two  'states'),  and  a  tail-piece 
('  Little  Dinky ')  by  Kate  Greenaway.  In 
America  '  London  Lyrics '  was  printed  in 
1883  for  the  Book  Fellows'  Club  of  New 
York,  with  inter  alia  some  fresh  illustrations 
by  Caldecott ;  and  in  1895  the  Rowfant  Club 
of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  a  body  which  had  bor- 
rowed its  name,  by  permission,  from  Mr. 
Locker's  Sussex  home,  put  forth  a  rare  little 
volume  of  his  verse,  chosen  by  himself  shortly 
before  his  death,  and  entitled  '  Rowfant 
Rhymes.'  It  includes  a  preface  by  the  pre- 
sent writer  and  a  poem  by  Robert  Louis  Ste- 
venson. Most  of  these  books  contain  the 
author's  portrait,  either  from  an  etching  by 
Sir  John  Millais,  which  first  saw  the  light 
in  the  Moxon  selection  of  1865,  or  a  pen- 
and-ink  full-length  by  George  Du  Maurier. 
There  are  other  American  editions,  some  of 
which  are  pirated. 

'  Lyra  Elegantiarum,'  as  above  stated,  ap- 
peared in  1867.  The  first  issue  was  almost 
immediately  suppressed  because  it  included 
certain  poems  by  Landor  which  were  found 
to  be  copyright,  and  a  revised  impression, 
which  did  not  contain  these  pieces,  speedily 
took  its  place.  An  American  edition  fol- 
lowed in  1884,  and  in  1891  an  enlarged 
edition  was  added  to  Ward,  Lock,  &  Co.'s 
'  Minerva  Library.'  In  preparing  this  last, 
of  which  there  was  a  large-paper  issue, 
Locker  had  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Coulson 
Kernahan.  '  Patchwork'  was  first  printed 


privately  in  quarto  for  the  Philpbiblon  So- 
ciety, and  afterwards  published  in  octavo  in 
1879.  No  later  edition  has  been  published. 
In  1886  Locker  compiled  the  catalogue  of  his 
books  known  to  collectors  as  the  '  Rowfant 
Library.'  It  comprises,  besides  its  record  of 
rare  Elizabethan  and  other  volumes,  many 
interesting  memoranda,  personal  and  biblio- 
graphical. Since  Locker's  death  an  appendix 
to  the  'Rowfant  Library'  has  been  issued, 
under  the  title  of '  A  Catalogue  of  the  Printed 
Books  &c.  collected  since  the  printing  of  the 
first  Catalogue  in  1886  by  the  late  Frederick 
Locker-Lampson,'  1900.  It  is  inscribed  to 
the  members  of  the  Rowfant  Club,  has  a  pre- 
face by  Mr.  Birrell,  and  memorial  verses  by 
various  hands. 

Locker's  autobiographical  reminiscences 
were  published  posthumously  in  1896  under 
the  title  of  '  My  Confidences ; '  the  volume 
was  edited  by  Mr.  Birrell. 

[Century  Mag.  1883  (by  Brander  Matthews)  ; 
Miles's  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the  Century;  Slater's 
Early  Editions,  1894;  Eowfant  Ehymes,  1895; 
Nineteenth  Century,  October  1895  (by  Coulson 
Kernahan);  Seribner's  Mag.  January  1896  (by 
Augustine  Birrell);  My  Confidences,  1896.] 

A.  D. 

LOCKHART,  WILLIAM  EWART 
(1846-1900),  subject  and  portrait  painter, 
was  born  on  18  Feb.  1846  at  Eglesfield, 
Annan,  Dumfriesshire.  His  father,  a  small 
farmer,  managed  to  send  him,  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  to  study  art  in  Edinburgh,  where  he 
worked  with  Mr.  J.  B.  Macdonald,  R.S.A., 
and  for  a  short  time  in  the  life  school ; 
but  in  1863  his  health  gave  way,  and  he 
was  sent  to  Australia.  Returning  greatly 
benefited  by  the  voyage,  he  settled  in 
Edinburgh,  and,  in  1867,  paid  the  first  of 
several  visits  to  Spain,  where  he  found 
material  for  some  of  his  finest  works.  In 
1871  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and  in  1878  be- 
came academician,  while  he  was  also  an 
associate  (1878)  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water-colours,  and  for  some 
years  a  member  of  the  Royal  Scottish 
Water-colour  Society.  He  had  occupied  a 
prominent  position  as  a  painter  of  subject 
pictures  and  portraits  in  Scotland  for  many 
years;  but  when  in  1887  he  was  commis- 
sioned by  the  queen  to  paint  '  The  Jubilee 
Celebration  in  Westminster'  he  went  to 
London,  where  he  afterwards  devoted  him- 
self principally  to  portraiture. 

His  pictures  in  both  oil  and  water-colour 
are  marked  by  considerable  bravura  of  exe- 
cution and  much  brilliance  of  colour,  but 
are  rather  wanting  in  refinement  and  subtlety. 
They  are  always  effective  and  telling,  how- 


Lockhart 


108 


Lockhart 


ever,  and  the  '  Jubilee '  picture,  to  which  he 
devoted  three  years,  is  one  of  the  ablest 
works  of  its  kind.  On  the  whole,  Spanish 
and  Majorca  pictures,  such  as  '  The  Cid  and 
the  Five  Moorish  Kings,'  '  A  Church  Lottery 
in  Spain,'  '  The  Orange  Harvest,  Majorca,' 
and  '  The  Swine-herd '  are  his  best  and  most 
characteristic  works ;  of  his  portraits,  those 
of  Lord  Peel  (bronze  medal  at  the  Salon), 
Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour,  and  Mr.  John  Poison 
may  be  mentioned.  He  also  painted  land- 
scape in  water-colour  with  much  success. 
His  portrait  of  Mr.  Balfour  is  in  the  Glasgow 
Corporation  Galleries ;  his  '  Swineherd  '  in 
the  Dundee  Gallery ;  and  his  diploma — a 
study  for  '  The  Cid ' — in  Edinburgh,  while 
the  French  government  bought  the  sketch 
for  '  The  Jubilee.'  The  Kepplestone  Collec- 
tion, Aberdeen  Art  Gallery,  includes  an 
autograph  portrait  of  Lockhart. 

He  married  Mary  Will,  niece  of  his 
master,  Mr.  J.  B.  Macdonald,  on  7  Feb. 
1868,  and,  dying  in  London  on  9  Feb.  1900, 
after  several  years  of  rather  indifferent 
health,  was  survived  by  her  and  five  chil- 
dren— one  son  and  four  daughters. 

[Private  information  from  Mrs.  Lockhart  and 
Mr.  J.  B.  Macdonald,  U.S.A. ;  The  Scotsman, 
12  Feb.  1900 ;  Athenaeum.  17  Feb.  1900  ;  Scots 
Pictorial  (by  John  Mac Whirter,  R.A.),  March 
1900;  R.SA.  Report,  1900;  catalogues  of 
galleries  and  exhibitions.]  J.  L.  C. 

LOCKHART,  SIB  WILLIAM  STE- 
PHEN ALEXANDER  (1841-1900), 
general,  commander-in-chief  in  India,  fourth 
son  of  the  Rev.  Lawrence  Lockhart  of 
Wicket-shaw  and  Milton  Lockhart,  Lanark- 
shire, by  his  first  wife,  Louisa,  daughter  of 
David  Blair,  an  East  India  merchant,  and 
nephew  of  John  Gibson  Lockhart  [q.  v.], 
was  born  on  2  Sept.  1841.  His  elder 
brothers  were  John  Somerville  Lockhart, 
Major-general  David  Blair  Lockhart  of 
Milton  Lockhart,  and  Laurence  William 
Maxwell  Lockhart  [q.  v.],  the  novelist. 

Entering  the  Indian  army  as  an  ensign  on 
4  Oct.  1858,  he  joined  the  44th  Bengal 
native  infantry,  and  was  promoted  lieu- 
tenant on  19  June  1859.  His  further  com- 
missions were  dated  :  captain  16  Dec.  1868, 
major  9  June  1877,  lieutenant-colonel 
6  April  1879,  brevet  colonel  6  April  1883, 
major-general  1  Sept.  1891,  lieutenant- 

feneral  1  April  1894,   and  general  9  Nov. 
896. 

He  served  for  a  few  months  in  the  Indian 
mutiny  with  the  5th  fusiliers  in  Oude  in 
1858-9,  and  as  adjutant  of  the  14th  Bengal 
lancers  in  the  Bhutan  campaigns  from  1864 
to  1866,  when  he  especially  distinguished 


himself  in  the  reconnaissance  to  Chirung. 
In  scouting  and  outpost  duty  he  was  very 
efficient,  and  had  a  keen  eye  for  ground  and 
was  particularly  useful  in  hill  warfare.  His 
services  were  acknowledged  by  the  govern- 
ment of  India,  and  he  received  the  medal 
and  clasp. 

In  the  Abyssinian  expedition  of  1867-8 
Lockhart  was  aide-de-camp  to  Brigadier- 
general  Mere  wether,  commanding  the  cavalry 
brigade,  and  took  part  in  the  action  of 
Arogee  and  the  capture  of  Magdala.  He 
was  mentioned  in  despatches  (London 
Gazette,  30  June  1868)  and  received  the 
medal. 

On  his  return  to  India  he  was  appointed 
deputy-assistant  quartermaster-general  with 
the  field  force,  under  Brigadier-general 
(afterwards  Sir)  Alfred  Thomas  Wilde  [q.  v.], 
in  the  expedition  to  the  Hazara  Black 
Mountains  in  1868,  was  mentioned  in 
despatches  (ib.  15  June  1869),  and  received 
a  clasp  to  his  frontier  medal. 

He  received  the  bronze  medal  of  the 
Royal  Humane  Society  for  rescuing  two 
women  from  drowning  in  the  Morar  Lake, 
Gwalior,  on  26  Dec.  1869. 

For  ten  years,  from  October  1869,  Lock- 
hart  held  the  appointments  successively  of 
deputy-assistant  and  assistant  quarter- 
master-general in  Bengal,  but  was  twice 
away  in  Achin  between  1875  and  1877,  the 
second  time  as  military  attache  to  the  Dutch 
army,  when  he  took  part  in  the  assault  and 
capture  of  Lambadde,  was  mentioned  in  des- 
patches, offered  the  Netherlands  order  of 
William,  which  he  was  not  allowed  to  ac- 
cept, and  received  the  Dutch  war  medal  and 
clasp.  He  was,  however,  struck  down  with 
malarial  fever  and  put  on  board  the  steamer 
for  Singapore  in  an  almost  moribund  con- 
dition. 

In  the  Afghan  campaigns  of  1878  to 
1880  Lockhart  was  first  appointed  road 
commandant  in  the  Khaibar  to  hold  the 
Afridi  tribes  in  check,  and,  in  November 
1879,  assistant  quartermaster-general  at 
Kabul.  He  was  present  at  the  actions  of 
Mir  Karez  and  Takht-i-Shah  and  other 
operations  under  Sir  Frederick  (now  Earl) 
Roberts  round  Kabul  in  December  1879, 
and  was  subsequently  deputy  adjutant  and 
quartermaster-general  to  Sir  Donald  Martin 
Stewart  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  commanding  in 
Northern  Afghanistan,  returning  with  him 
to  India  by  the  Khaibar  pass  in  August  1880. 
He  was  mentioned  in  despatches  (ib.  May 
1880),  received  the  medal  and  clasp,  and  was 
made  a  companion  of  the  order  of  the  Bath, 
military  division. 

On  his  return  to  India  Lockhart  held  the 


Lockhart 


109 


Lockvvood 


post  of  deputy  quartermaster-general  in  the 
intelligence  branch  at  headquarters  from 
1880  to  1885.  In  1884  he  was  sent  to  Achin 
to  rescue  the  crew  of  the  Nisero  from  the 
Malays,  for  which  he  received  the  thanks  of 
government.  In  June  1885  he  went  on  a 
mission  to  Chitral,  where  his  firmness  and 
tact  had  the  best  effect.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  as  brigadier-general  in  the  Burmese 
war  from  September  1886  to  March  1887, 
was  mentioned  in  despatches  (ib.  2  Sept. 
1887),  received  the  thanks  of  the  govern- 
ment, a  clasp  to  his  medal,  and  was  made  a 
K.C.B.  and  a  C.S.I. 

On  his  return  to  India  he  commanded  a 
second-class  district  in  Bengal,  but  a  severe 
attack  of  malarial  fever  compelled  him  to 
return  home.  For  six  months  he  was  em- 
ployed at  the  India  office  in  the  preparation 
of  an  account  of  his  explorations  in  Central 
Asia,  and  in  April  1889  he  took  up  the  ap- 
pointment of  assistant  military  secretary  for 
Indian  affairs  at  the  horse  guards.  But  he 
did  not  remain  long  in  England,  for  he  re- 
turned to  India  in  November  1890  to  com- 
mand the  Punjab  frontier  force,  first  as  a 
brigadier-general  and  then  as  a  major-general, 
until  March  1895.  The  greater  part  of  this 
time  was  occupied  by  warfare  with  the  hill 
tribes  in  a  succession  of  punitive  expeditions. 
Lockhart  commanded  the  Miranzai  field  force 
in  January  and  February  1891,  then  the  3rd 
brigade  of  the  Hazara  field  force  in  March 
and  April,  and  the  Miranzai  field  force  again 
from  April  to  June.  He  was  mentioned  in 
the  governor-general's  despatch  (ib.  15  Sept. 
1891),  received  two  clasps,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  be  major-general  for  distinguished 
service.  He  commanded  the  Isazai  field 
force  in  1892,  and  the  Waziristan  expedition 
in  1894— 5,  was  again  mentioned  in  despatches 
by  the  government  of  India  (ib.  2  July  1895), 
received  another  clasp,  and  was  made  a 
K.C.S.I.  On  his  return  he  was  given  the 
Punjab  command. 

In  1897,  after  Sir  Bindon  Blood  had  made 
a  settlement  with  the  fanatics  of  Swat,  the 
Afridis  rose  and  closed  the  Khaibar  pass ; 
the  revolt  spread  to  the  Mohmands  and 
the  other  mountain  tribes  of  the  Tirah,  and 
Lockhart  was  sent  in  command  of  40,000 
men  to  quell  the  rising.  He  showed  ex- 
ceptional skill  in  handling  his  force  of 
regulars  in  an  almost  impracticable  country, 
in  a  guerilla  warfare,  against  native  levies  of 
sharpshooters,  who  were  always  trying  to 
elude  him,  but  he  outmanoeuvred  them  and 
beat  them  at  their  own  tactics.  The  cam- 
paign consisted  of  hard  marching  among  the 
mountains  and  hard  fighting,  including  the 
memorable  action  of  Dargai,  when  the 


Gordon  highlanders  and  the  Ghurkhas 
greatly  distinguished  themselves.  For  his 
services  he  received  the  thanks  of  the 
government  of  India,  was  made  a  G.C.B., 
and  succeeded  Sir  George  White  as  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  India  in  1898.  He  died 
in  harness  on  18  March  1900. 

A  good  portrait  in  oils  of  Lockhart, 
painted  by  a  Scotsman,  Mr.  Hardie,  in  1894, 
is  in  possession  of  Major-general  D.  B.  Lock- 
hart  of  Milton  Lockhart. 

He  married  first,  in  1864,  Caroline 
Amelia,  daughter  of  Major-general  E.  Las- 
celles  Dennys  ;  and  secondly,  in  1888,  Mary 
Katharine,  daughter  of  Captain  William 
Eccles,  Coldstream  guards,  who  survived 
him. 

[Despatches ;  Army  Lists  ;  obituary  notice 
in  Times  of  20  March  1900  ;  Lord  Roberta's 
Forty-one  Years  in  India;  Rennie's  Story  of 
the  Bhotan  War;  Holland  and  Hozier's  Ex- 
pedition to  Abyssinia ;  Anglo-Afghan  War, 
1878-80,  official  account;  Shadbolt's  Afghan 
Campaigns,  1878-80;  Hutchinson's  Campaign 
in  Tirah,  with  portrait.]  R.  H.  V. 

LOCKWOOD,  SIR  FRANK  (1846- 
1897),  solicitor-general,  second  son  of  Charles 
Day  Lockwood,  stone-quarrier  at  Levitt 
Hagg,  near  Doncaster,  was  born  at  Don- 
caster  in  July  1846.  In  1860  the  family 
moved  to  Manchester,  and  in  1863  he  en- 
tered the  grammar  school  (having  been 
previously  at  a  private  school  at  Edenbridge) 
under  Mr.  Walker,  afterwards  head-master 
of  St.  Paul's  School.  In  October  1865  he 
proceeded  to  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  a '  pass '  degree  in  1869, '  going 
out '  in  political  economy.  In  1869,  having 
abandoned  the  idea  of  holy  orders,  he  entered 
Lincoln's  Inn  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
January  1872.  He  at  once  joined  the  old 
midland  circuit,  and  attended  sessions  at 
Bradford,  Leeds,  and  other  places.  A  fair 
measure  of  success  was  speedily  awarded  him, 
and  in  1875  he  held  fifteen  briefs  in  one 
assize  at  Leeds.  During  his  early  days  at 
the  bar  the  habit  of  drawing  he  had  learnt 
from  his  father  grew  upon  him,  and  his  rapid 
sketching  in  court  of  judges,  witnesses,  and 
litigants  gave  him  occupation  and  secured 
him  notice.  For  some  of  these  early  sketches 
he  appears  to  have  found  a  market ;  but  in 
later  life,  though  he  still  continued  to  sketch, 
he  tossed  them  from  him  with  careless  in- 
difference. In  September  1874  he  married 
Julia,  daughter  of  Salis  Schwabe  of  Glyn-y- 
garble,  Anglesea.  His  practice  steadily  in- 
creased, and  from  1879,  when,  at  the  request 
of  the  presiding  judge,  he  defended  the  bur- 
glar and  murderer,  Charles  Peace,  his  name 
was  always  much  before  that  large  section 


Lockwood 


no 


Lopes 


of  the  public  who  follow  '  celebrated  trials ' 
with  an  interest  that  never  flags.  He  took 
silk  in  1882.  In  politics  he  was  a  liberal. 
His  first  attempt  to  get  into  parliament 
was  at  King's  Lynn,  and  was  unsuccessful, 
as  also  was  his  first  contest  at  York  in  No- 
vember 1883,  when,  however,  he  was  beaten 
by  twenty-one  votes  only.  At  that  time 
he,  like  the  majority  of  liberal  candidates, 
refused  to  vote  even  for  an  inquiry  into 
home  rule  for  Ireland,  but  he  pledged  him- 
self to  support  household  suffrage  and  elec- 
tive local  government  in  that  country,  and 
for  making  those  pledges  he  incurred  the 
public  censure  of  Lord  Salisbury,  who,  how- 
ever, lived  to  make  them  both  good.  In 
October  1884  he  became  recorder  of  Sheffield, 
and  in  November  1885  he  and  his  great 
friend,  Mr.  Alfred  Pease,  were  returned  to  the 
House  of  Commons  for  York,  which  city  he 
continued  to  represent  till  his  death.  From 
1885  to  1895  Lockwood  led  a  very  busy  life 
both  professionally  and  socially.  '  His  tall 
powerful  frame,  his  fine  head  crowned  with 
picturesque  premature  white  hair,  his  hand- 
some healthy  face,  with  its  sunshine  of 
genial,  not  vapid  good  nature,  made  him 
notable  everywhere.  So  powerful  was  this 
personality  that  his  entrance  into  a  room 
seemed  to  change  the  whole  complexion  of 
the  company,  and  I  often  fancied  that  he 
could  dispel  a  London  fog  by  his  presence ' 
(see  LOUD  ROSEBERY'S  letter  in  Mr.  BirrelPs 
sketch,  Sir  Frank  Lockwood,  1898). 

In  the  House  of  Commons  Lockwood, 
though  he  took  no  active  part  in  debate,  was 
a  great  figure,  and  his  sketches  depicting 
the  occasional  humours  of  that  assembly 
were  in  much  demand.  During  the  vacation 
of  1894  Lord  Rosebery,  the  premier  (to  whom 
Lockwood  was  warmly  attached),  offered 
him  the  post  of  solicitor-general,  which  he 
accepted,  in  succession  to  Sir  Robert  Reid, 
who  became  attorney-general.  The  election 
of  1895  restored  Lord  Salisbury  to  power, 
but  owing  to  a  difficulty  about  the  scale  of 
his  successor's  remuneration,  Lockwood 
nominally  remained  solicitor-general  until 
August  1895,  when  Mr.  (now  Sir  Robert) 
Finlay  succeeded  him.  In  the  vacation  of 
1896  he  accompanied  Charles  Lord  Russell 
of  Killowen  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  the  lord-chief- 
justice  of  England,  to  the  United  States  of 
America.  About  May  1897  his  health 
showed  signs  of  failing,  and  it  gradually 
declined  until  his  death  at  his  house  in 
Lennox  Gardens  on  Sunday,  19  Dec.  1897,  in 
the  fifty-second  year  of  his  age.  His  wife 
and  two  children,  both  daughters,  survived 
him. 

Lockwood  made  no  pretensions  to  be  con- 


sidered a  learned  lawyer,  nor  was  he  ac- 
counted a  consummate  advocate ;  but  his 
sound  sense,  ready  wit,  good  feeling,  and 
sympathetic  nature,  set  off  as  these  qualities 
were  by  a  commanding  presence  and  good 
voice,  placed  him  in  the  front  ranks  of  the 
bar,  and  easily  secured  him  a  large  business. 
Both  outside  and  inside  his  profession  he 
enjoyed  a  large  and  deserved  popularity  with 
all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men.  He  had  all 
the  domestic  virtues,  and  was  nowhere  more 
appreciated  than  in  his  own  home.  His 
death  was  unexpected  and  chilled  many 
hearts.  A  collection  from  his  sketches  was 
publicly  exhibited  in  London  after  his  death 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Barristers'  Benevolent 
Association,  and  some  of  the  sketches  have 
been  reproduced  in  an  album,  '  The  Frank 
Lockwood  Sketch  Book,'  London,  1898,  obi. 
4to.  His  lecture  on  '  The  Law  and  Lawyers 
of  Pickwick,'  published  by  the  Roxburghe 
Press  in  1894,  went  into  a  second  edition  in 
1896.  There  is  a  memorial  window  and 
tablet  in  York  Cathedral. 

[Sir  Frank  Lockwood,  a  Sketch,  1898,  by  the 
present  writer.]  A.  B-L. 

LOPES,  HENRY  CHARLES,  first 
BARON  LTJDLOW  (1828-1899),  judge,  third 
son  of  Sir  Ralph  Lopes,  bart.  [see  LOPES,  SIB 
MANASSEH  MASSEHJ,  of  Maristow,  Devon, 
by  Susan  Gibbs,  eldest  daughter  of  A.  Lud- 
low  of  Heywood  House,  Wiltshire,  was  born 
at  Devonport  on  3  Oct.  1828.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Winchester  School  and  the  univer- 
sity of  Oxford,  where  he  matriculated  from 
Balliol  College  on  12  Dec.  1845,  and  gra- 
duated B.  A.  in  1 849.  He  was  admitted  on 
5  June  1849  student  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  but 
on  26  May  1852  migrated  to  the  Inner 
Temple,  where  he  was  called  to  the  bar  on 
7  June  1852,  and  elected  bencher  on  31  May 
1870,  and  treasurer  in  1890.  He  practised 
first  as  a  conveyancer  and  equity  draftsman, 
afterwards  as  a  pleader  on  the  western  cir- 
cuit and  at  Westminster.  He  was  appointed 
recorder  of  Exeter  in  1867,  and  was  gazetted 
Q.C.  on  22  June  1869.  Returned  to  parlia- 
ment for  Launceston  in  the  conservative  in- 
terest on  9  April  1868,  he  retained  the  seat 
until  the  general  election  of  February  1874, 
when  he  rendered  signal  service  to  his  party 
by  wresting  Frome  from  the  liberals.  In 
1876  he  was  appointed  justice  of  the  high 
court  and  knighted  (28  Nov.)  He  sat  suc- 
cessively in  the  common  pleas  and  queen's 
bench  divisions  until  his  advancement  in 
1885  to  the  court  of  appeal  (1  Dec.),  when 
he  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council  (12  Dec.) 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  on  occasion  of 
the  queen's  jubilee  in  1897  (26  July),  as 


Lothian  i 

Baron  Ludlow  of  Heywood,  Wiltshire,  and 
shortly  afterwards  retired  from  the  bench. 
He  died  at  his  town  house,  8  Cromwell 
Place,  on  Christmas  day  1899,  leaving  by 
his  wife  Cordelia  Lucy  (m.  20  Sept.  1854), 
daughter  of  Erving  Clark  of  Efford  Manor, 
Devon,  an  heir,  Henry  Ludlow,  who  suc- 
ceeded as  second  Baron  Ludlow.  Place 
among  the  great  lawyers  of  the  nineteenth 
century  cannot  be  claimed  for  Ludlow.  He 
showed,  however  exceptional  ability  in  nisi 
prius  and  divorce  cases,  and  was  an  admi- 
rable chairman  of  quarter  sessions. 

[Foster's  Men  at  the  Bar  and  Alumni  Oxon. ; 
Lincoln's  Inn  Adm.  Reg.;  Law  List,  1853; 
Haydn's  Book  of  Dignities,  ed.  Ockerby ;  Lords' 
Journ.  cxxix.  400;  Men  and  Women  of  the 
Time  (1895)  ;  Times,  26  Dec.  1899  ;  Ann.  Reg. 
1899,  ii.  182  ;  Law  Times,  30  Dec.  1899  ;  Law 
Jonrn.  30  Dec.  1899  ;  Law  Mag.  and  Rev.  May 
1900  ;  Burke:s  Peerage  (1900).]  J.  M.  R. 

LOTHIAN,  NINTH  MARQUIS  OF.  [See 
KERR,  SCHOMBERG  HENRY,  1833-1900.]" 

LOVELL,  ROBERT  (1770P-1796),  poet 
and  participator  in  the  '  pantisocratic  '  pro- 
ject of  Southey  and  Coleridge,  was  born 
apparently  at  Bristol  about  1770.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  wealthy  quaker,  and  probably 
followed  some  business  ;  but  the  vehemence 
of  his  '  Bristoliad,'  a  satire  in  Churchill's 
style  and  not  deficient  in  vigour,  shows  that 
he  was  ill  at  ease  in  the  commercial  atmo- 
sphere of  Bristol.  He  still  further  estranged 
himself  from  his  original  circle  by  marrying, 
in  1794,  Mary  Fricker,  a  girl  of  much  beauty 
and  some  talent,  who  had  endeavoured  to  re- 
pair the  fortunes  of  a  bankrupt  father  by 
going  on  the  stage.  It  does  not  precisely 
appear  when  he  first  made  Southey's  acquaint- 
ance, but  early  enough  for  Southey  to  have 
become  engaged  to  his  sister-in-law,  Edith, 
before  Coleridge's  visit  to  Bristol  in  August 

1794.  Lovell  introduced  the  two  poets  to 
their  Maecenas,  Joseph  Cottle  [q.  v.],  and  ere 
long  Coleridge  was  betrothed  to  a  third  Miss 
Fricker,  Sara,  whom  he  married  on  14  Nov. 

1795.  In  the  same  month  of  August  1794 
the  three  friends  co-operated  in  the  produc- 
tion  of    a  wellnigh    improvised    three-act 
tragedy  on  the  fall  of  Robespierre.     Each 
wrote  an  act,  but  Lovell's  was  rejected  as 
out  of  keeping  with  the  others,  and  Southey 
filled  the  void.     The  tragedy  was  published 
as  Coleridge's  at  Cambridge  in  September 
1794.   Southey  and  Lovell  nevertheless  com- 
bined to  publish  a  joint  volume  of  poetry 
(Bristol,  1794;  Bath,  1795)  under  the  title 
of  '  Poems  by  Bion  and  Moschus,'  which  has 
occasioned  it  to  be  mistaken  for  a  transla- 
tion.   The  Bath  edition  bears  the  authors' 


Lumby 


names.  Southey's  mature  opinion  of  his  own 
pieces  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  he 
reprinted  none  of  them ;  and  Lovell's  teem 
with  such  felicities  as  'Our  village  curate 
graved  the  elegiac  stone,'  '  Have  we  no 
duties  of  a  social  kind  ? '  They  were,  not- 
withstanding, reprinted  in  Park's  '  British 
Poets '  (1808  sq.  vol.  xli.),  with  the  addition 
of  the  '  Bristoliad,'  which  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  published  before.  Next  to  their 
poetry,  the  young  men  were  chiefly  occupied 
with  the  project  for  their  pantisocratic  colony 
on  the  banks  of  the  Susquehanna,  to  which 
Lovell  was  to  have  brought  not  only  his  wife 
but  his  brother  and  two  sisters.  The  design 
had  practically  collapsed  before  Lovell's  death 
in  April  1796  from  a  fever  contracted  at 
Salisbury,  and  aggravated  by  his  imprudence 
in  travelling  home  without  takingmedical  ad- 
vice. Edith  Southey,  in  Southey's  absence, 
nursed  him  for  three  nights  at  the  risk  of  her 
life.  Lovell's  father  refused  all  aid  to  his 
daughter-in-law  on  the  ground  of  her  having 
been  an  actress,  and  she  and  her  infant  son 
were  thrown  upon  the  never-failing  benefi- 
cence of  Southey.  She  lived  in  his  family 
during  his  life,  and  afterwards  with  his 
daughter  Kate  until  her  death  at  the  age  of 
ninety.  The  son,  Robert  Lovell  the  younger, 
settled  in  London  as  a  printer  in  1824. 
Some  years  afterwards  he  went  to  Italy  and 
mysteriously  disappeared.  Henry  Nelson 
Coleridge  journeyed  in  quest  of  him,  but  no 
trace  was  ever  discovered. 

[Cottle's  Early  Recollections,  1837  ;  Southey's 
and  Coleridge's  letters ;  private  information.] 

R.  G. 

LUCAN,  EARL  OF.  [See  BINGHAM, 
GEORGE  CHARLES,  1800-1888.] 

LUDLOW,  BARON.  [See  LOPES,  HENRY 
CHARLES,  1828-1899.] 

LUMBY,  JOSEPH  RAWSON  (1831- 
1895),  author  and  divine,  was  the  son  of 
John  Lumby  of  Stanningley,  near  Leeds, 
where  he  was  born  on  18  July  1831.  He 
was  admitted  on  2  Aug.  1841  into  the  Leeds 
grammar  school.  In  March  1848  he  left  to 
become  master  of  a  school  at  Meanwood,  a 
village  now  absorbed  in  Leeds.  Here  his 
ability  attracted  the  notice  of  friends,  by 
whom  he  was  encouraged  to  proceed  to 
the  university.  In  October  1854  he  entered 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  where  in  the 
following  year  he  was  elected  to  a  Milner 
close  scholarship.  In  1858  he  graduated 
B.A.,  being  bracketed  ninth  in  the  first 
class  of  the  classical  tripos.  His  subsequent 
degrees  were  M.A.  1861,  B.D.  1873,  D.D. 
1879. 


Lumby 


112 


Lumsden 


Within  a  few  months  of  graduation  Lumby 
was  made  Dennis  fellow  of  his  college,  and 
began  to  take  pupils.  In  1860  he  gained 
the  Crosse  scholarship,  and  in  the  same  year 
was  ordained  deacon  and  priest  in  the  diocese 
of  Ely.  For  clerical  work  he  had  the  chap- 
laincy of  Magdalene  and  the  curacy  of  Gir- 
ton.  In  1861  he  won  the  Tyrwhitt  Hebrew 
scholarship,  and  was  appointed  classical 
lecturer  at  Queens'  College.  In  1873  his 
name  was  added  to  the  list  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Revision  Company,  and  into  this  work 
and  its  sequel,  the  revision  of  the  Apocrypha, 
he  flung  himself  with  much  ardour.  He 
just  lived  to  see  the  appearance  of  the  re- 
vised version  of  the  Apocrypha.  In  1874, 
being  now  a  widower  through  the  death  of 
his  first  wife,  he  was  chosen  fellow  and  dean 
of  St.  Catharine's,  and,  having  resigned  his 
curacy  at  Girton,  was  made  curate  of  St. 
Mark's,  Newnham.  The  following  year  he 
was  appointed,  on  the  nomination  of  Trinity 
Hall,  to  the  vicarage  (non-stipendiary)  of 
St.  Edward's,  Cambridge.  His  sermons 
here  were  much  appreciated  by  under- 
graduates. In  1879  he  was  elected  to  the 
Norrisian  professorship  of  divinity,  and  was 
also  Lady  Margaret  preacher  for  that  year. 
Having  vacated  his  fellowship  at  St.  Catha- 
rine's by  a  second  marriage,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  professorial  fellowship  in  that 
college  in  1886.  In  1887  he  was  made  pre- 
bendary of  Wetwang  in  the  cathedral  church 
of  York,  and  acted  as  examining  chaplain  to 
the  archbishop  of  York  and  the  bishop  of 
Carlisle.  On  the  death  of  Fenton  John 
Anthony  Hort  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  in  1892  he  was 
unanimously  chosen  to  succeed  him  as  Lady 
Margaret  professor  of  divinity.  But  he  did 
not  long  enjoy  the  honour,  dying  at  Merton 
House,  Grantchester,  near  Cambridge,  on 
21  Nov.  1895. 

Lumby's  literary  career  showed  remark- 
able activity.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Early  English  Text  Society,  and  edited 
for  it  '  King  Horn '  (1866), '  Ratis  Raving ' 
(1867),  and  other  pieces.  For  the  Rolls 
series,  being  requested  by  the  master  of  the 
rolls  to  continue  the  work  of  Professor  Ba- 
bington,  he  edited  vols.  iii-ix.  of  Higden's 
'  Polychronicon '  (1871-86),  and  vol.  i.  of 
the  '  Chronicon '  of  Henry  Knighton  (1889). 
To  the  Pitt  Press  series  he  contributed  edi- 
tions of  Bacon's  'Henry  VII'  (1876), 
'Venerabilis  Baedae  Historiae.  .  .  .  Libri 
iii.  iv.'  (in  conjunction  with  Professor  John 
E.  B.  Mayor,  1878),  More's  '  Utopia,'  in 
Robynson's  English  translation  (1879), 
More's  'History  of  Richard  III'  (1883), 
and  Cowley's  '  Essays '  (1887).  As  co-editor 
of  the  'Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools,'  he 


edited,  with  commentary,  'The  Acts 
(chaps,  i-xiv.,  1879;  completed  1884), 
'1  Kings'  (1886),  '2  Kings'  (1887),  'The 
Acts '  in  the  '  Cambridge  Greek  Testament 
for  Schools '  (1885),  also  in  '  The  Smaller 
Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools'  (1889),  and 
for  this  last  series  '1  Kings'  (1891).  To 
the  '  Sunday  School  Centenary  Bible '  he 
contributed  a  '  Glossary  of  Bible  Words ' 
(1880),  republished  in  the  same  year  in  an 
altered  form  by  the  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Christian  Knowledge.  For  the  '  Speaker's 
Commentary'  he  edited  '2  Peter'  and  '  Jude' 
(1881);  for  'A  Popular  Commentary'  the 
'  Epistles  to  the  Philippians '  and  '  Philemon ' 
(1882) ;  and  for  '  The  Expositor's  Bible '  the 
two  '  Epistles  of  St.  Peter '  (1893). 

Besides  these  works  for  various  series 
Lumby  wrote  the  chapter  on  '  The  Ordinary 
Degree '  in  Seeley's  '  Guide  '  (1866), '  Three 
Sermons  on  Early  Dissent,'  &c.  (1870),  '  A 
History  of  the  Creeds '  (1873), '  A  Sketch  of 
a  Course  of  English  Reading'  (1873),  '  Hear 
the  Church'  (1877),  '  Greek  Learning  in  the 
Western  Church '  (a  pamphlet,  1878),  pre- 
face to  a  '  Compendium  of  Church  History ' 
(1883),  '  A  Popular  Introduction  to  the  New 
Testament '  (1883),  and  articles  in  the  '  Cam- 
bridge Companion  to  the  Bible  '  (1893).  He 
was  also  a  contributor  to  the  ninth  edition 
of  the  '  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.' 

[Private  information ;  Armley  and  Wortley 
News,  29  Nov.  1865  ;  article  signed  W-.  T.  South- 
ward in  the  Cambridge  Review,  28  Nov.  1895; 
personal  knowledge.]  J.  H.  L. 

LUMSDEN,  SIB  HARRY  BURNETT 

(1821  - 1896),  lieutenant-general,  born 
12  Nov.  on  the  East  India  Company's  ship 
Rose,  in  the  bay  of  Bengal,  was  eldest  son  of 
Colonel  Thomas  Lumsden,  C.B.,  of  the 
Bengal  artillery,  and  of  Belhelvie  Lodge, 
Aberdeenshire,  by  Hay,  daughter  of  John 
Burnett  of  Elrick  in  the  same  county.  He 
was  sent  home  from  India  in  1827,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Belle vue  academy,  Aberdeen, 
and  Mr.  Dawes's  School,  Bromley,  Kent, 
and  returned  to  India  as  a  cadet  at  the  age 
of  sixteen.  He  was  commissioned  as  ensign 
in  the  59th  Bengal  native  infantry  on 
1  March  1838.  He  had  marked  aptitude  for 
languages,  and  in  the  spring  of  1842  he  was 
attached  as  interpreter  and  quartermaster  to 
the  33rd  Bengal  native  infantry,  which 
formed  part  of  the  army  that  forced  the 
Khyber  under  Sir  George  Pollock  [q.v.]  At 
Cabul  Lumsden  began  a  close  friendship  with 
John  Nicholson  [q.v.]  He  was  promoted 
lieutenant  in  the  59th  on  16  July  1842,  and 
rejoined  it  at  Loodiana  early  in  1843.  He 
served  with  it  in  the  Sutlej  campaign  of 


1845,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  So- 
braon. 

When  (Sir)  Henry  Montgomery  Lawrence 
[q.  v.]  became  resident  at  Lahore,  Lumsden 
was  chosen  by  him  as  one  of  his  assistants, 
and  was  appointed  on  15  April  1846.  He 
accompanied  Lawrence  to  Kashmir  in  Octo- 
ber, and  in  December  he  was  sent  with  three 
thousand  Sikhs  and  six  guns  through  the 
Hazara  country.  His  march  was  opposed 
by  some  seven  thousand  hillmen,  but  by 
skilful  stratagems  he  forced  the  passage  of 
two  tributaries  of  the  Jhilam,  near  Muzaffa- 
rabad,  and  brought  the  hillmen  to  submit 
after  two  sharp  actions.  He  received  the 
thanks  of  the  government,  and  was  charged 
with  the  formation  of  the  corps  of  guides 
for  frontier  service.  He  was  given  a  free 
hand  in  the  recruiting,  training,  and  equip- 
ment of  this  force,  which  was  to  consist 
of  about  a  hundred  horse  and  two  hun- 
dred foot.  He  chose  men  from  the  most 
warlike  tribes  of  the  border,  men  notorious 
for  desperate  deeds,  or,  as  he  put  it,  '  accus- 
tomed to  look  after  themselves,  and  not 
easily  taken  aback  by  any  sudden  emer- 
gency.' The  equipment  of  the  guides  in- 
cluded the  adoption  of  the  khaki  uniform, 
which  Lumsden  was  the  first  to  introduce 
into  the  Indian  army. 

The  guide  cavalry  distinguished  itself 
under  him  during  the  siege  of  Multan  in 
1848,  and  again  on  3  Jan.  1849,  when  it 
surprised  and  destroyed  a  raiding  force  of 
Sikhs  on  the  Kashmir  border.  Lumsden 
again  received  the  thanks  of  government. 
He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Gujrat  on 
21  Jan.,  was  mentioned  in  despatches,  and 
received  the  Punjab  medal  with  two  clasps. 
His  corps  had  proved  so  useful  that  its 
strength  was  raised  on  19  June  to  four  hun- 
dred horse  and  six  hundred  foot.  As 
assistant  commissioner  in  Yusafzai,  and  for 
a  time  in  charge  of  the  Peshawar  district, 
Lumsden  was  concerned  in  many  affairs 
with  the  border  tribes.  Lord  Dalhousie 
wrote :  '  A  braver  or  a  better  soldier  never 
drew  a  sword.  The  governor-general  places 
unbounded  confidence  in  him  and  in  the 
gallant  body  of  men  he  commands,'  and 
warmly  praised  his  conduct  as  an  admini- 
strator (20  Dec.  1851). 

In  November  1852  he  went  home  on  leave, 
after  fifteen  years  of  continuous  service  in 
India.  On  1  March  1853  he  was  promoted 
captain,  and  on  6  Feb.  1854  he  was  given  a 
brevet  majority  for  his  services  in  the  Sikh 
war.  He  returned  to  India  at  the  end  of 
1855,  and  was  restored  to  the  command  of 
the  guides.  In  January  1857  he  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Candahar,  accompanied  by 

TOL.  m. — STJP. 


3  Lumsden 

his  brother,  Lieutenant  (now  General  Sir 
Peter  Stark)  Lumsden,  and  Dr.  Henry 
Walter  Bellew.  Persia  had  seized  Herat, 
and  the  object  of  the  mission  was  to  make 
sure  that  the  British  subsidy  to  the  amir 
was  duly  applied  to  the  payment  of  troops 
for  the  defence  of  Afghanistan  against 
Persia.  It  was  also  to  advise  and  assist  the 
amir  so  far  as  it  could  without  exciting 
Afghan  jealousy.  It  reached  Candahar  on 
25  April.  Its  position,  delicate  from  the 
first,  became  hazardous  a  month  afterwards, 
when  news  arrived  of  the  outbreak  and 
spread  of  the  sepoy  mutiny  in  India.  But 
it  was  important,  both  in  the  interest  of  the 
amir  and  for  British  prestige,  that  the  mis- 
sion should  not  be  recalled  during  the  crisis ; 
and  while  his  guides  were  fighting  brilliantly 
before  Delhi  and  elsewhere,  Lumsden  had 
to  remain  at  Candahar.  It  is  related  that 
at  this  time  Lumsden  and  his  brother  one 
night  overheard  some  Afghans  discussing 
the  expediency  of  putting  them  to  death. 
He  left  that  city  on  15  May  1858,  and  was 
promoted  lieutenant-colonel  from  that  date. 
'  The  clear  sound  judgment  and  admirable 
temper '  which  he  had  shown  was  duly  ac- 
knowledged (29  Dec.  1858),  and  he  was 
made  a  civil  C.B.  on  5  Dec.  1859,  but  this 
was  small  compensation  for  the  opportunities 
he  had  missed. 

He  resumed  command  of  the  guides,  and 
served  under  Brigadier  (Sir)  Neville  Cham- 
berlain in  the  operations  against  the  Waziris 
in  April  and  May  1860,  for  which  he  re- 
ceived the  medal  with  clasps.  An  attempt 
on  his  life  was  made  on  2  Aug.  by  a  fana- 
tical camp-follower,  but  he  escaped  with  a 
severe  wound  in  his  left  arm.  In  March 
1862  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  Hyderabad  contingent,  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  and  this  severed  his  con- 
nection with  the  guides.  He  became  colonel 
in  the  army  on  15  June.  A  good  service 
pension  was  given  to  him  in  1866.  He  went 
home  for  six  months  in  that  year,  and  on 

5  Sept.  married  Fanny,  daughter  of  Charles 
John  Myers  of  Dunningwell,  Cumberland, 
vicar  of  Flintham,  Nottinghamshire.    Early 
in   1869  he  gave  up  the  command  of  the 
nizam's  troops,  which  he  had  done  much  to 
improve  ;  and,  after  attending  the  Umballa 
durbar  to  meet  the  amir,  Shere  Ali,  he  left 
India  in  April. 

He  had  been  promoted  major-general  on 

6  March  1868,  and  was  made  K.C.S.I.  on 
24  May  1873.     The  offer  of  further  employ- 
ment in  India,  long  looked  for,  came  too  late  ; 
and  on  15  Sept.  1875  he  retired  from  the 
army  with  the  honorary  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.     On  his  father's  death  in  1874  he 


Lushington 


114 


Lushington 


had  inherited  Belhelvie  Lodge,  and  there  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  occupying 
himself  with  sport  (especially  hawking), 
photography,  and  wood-carving.  He  died 
there  on  12  Aug.  1896.  Tall  and  powerful, 
a  good  rider,  an  excellent  shot,  and  skilful 
with  all  weapons,  he  was  an  ideal  frontier 
soldier,  unequalled  in  his  knowledge  of 
Pathans  and  nis  influence  over  them.  He 
was,  wrote  Sir  Richard  Pollock, '  a  singular 
mixture  of  shrewdness  and  simplicity,  abso- 
lutely free  from  selfishness  and  self-seeking, 
with  great  originality,  a  perfect  temper,  and 
a  keen  sense  of  humour.'  His  military  career 
suffered  by  his  absence  from  India  during 
the  mutiny,  and  his  intense  dislike  of  official 
routine  made  him  decline  civil  employment, 
for  which  he  was  well  qualified. 

Three  portraits  are  given  in  '  Lumsden  of 
the  Guides,'  1899,  a  biographical  sktech,  by 
General  Sir  Peter  Lumsden  and  George  R. 
Elsmie. 

[Lumsden  and  Elsmio's  Lumsden  of  the  Guides 
(1899);  Lumsden's  Memorials  of  the  Families 
of  Lumsdaine,  Lumisden,  or  Lumsden ;  Times, 
13  Aug.  1896;  Journal  of  United  Service  Insti- 
tution, xxviii.  909  ;  The  Mission  to  Kandahar, 
his  official  report,  published  at  Calcutta  in  1 860.1 

E.  M.  L. 

LUSHINGTON,  EDMUND  LAW 
(1811-1893),  Greek  professor  at  Glasgow, 
born  on  10  Jan.  1811,  was  the  son  of  Ed- 
mund Henry  Lushington,  chief  commis- 
sioner of  the  colonial  board  of  audit,  and 
master  of  the  crown  office,  and  of  his  second 
wife,  Sophia,  daughter  of  Thomas  Phillips  of 
Sedgeley,  near  Manchester.  He  passed  his 
childhood  at  Hanwell,  Middlesex,  and  was 
educated  at  Charterhouse  school,  one  of  his 
contemporaries  being  Thackeray,  who  was 
also  with  him  for  a  time  at  Cambridge. 
Lushington,  becoming  head  of  the  school 
while  still  young  and  not  very  robust,  found 
the  exacting  duties  of  captain  somewhat  irk- 
some. Entering  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
he  was  two  years  the  junior  of  Tennyson, 
with  whom,  and  with  Arthur  Hallam,  Trench, 
and  others,  he  was  associated  in  the  select 
club  of  twelve,  called  '  The  Apostles '  (com- 
memorated in  '  In  Memoriam,  Ixxxvii.) 

In  1832  Lushington  was  senior  classic 
and  senior  chancellor's  medallist,  and  became 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Trinity  College.  The  year 
was  a  specially  brilliant  one,  Henry  Alford 
[q.  v.]f  Richard  Shilleto  [q.  v.] — 'a  second 
Porson ' — and  William  Hepworth  Thomp- 
son [q.  v.],  afterwards  master  of  Trinity,  also 
being  in  the  list.  In '  The  Virginians '  (i.  xli.) 
Thackeray  makes  a  covert  though  sufficiently 
obvious  allusion  to  the  brilliant  scholarship 
of  Thompson  and  Lushington. 


In  1838  Lushington  succeeded  Sir  Daniel 
Keyte  Sandford  [q.  v.]  as  professor  of  Greek 
at  Glasgow,  gaining  the  appointment  over 
Robert  Lowe  (Lord  Sherbrooke),  after  Archi- 
bald Campbell  Tait  [q.  v.],  subsequently 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  withdrawn 
his  candidature.  As  a  professor  he  won  the 
admiration  and  the  affection  of  his  students, 
and  while,  as  described  in  the  epilogue  to 
'  In  Memoriam,'  'wearing  all  that  weight  of 
learning  lightly  like  a  flower,'  he  invested 
his  subject  with  a  singular  charm.  In  'Prin- 
cipal Shairp  and  his  Friends '  (p.  14)  Pro- 
fessor Sellar,  alluding  to  Lushington'a 
inaugural  lecture  of  1838-9,  says:  'Shairp 
left  the  lecture,  as  he  told  me,  repeating  to 
himself  the  line 

That  strain  I  heard  was  of  a  higher  mood; 

and  the  impression  thus  produced  was  con- 
firmed by  his  attendance  on  the  private 
Greek  class.'  This  accords  with  the  uni- 
versal testimony  of  Lushington's  students. 
In  1875  he  resigned  his  chair,  the  university 
conferring  on  him  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.  He  settled  at  Park  House,  Maid- 
stone,  the  residence  described  in  the  pro- 
logue to  '  The  Princess,'  which  is  dedicated 
to  his  brother  Henry.  In  1884  he  was  elected 
lord  rector  of  Glasgow  University,  and  the 
principal,  John  Caird  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  welcomed 
him  with  a  fitting  eulogy  when  he  delivered 
the  customary  rectorial  address.  He  died 
at  Park  House,  Maidstone,  on  13  July  1893. 
On  10  Oct.  1842  Lushington  married 
Cecilia  Tennyson,  sister  of  Lord  Tennyson, 
the  marriage  ceremony  being  performed  by 
Charles  Tennyson  Turner  [q.  v.]  (LoKD 
TEXXYSOX,  A  Memoir,  i.  203).  The  epi- 
logue to  Tennyson's  '  In  Memoriam '  is  an 
epithalamium  on  Lushington's  marriage  with 
the  poet's  sister.  He  was  survived  by  his 
wife  and  his  daughter  Cecilia. 

Although  believed  to  have  written  anony- 
mously for  some  of  the  reviews,  Lushington 
!  made  few  acknowledged  contributions  to 
i  literature.  He  translated  into  Greek  Tenny- 
|  son's  'CEnone'  (ib.  i.  180)  and  'Crossing  the 
Bar,'  the  version  of  the  latter  giving  the 
poet  especial  satisfaction  (ib.  ii.  367).  To 
volume  i.  (pp.  201-3)  of  the  'Memoir  of 
Lord  Tennyson'  by  his  son  he  contributed 
interesting  reminiscences.  He  collaborated 
with  Sir  Alexander  Grant  [q.  v.]  in  edit- 
ing in  1866  (2nd  edit.  1875)  the  '  Philoso- 
phical Works'  of  James  Frederick  Ferrier 
[q.  v.],  prefixing  to  the  volume  of  'Philo- 
sophical Remains '  an  exquisitely  delicate 
and  thoughtful  memoir  and  appreciation. 
He  published  the  Glasgow  rectorial  address 
in  1885. 


Lysons  i 

[Times  and  Glasgow  Herald  of  14  July; 
Athenaeum  of  22  July  1893 ;  Tennyson's  Me- 
moir of  Lord  Tennyson ;  Burke's  Landed 
Gentry.]  T.  B. 

LYSONS,  SIR  DANIEL  (1816-1898), 
general,  born  on  1  Aug.  at  Rodmarton,  Glou- 
cestershire, was  son  of  the  Rev.  Daniel 
Lysons  [q.  v.],  the  topographer,  by  his  second 
wife.  Josepha  Catherine  Susanna,  daughter 
of  John  Gilbert  Cooper  of  Thurgarton 
Priory,  Nottinghamshire.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Rev.  Harvey  Marryat's  school  at  Bath, 
and  at  Shrewsbury  school,  where  he  twice 
saved  boys  from  drowning.  He  spent  two 
years  (1832-3)  with  M.  Frossard  at  Nimes 
to  learn  French.  On  26  Dec.  1834  he  ob- 
tained a  commission  as  ensign  in  the  1st 
royals,  joined  the  regiment  at  Athlone  in 
February  1835,  and  went  with  it  to  Canada 
in  the  following  year. 

He  became  lieutenant  on  23  Aug.  1837, 
and,  owing  to  his  skill  as  a  draughtsman,  he 
was  employed  on  the  staff  of  the  deputy 
quartermaster-general,  Colonel  Charles  Gore 
[q.  v.],  during  the  Canadian  insurrection. 
He  was  present  at  the  action  of  St.  Denis, 
and  was  mentioned  in  despatches  (London 
Gazette,  26  Dec.  1837).  He  was  also  at  the 
capture  of  St.  Eustache.  He  was  deputy 
assistant  quartermaster-general  from  1  Dec. 
1837  to  12  July  1841,  and  with  the  assis- 
tance of  officers  of  the  line  he  surveyed  a 
good  deal  of  the  frontier.  He  was  an  inde- 
fatigable sportsman,  and  has  left  a  vivid 
picture  of  his  Canadian  life,  and  especially 
of  moose  hunting,  in  his  '  Early  Reminis- 
cences.' 

On  29  Oct.  1843  the  right  wing  of  the 
royals  left  Quebec  for  the  West  Indies  in 
the  transport  Premier,  which  was  wrecked 
six  days  afterwards  in  Chatte  Bay,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Lysons 
was  very  active  in  saving  those  on  board, 
and  being  sent  back  to  Quebec  for  help,  he 
made  in  four  and  a  half  days  what  was 
reckoned  an  eight  days'  journey  of  three 
hundred  miles.  His  exertions  were  praised 
in  general  orders,  and  he  was  rewarded  by  a 
company  in  the  3rd  West  India  regiment  on 
29  Dec.,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  directing 
that  his  promotion  should  be  notified  to  him 
by  return  <-.f  post.  He  went  to  the  West 
Indies  from  England  in  the  spring  of  1844, 
and  was  given  command  of  the  troops  in 
Tobago ;  but  on  24  May  he  was  transferred 
to  the  23rd  Welsh  fusiliers,  then  stationed 
in  Barbados.  He  was  brigade-major  there 
from  3  Nov.  1845  to  15  March  1847,  when 
he  accompanied  his  regiment  to  Halifax, 
Nova  Scotia. 

He  returned  with  it  to  England  in  the 


5  Lysons 

autumn  of  1848.  He  was  town-major  at 
Portsmouth  from  18  June  to  21  Aug.  in 
1849,  and  drew  up  a  system  of  encamping 
and  cooking  there.  Having  obtained  his 
majority  on  3  Aug.,  he  rejoined  his  regiment 
at  Winchester,  and  served  with  it  during 
the  next  five  years  at  Plymouth,  Liverpool, 
Chester,  and  Parkhurst.  In  April  1854  he 
embarked  with  it  for  Turkey,  and  was  the 
first  man  to  land  in  the  Crimea  in  Septem- 
ber. The  23rd  formed  part  of  the  first  bri- 
gade of  the  light  division.  At  the  Alma  it 
lost  over  two  hundred  officers,  and  men,  in- 
cluding its  commanding  officer.  Just  before 
the  battle  Lysons  joined  the  second  division 
as  assistant  adjutant-general,  but  succeeding 
to  the  lieutenant-colonelcy  of  his  regiment 
on  21  Sept.,  he  returned  to  take  command 
of  it.  He  was  present  at  Inkerman,  though 
laid  up  with  fever  at  the  time.  The  excite- 
ment did  him  good,  and  the  hurricane  of 
16  Nov.  seems  to  have  completed  his  cure. 

Throughout  the  winter  Lysons  was  inde- 
fatigable in  his  care  of  his  men,  reduced  from 
eight  hundred  to  about  two  hundred  fit  for 
duty.  He  put  up,  mainly  with  his  own 
hands,  a  hospital  hut  for  them.  His  officers 
were  nearly  all  '  young  boys,  very  nice  lads, 
but  as  yet  quite  useless ; '  and  in  the  summer, 
when  the  strength  of  the  regiment  had  been 
raised  by  drafts  to  over  five  hundred,  he 
described  it  as  '  like  a  newly  raised  militia 
regiment  officered  from  the  higher  classes  in 
a  public  school.'  In  the  assault  of  18  June 
1855  Lysons  commanded  the  supports  of 
the  column  furnished  by  his  brigade.  He 
was  wounded  in  the  knee,  but  brought  the 
brigade  out  of  action,  and  had  command  of 
it  for  a  time.  In  the  second  assault,  on 
8  Sept.,  he  led  an  attack  on  the  right  flank 
of  the  Redan,  and  was  severely  wounded  in 
the  thigh.  On  25  Oct.  he  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  second  brigade  of  the  light 
division,  and  retained  it  till  the  end  of  the 
war.  He  had  been  three  times  mentioned 
in  despatches  (London  Gazette,  10  Oct. 
1854,  4  July  and  5  Oct.  1855),  was  made 
brevet-colonel  on  17  July  1855,  and  C.B. 
(5  July),  and  received  the  medal  with  three 
clasps,  the  Sardinian  and  Turkish  medals, 
the  legion  of  honour  (4th  class),  and 
Medjidie  (3rd  class). 

He  returned  to  England  in  July  1856,  and 
resumed  command  of  the  23rd.  On  16  Jan. 
1857  he  exchanged  to  the  25th  foot,  and  on 
24  Nov.  went  on  half-pay,  having  been  ap- 
pointed on  5  Nov.  assistant  adjutant-general 
at  headquarters.  In  this  office  he  was  em- 
ployed on  the  revision  of  the  infantry  drill- 
book  and  its  adaptation  to  the  needs  of  the 
volunteers.  He  also  prepared  '  Instructions 

12 


Macallum 


116 


Macartney 


for  Mounted  Rifle  Volunteers'  (1860).  On 
6  Dec.  1861  he  was  sent  to  Canada  in  con- 
nection with  the  '  Trent '  affair,  and  he  was 
deputy  quartermaster-general  Irom  27  Aug. 
1862  till  30  Sept.  1867.  This  gave  him  an 
opportunity  of  extending  the  frontier  surveys 
which  he  had  been  engaged  upon  as  a 
subaltern. 

He  was  promoted  major-general  on  27  Dec. 
1868.  He  commanded  brigades  at  Malta 
and  Aldershot  from  1  July  1868  to  30  June 
1872,  and  then  commanded  in  the  northern 
district  for  two  years.  He  drew  up  a  sys- 
tem of '  Infantry  Piquets,'  which  was  issued 
by  authority  in  1875.  On  1  April  1876  he 
was  appointed  quartermaster-general  at 
headquarters.  He  became  lieutenant- 
general  and  was  made  K.C.B.  on  2  June 
1877,  and  on  14  July  1879  he  became 
general.  The  colonelcy  of  the  Derbyshire 
regiment  was  given  to  him  on  25  Aug.  1878, 
and  he  accepted  the  honorary  colonelcy  of 
the  first  volunteer  battalion  of  the  royal 
fusiliers.  From  1  July  1880  to  1  Aug.  1883 
he  commanded  the  Aldershot  division,  and 


he  was  then  placed  on  the  retired  list, 
having  reached  the  age  of  sixty-seven.  On' 
29  May  1886  he  received  the  G.C.B.,  and 
on  4  March  1890  he  was  made  constable  of 
the  Tower. 

Lysons  died  on  29  Jan.  1898,  and  was 
buried  at  Rodmarton.  Vigorous  to  the- 
last,  he  had  been  writing  on  army  reform 
a  month  before  (Times,  17  Dec.  1897).  In 
1856  he  married  Harriet  Sophia,  daughter  of 
Charles  Bridges  of  Court  House,  Overton. 
She  died  in  1864,  and  in  1865  he  married1 
Anna  Sophia  Biscoe,  daughter  of  the  Rev. 
Robert  Tritton  of  Morden,  Surrey.  By  his 
first  wife  he  had  four  sons,  of  whom  the 
second,  Henry,  obtained  the  Victoria  cross 
in  the  Zulu  war  of  1879  as  a  lieutenant  in 
the  Scottish  rifles. 

[Lysons's  Early  Eeminiscences  (1896)  and1 
the  Crimean  War  from  First  to  Last  (1895), 
the  latter  consisting  of  letters  written  by  him 
in  th«  Crimea;  Times,  31  Jan.  1898  ;  Brough- 
ton-Mainwaring's  Historical  Record  of  the* 
Koyal  Welsh  Fusiliers,  pp.  159-216.] 

E.  M.  L. 


M 


MACALLUM,  HAMILTON  (1841- 
1896),  painter,  born  at  Kames,  Argyllshire, 
on  22  May  1841,  was  the  second  son  of  John 
Macallum,  J.P.,  of  the  Kames  gunpowder 
works.  While  still  a  boy  at  school  he 
showed  a  strong  inclination  towards  art. 
This,  however,  was  opposed  by  his  father, 
who  insisted  on  his  entering  a  merchant's 
office  in  Glasgow,  in  preparation  for  an 
Indian  commercial  career.  In  1864,  when 
he  was  twenty-three  years  of  age,  he  finally 
rebelled,  and,  winning  a  reluctant  assent 
from  his  father,  went  to  London  to  become 
a  painter.  He  entered  the  Royal  Academy 
schools  the  same  year.  From  that  time  on- 
wards his  time  was  divided  between  London 
and  various  painting  grounds  (the  western 
highlands,  among  which  he  prowled  in  a 
small  yacht  of  his  own,  Heligoland,  Holland, 
Southern  Italy,  the  south  coast  of  Devon- 
shire), where  his  favourite  subject,  sunlight, 
could  be  fully  studied.  His  original  and 
thoroughly  personal  way  of  treating  this 
subject  soon  attracted  attention,  and  won 
him  both  detractors  and  admirers.  He  had 
studios  successively  at  Hampstead  (Haver- 
stock  Elill),  in  Piccadilly,  and  at  Beer,  South 
Devon.  His  contributions  to  the  chief  Lon- 
don exhibitions  extended  over  twenty  years, 
from  1876,  when  'Hoisting  the  Storm  Jib' 
was  at  the  Royal  Academy,  until  1896,  when 


his  last  picture,  the  '  Crofter's  Team,'  hung- 
on  the  same  walls.  Macallum  died  verv  sud- 
denly of  heart  disease  at  Beer  on  23"  June 
1896.  He  left  a  widow,  Euphemia,  daugh- 
ter of  Mr.  John  Stewart  of  Glasgow,  and  one 
son.  Mrs.  Macallum  subsequently  (13  March 
1900)  received  a  civil  list  pension  of  IQOL 
per  annum  in  consideration  of  her  husband's- 
merits  as  an  artist. 

Macallum  was  one  of  the  most  original 
landscape  painters  of  his  time.  He  was 
single-minded,  concentrating  his  attention 
on  those  aspects  of  nature  by  which  his  own 
sympathies  were  most  closely  touched.  His 
pictures  have  great  individuality.  He  saw 
colour  in  a  way  of  his  own,  but  his  best 
works  are  likely  to  be  prized  long  after- 
things  conceived  on  more  conventional  lines- 
are  forgotten.  Three  of  them  are  in  the 
Millbank  Gallery,  the  '  Crofter's  Team,'  al- 
ready mentioned,  and  two  drawings  in  water- 
colour. 


[Private  information.] 


W.  A. 


MACARTNEY,  JAMES  (1770-1843), 
anatomist,  son  of  Andrew  Macartney,  gentle- 
man farmer,  of  Ballyrea,  co.  Armagh,  and 
Mary,  his  wife,  was  born  at  Armagh  on 
8  March  1770.  He  began  life  as  an  Irish 
volunteer  in  1780,  and  was  afterwards  edu- 
cated at  the  endowed  classical  school  at 


Macartney 


117 


McCosh 


Armagh,  and  then  at  a  private  school.  He 
•was  associated  for  a  time  with  Henry  and 
John  Sheares  [q.  v.]  and  Lord  Edward  Fitz- 
gerald [q.  v.],  but,  being  dissatisfied  with 
•their  programme,  he  cut  himself  adrift  and 
began  to  study  medicine.  He  apprenticed 
himself  to  William  Hartigan  (1756  P-1812) 
•on  10  Feb.  1793,  his  master  being  president 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Ireland 
in  1797.  Macartney  also  entered  as  a  pupil 
in  the  college  school,  Mercer  Street,  Dublin, 
where  he  made  some  dissections  for  the 
museum,  and  he  attended  the  Lock  hospital 
and  the  Dublin  dispensary.  In  1796  he  came 
to  London  to  attend  the  Hunterian  or  Great 
Windmill  Street  school  of  medicine,  and  he 
t>ecame  an  occasional  pupil  at  St.  Thomas's 
and  Guy's  hospitals.  He  also  attended  the 
lectures  of  John  Abernethy  [q.  v.]  at  St. 
Bartholomew's  Hospital,  and  through  his 
influence  was  appointed  a  demonstrator  of 
anatomy  in  the  medical  school  in  1798.  He 
•was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  of  England  on  6  Feb.  1800,  began 
to  practise  in  London  as  a  surgeon,  and  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  comparative  anatomy 
and  physiology  at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospi- 
tal, a  post  he  held  from  March  1800  to  1811. 
On  21  Feb.  1811  he  was  elected  F.R.S.,  and 
from  1803  to  1812  he  served  as  surgeon  to 
the  royal  Radnor  militia.  In  May  1813  he 
was  admitted  M.D.  of  St.  Andrews  Univer- 
sity, and  on  21  June  1813  he  was  elected 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Dublin,  and  physician  to  Sir  Pat- 
rick Dun's  hospital.  These  offices  he  resigned 
in  1837,  after  he  had  raised  tKe  medical 
school  to  a  much  better  position  than  it  had 
•ever  before  occupied.  During  almost  the 
whole  of  his  residence  in  Dublin  Macartney 
•was  subjected  to  a  very  singular  exhibition 
of  petty  persecution  and  open  insult  at  the 
handsof  some  members  of  the  board  of  Trinity 
College.  He  was  denied  the  privilege  of 
•election  to  the  fellowship  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons,  though  he  was  made  an 
honorary  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  of  Ireland  in  1818.  He  also  re- 
ceived an  honorary  M.D.  from  the  university 
of  Cambridge  (31  Aug.  1833),  to  which  he 
sold  his  museum  in  1836,  the  university  of 
Dublin  having  refused  to  purchase  it.  He 
died  at  31  Upper  Merrion  Street,  Dublin,  on 
•0  March  1843  (Gent.  Mag.  1843,  i.  554). 
He  married  on  10  Aug.  1795  a  Miss  Eken- 
tead. 

An  ill-used  and  greatly  misunderstood 
man,  '  he  was,'  says  Professor  Alexander 
Macalister, '  an  expert  anatomist  and  a  philo- 
sophical biologist  far  in  advance  of  his  period. 
His  description  of  the  vascular  system  of 


birds  has  in  many  respects  not  been  sur- 
passed, and  his  account  of  the  anatomy  of 
mammals  may  be  read  with  more  profit  than 
many  modern  works.  In  his  account  of  the 
brain  of  the  chimpanzee  compared  with  that 
of  an  idiot,  as  well  as  in  many  others  of  his 
papers,  there  are  glimpses  of  a  morphology 
far  beyond  Cuvier,  whose  works  he  edited. 
His  book  on  inflammation  may  be  placed 
side  by  side  with  any  pathological  work  of 
the  period,  while  his  researches  on  animal 
luminosity  form  the  basis  of  many  subse- 
quent researches  on  the  subject.'  Macartney 
discovered  the  fibrous  texture  of  the  white 
substance  in  the  brain,  and  the  connection 
between  the  subcortical  nerve  fibres  and  the 
grey  matter  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres.  He 
gave,  too,  the  first  satisfactory  account  of 
rumination  in  the  herbivora,  and  he  dis- 
covered numerous  glandular  appendages  in 
the  digestive  organs  of  mammals,  especially 
of  rodents.  As  one  of  Warburton's  advisers 
and  as  a  practical  anatomist  of  great  expe- 
rience in  teaching,  he  had  much  to  do  in 
shaping  the  Anatomy  Act  of  1832. 

Macartney's  works  were :  1.  'Lectures on 
Comparative  Anatomy '  (Cuvier's  lectures 
translated  by  W.  Ross  under  the  inspection 
of  J.  Macartney),  London,  1802,  2  vols.  8vo. 
2.  '  Observations  on  Curvature  of  the  Spine,' 
Dublin,  1817,  4to.  3.  'A  Treatise  on  In- 
flammation,' London,  1838,  4to ;  reissued  in 
America,  Philadelphia,  1840.  He  also  wrote 
numerous  papers  in  the  'Philosophical Trans- 
actions ; '  and  his  articles  on  comparative 
anatomy  are  published  in  Abraham  Rees's 
'  Cyclopaedia,'  London,  1819,  45  vols.  4to. 

[James  Macartney,  a  memoir  by  Professor 
Alexander  Macalister,  F.R.S.,  of  Cambridge, 
London,  1900;  Sir  Charles  A.  Cameron's  His- 
tory of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Ire- 
land, pp.  371,  372  ;  'Erinensis's'  account  of  the 
appearance  and  methods  of  Macartney  in  the 
Lancet,  1825,  viii.  248-52.]  D'A.  P. 

McCOSH,  JAMES  (1811-1894),  philo- 
sopher, only  son  of  Andrew  McCosh,  farmer, 
of  Carskoech,  Ayrshire,  by  Jean,  daughter 
of  James  Carson,  farmer,  of  the  same 
county,  was  born  on  1  April  1811.  Of 
covenanting  ancestry,  he  was  brought  up 
religiously  and  was  early  devoted  to  the  kirk. 
He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Glas- 
gow and  Edinburgh,  and  in  1834  gained  the 
M.A.  degree  at  Edinburgh  by  an  essay  on 
the  Stoic  philosophy,  which  was  highly  com- 
mended by  Sir  William  Hamilton.  He 
studied  theology  under  Dr.  Chalmers,  and, 
having  been  licensed  by  the  presbytery  of 
Ayrshire,  officiated  successively  at  Arbroath, 
1835-8,  and  Brechin,  1838-50.  While  at 


McCosh 


118 


McCosh 


the  latter  place  he  became  a  convert  to 
'free  kirk'  principles,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  organising  the  secession.  Meanwhile, 
however,  he  was  busy  with  natural  theology, 
and  the  publication  in  1850  of  his  first  impor- 
tant work,  '  The  Method  of  the  Divine  Go- 
vernment, Physical  and  Moral'  (Edinburgh, 
8vo ;  last  edition,  New  York,  1874),  proved 
the  turning-point  in  his  career.  It  was  read 
and  greatly  admired  by  the  Earl  of  Clarendon, 
then  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  led  to 
McCosh's  appointment  to  the  chair  of  logic 
and  metaphysics  in  Queen's  College,  Belfast 
(1861).  In  1860  appeared  his  'Intuitions 
of  the  Mind  inductively  investigated,'  Lon- 
don, 8vo  (last  edition,  New  York,  1872),  in 
which  he  attempted  to  meet  the  prevalent 
empiricism  by  a  careful  survey  of  the  entire 
domain  of  what  he  conceived  to  be  axiomatic 
truth.  It  was  followed  by  '  An  Examina- 
tion of  Mr.  J.  S.  Mill's  Philosophy  :  being  a 
Defence  of  Fundamental  Truth,'  London, 
1860, 8vo  (last  edition,  New  York,  1880)— a 
work  called  forth  by  Mill's  '  Examination  of 
Sir  William  Hamilton's  Philosophy  '  (1865). 
Mill  honoured  his  critic  with  a  few  stric- 
tures in  his  third  edition,  to  which  McCosh 
rejoined  in  a  volume  entitled  '  Philosophical 
Papers,'  London,  1868  (New  York,  1869), 
which  also  included  an  '  Examination  of  Sir 
William  Hamilton's  Logic  '  and  an  essay  on 
the  '  Present  State  of  Moral  Philosophy  in 
Britain.' 

McCosh  resigned  his  post  at  Belfast  on 
being  elected  in  1868  to  the  presidency  of 
Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  with  which 
office  was  associated  the  chair  of  philosophy 
in  that  seminary.  He  administered  the 
affairs  of  the  college  with  eminent  success 
for  twenty  years,  during  which  period  he 
published  many  philosophical  works. 

McCosh  resigned  the  presidency  of  Prince- 
ton College  in  1888,  but  retained  the  chair 
of  philosophy  until  his  death  on  16  Nov. 
1894.  He  was  LL.D.  of  the  universities  of 
Aberdeen  (1850)  and  Harvard  (1868),  also 
D.Litt.  of  Queen's  College,  Belfast,  and  D.D. 
He  married  in  1 845  a  daughter  of  Alexander 
Guthrie,  M.D.,  brother  of  Dr.  Thomas  Guthrie 
[q.v.]  Princeton  College  contains  his  statue, 
set  there  by  his  admirers  in  1888.  (For  por- 
traits see  his  '  Life '  by  Sloane,  cited  infra.) 

McCosh  is  said  to  have  been  an  effective 
lecturer  and  preacher,  and  his  simplicity 
and  perspicuity  of  style  render  this  extremely 
probable.  His  philosophy,  however,  had 
never  an  appreciable  influence  on  English 
thought.  To  the  defects  of  the  Scottish 
school  he  was  by  no  means  blind,  but  his 
early  training  had  included  no  systematic 
study  of  transcendentalism,  and  a  visit  to 


Germany  in  1858  led  to  no  result.  It  may 
even  be  doubted  whether  he  had  apprehended 
the  earlier  forms  of  idealism.  At  any  rate 
his  polemical  works  evince  no  adequate 
appreciation  of  the  positions  which  he  at- 
tacked, and  his  own  '  intuitional '  theory  is 
a  mere  ignoratio  elenchi. 

McCosh  was  joint  author  with  Dr.  Dickie 
of  'Typical  Forms  and  Special  Ends  in 
Creation,'  Edinburgh,  1855  ;  London,  1862 
(last  edition,  New  York,  1880).  He  was 
also  author  of  the  following  works :  1.  '  The 
Supernatural  in  relation  to  the  Natural,' 
Cambridge,  Belfast,  and  New  York,  1862, 
8vo.  2.  '  Supplement  '  to  Dugald  Stewart's 
'Outlines  of  Moral  Philosophy,'  1865. 
3.  '  The  Laws  of  Discursive  Thought/  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1870,  12mo  (last  edi- 
tion, New  York,  1890).  4.  '  Christianity 
and  Positivism,'  London  and  New  York, 
1871,  8vo  (last  edition,  New  York,  1875). 
5.  '  The  Scottish  Philosophy  :  Biographical, 
Expository,  Critical  ;  from  Hutcheson  to 
Hamilton,'  London,  1874,  8vo  (last  edition, 
New  York,  1880).  6. '  Ideas  in  Nature  over- 
looked by  Dr.  Tyndall,'  New  York,  1875, 
12mo.  7.  '  The  Development  Hypothesis  : 
is  it  Sufficient  ? '  New  York,  1876,  12mo. 
8.  '  The  Emotions,'  London  and  New  York, 
1880, 12mo.  9.  'The  Conflicts  of  the  Age  ' 
(from  the  '  North  American  Review '),  New 
York,  1881,  8vo.  10.  'Psychology.  The 
Cognitive  Powers,'  London  and  New  York, 
1886,  8vo  (last  edition,  New  York,  1891). 
11.  '  Psychology.  The  Motive  Powers :  Emo- 
tions, Conscience,  Will,'  London  and  New 
York,  1887,  8vo.  12.  '  Realistic  Philosophy 
defended  in  a  Philosophic  Series,'  London 
and  New  York,  1887,  2  vols.  8vo  (a  collec- 
tive issue  of  several  dissertations  published 
between  the  years  1882  and  1885).  13.  '  The 
Religious  Aspect  of  Evolution.  The  Bedell 
Lectures  for  1887,'  New  York,  1888,  12mo 
(enlarged  edition,  1890).  14.  'First  and 
Fundamental  Truths,'  London  and  New  York, 
1889,  12mo.  15.  'The  Tests  of  various 
Kinds  of  Truths '  (Merrick  Lectures),  New 
York  and  Cincinnati,  1889,  1891,  12mo. 
16.  '  The  Prevailing  Types  of  Philosophy : 
Can  they  reach  Reality  logically  ? '  New 
York,  1890,  12mo.  17.  '"  Our  Moral  Nature,' 
New  York,  1892,  12mo  (see  also  DULLES, 
McCosh  Bibliography,  which  gives  a  com- 
plete catalogue  of  his  multifarious  contribu- 
tions to  periodical  literature,  articles  in  the 
'  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia  of  Religious 
Knowledge,'  pamphlets,  and  other  fugitive 
pieces). 

[Sloane's  Life  of  James  McCosh,  1896  ; 
Irving's  Book  of  Scotsmen ;  Eclectic  Magazine, 
July  1871;  Appleton's  Journ.  8  March  1873; 


McCoy 


119 


Macdonell 


Men  and  Women  of  the  Time,  1891 ;  Scotsman, 
19  Nov.  1894;  Ann.  Reg.  1894,  ii.  209.] 

J.  M.  K. 

McCOY,SiRFREDERICK  (1823-1899), 
naturalist  and  geologist,  son  of  Simon  McCoy, 
a  Dublin  physician,  was  born  in  that  city 
in  1823.  After  passing  through  a  course 
of  medical  study  there  and  at  Cambridge, 
and  before  reaching  the  age  when  he  could 
begin  to  practise,  he  was  diverted  to  natural 
science  by  undertaking  the  arrangement  of 
the  collections  of  the  Geological  Society  of 
Ireland  and  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 
Sir  Richard  John  Griffith  [q.  v.]  then  en- 
gaged him  to  make  the  palaeontological  in- 
vestigations required  for  the  '  Geological 
Map  of  Ireland.'  The  results  of  these  studies 
were  published  in  two  volumes,  one  en- 
titled '  Synopsis  of  the  Carboniferous  Lime- 
stone Fossils  in  Ireland,'  1844,  the  other 
'  Synopsis  of  the  Silurian  Fossils  of  Ireland,' 
1846,  and  during  the  later  part  of  the  time 
thus  employed  he  was  a  member  of  the 
regular  staft'  of  the  Survey.  In  1846,  on  the 
invitation  of  Adam  Sedgwick  [q.  v.],  he  went 
to  Cambridge  to  arrange  the  collection  in 
the  Woodwardian  Museum.  McCoy  was 
continuously  engaged  in  that  university  till 
1850,  when  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mineralogy  and  geology  at  Queen's  College, 
Belfast.  But,  as  his  Cambridge  work  was 
still  unfinished,  he  returned  thither  for  a 
few  months  in  the  spring  and  autumn  of 
each  year.  During  these  intervals  he  aided 
Sedgwick  in  Cornwall  in  1851,  at  May  Hill 
in  1*52  and  1853.  and  in  South  Wales  in 
1854.  In  that  year  he  completed  the  de- 
scription of  the  fossils  in  the  Woodwardian 
Museum,  and  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
natural  science  in  the  new  university  of 
Melbourne,  leaving  England  for  this  post  in 
the  autumn.  The  results  of  his  studies  at 
Cambridge  were  finally  published  in  a  volume 
entitled  '  British  Palaeozoic  Rocks  and  Fos- 
sils,' 1 H54.  This  was  restricted  to  the  fossils ; 
for  Sedgwick,  who  contributed  an  introduc- 
tion, had  intended  to  write  another  volume 
describing  the  rocks.  McCoy's  new  office 
•was  no  sinecure,  for  he  had  to  cover  the 
whole  field  of  natural  history  ;  nevertheless 
he  acted  as  paleontologist  to  the  Geological 
Survey  in  its  earlier  stages,  and  was  founder 
of  the  National  Museum  of  Natural  History 
and  Geology  at  .Melbourne,  of  which  he  was 
director  until  his  death,  besides  taking  an 
active  interest  in  municipal  affairs  and  serv- 
ing as  a  justice  of  the  peace.  He  was  also 
chairman  of  the  first  royal  commission  for 
international  and  intercolonial  exhibitions 
for  the  colony  of  Victoria.  The  later  part 
of  his  life  was  spent  at  his  house  'Maritima,' 


J  Brighton  Beach,  about  nine  miles  from  Mel- 
|  bourne,  where  he  died  on  13  May  1899.  lie 
married  Anna  Maria,  daughter  of  Thomas 
;  Harrison,  a  solicitor,  of  Dublin.  His  wife 
i  died  in  1886,  and  in  the  following  year  he  lost 
j  his  son  Henry,  a  barrister  practising  in  New 
I  Zealand,  who  had  married  in  1870  and  left 
'  a  family  of  seven  children.  His  only  daugh- 
I  ter,  Emily  Mary  McCoy,  also  died  before 
j  him. 

McCoy  throughout  his  long  life  was  the 
|  most  indefatigable  of  men.  He  lived  very 
plainly,  and  did  much  of  his  work  between 
ten  at  night  and  three  in  the  morning,  not 
requiring  more  than  five  hours'  sleep.  So, 
notwithstanding  the  official  duties  and  the 
books  already  enumerated,  he  published  two 
works  for  the  government  of  Victoria,  one 
entitled  '  Prodromus  of  the  Zoology  of  Vic- 
toria '  (1878  sqq.),  the  other  '  Prodromus  of 
the  Palaeontology  of  Victoria,'  each  appear- 
ing in  '  decades  '  at  intervals  during  thirty 
of  the  fifty-eight  years  covered  by  his  publi- 
cations ;  and  he  also  wrote  no  less  than 
sixty-nine  papers,  dealing,  in  addition  to 
some  zoological  topics,  with  almost  every 
branch  of  palaeontology.  In  fact,  according 
to  report,  he  was  more  engrossed  in  research 
than  in  the  duties  of  his  chair.  He  was 
conspicuous  for  his  antagonism  to  the  views 
of  Charles  Robert  Darwin  [q.  v.] 

McCoy  was  elected  F.G.S.  in  1852,  and 
received  from  that  society  its  Murchison 
medal  in  1879.  In  1880  he  was  made  a 
F.R.S.  The  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of 
science  was  conferred  on  him  by  Cambridge 
in  1886,  where  he  was  also  an  honorary 
1  member  of  the  Philosophical  Society,  as 
I  well  as  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Australia, 
the  Imperial  Society  of  Naturalists  of  Mos- 
cow, and  of  many  other  British  and  foreign 
societies.  He  was  awarded  the  Emperor  of 
Austria's  gold  medal  for  arts  and  sciences, 
was  a  knight  chevalier  of  the  royal  order 
of  the  crown  of  Italy,  was  created  C.M.G. 
in  1886,  and  K.C.M.G.  in  1891. 

[Obituary  notices  in  the  Geological  Magazine, 
1899,  p.  283;  The  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society,  56,  lix  ;  the  Year-book  of  the 
Royal  Society,  1900,  p.  196,  by  H[enryj  W[ood- 
ward],  and  Nature,  Ix.  83,  by  H[enry]  B[oling- 
broke]  W[oodward~l;  frequent  references  in 
Sedgwick's  Life  and  Letters,  vol.  ii.,  with  in- 
formal ion  from  Frederick  II.  McCoy,  esq.  (grand- 
son), and  others.]  T.  G.  B. 

MACDONELL,  ALASTAIR  RUADH, 

known  as  PICKLE  THE  SPY  (1725P-17G1), 
thirteenth  chief  of  Glengarry,  born  about 
1725,  was  eldest  son  of  John,  twelfth  chief, 
by  the  only  daughter  of  Colin  Mackenzie  of 
I  Hilton.  While  yet  a  mere  youth  he  was 


Macdonell 


120 


MacDougall 


sent  in  1738  to  France,  where  in  1743  he 
joined  Lord  Drummond's  regiment  of  royal 
Scots  guards.  In  March  1744  he  was  with 
the  Earl  Marischal,  and  intended  starting 
with  the  futile  expedition  of  that  year. 
Having  in  the  following  year  been  sent  to 
Scotland  to  give  information  in  connection 
with  certain  Jacobite  disputes,  he  was  in 
May  despatched  by  the  highland  chiefs  to 
France  to  testify  to  Charles  their  allegiance 
to  his  cause,  but  at  the  same  time  to  warn 
him  against  an  attempt  to  land  in  Scotland 
unless  strongly  backed  by  foreign  assistance. 
His  mission,  however,  was  of  no  avail ;  for 
Charles,  before  Macdonell's  arrival  in  France, 
had  already  set  sail  on  his  rash  adventure. 
Macdonell  resolved  to  take  part  in  it,  but 
while  returning  to  Scotland  with  a  detach- 
ment of  Drummond's  guards  he  was  cap- 
tured on  25  Nov.  1745  by  H.M.S.  Sheerness 
(London  Gazette,  26-9  Nov.,  quoted  in 
BLAlKiE's-fti'nerary  of  Prince  Charles  Edward, 
Scottish  Historical  Society,  1897,  p.  Ill), 
and  sent  to  the  Tower  of  London,  where  he 
was  detained  until  July  1747.  In  December 
1749  he  helped  himself  to  the  Jacobite 
treasure  concealed  at  Loch  Arkaig.  Already 
or  shortly  afterwards  he  had  further  resolved 
on  the  betrayal  of  the  Jacobite  cause,  and 
having  introduced  himself  to  Henry  Pel- 
ham,  he,  as  Mr.  Lang  has  elaborately  and 
beyond  cavil  demonstrated,  became  a  hired 
spy  on  Prince  Charles  and  the  Jacobites, 
corresponding  with  the  government  under 
the  pseudonym  of '  Pickle.' 

Perhaps  it  has  been  insufficiently  borne  in 
mind  that  Macdonell  may  have  all  along 
cherished  resentment  against  the  prince  on 
account  of  the  clan's  removal  to  the  left  wing 
at  Culloden,  where  it  practically  deserted  the 
prince's  cause  by  refusing  to  strike  a  blow  on 
his  behalf.  True  the  clan  gave  the  prince 
shelter  during  his  wanderings,  but  Mac- 
donell himself  may  on  account  of  the  treat- 
ment of  the  clan,  or  for  some  other  reason, 
have  cherished  a  personal  grudge  against  the 
prince.  In  any  case  he  was  probably  clever 
enough  to  recognise  that  the  prince  himself 
had  become  impossible ;  and  his  interest  cor- 
responding with  his  convictions,  he  may  have 
persuaded  himself  that  he  was  really  saving 
his  clan  and  the  highlands  generally  from 
much  needless  suffering  by  frustrating  the 
prince's  madcap  schemes.  If,  however,  as 
is  likely,  his  purpose  was  mainly  selfish,  it 
was  unsuccessful,  for  the  death  of  Pelham 
in  1754  blighted  his  main  hopes  of  reward. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  in  September  of 
the  same  year,  he  became  chief  of  the  clan 
and  succeeded  to  his  father's  impoverished 
fortunes.  He  died  in  1761  in  a  hut  adjoin- 


ing his  ruined  castle,  and  having  no  issue  was 
succeeded  in  the  chieftaincy  by  his  nephew 
Duncan,  son  of  his  brother  ^Eneas,  who  was 
slain  at  Falkirk. 

During  the  '45  the  command  of  the  Glen- 
garry clan  was,  on  account  of  the  imprison- 
ment of  the  chief,  and  of  Alastair  the  chiefs 
eldest  son,  entrusted  to  the  second  son, 
/Eneas ;  but  in  the  absence  of  /Eneas  in  the 
highlands  to  procure  reinforcements,  the 
clan  was,  while  on  the  march  southwards  to 
Derby,  under  the  charge  of  Colonel  Donald 
Macdonald  of  Lochgarry;  and  after  the 
death  of  /Eneas  at  Falkirk,  Lochgarry  ac- 
companied the  prince  in  his  later  wanderings 
and  escaped  with  him  to  France,  whence  he 
wrote  to  his  chief  a  '  memorial '  detailing 
the  clan's  achievements  during  the  rebellion 
and  its  loyal  conduct  to  the  prince  while  a 
fugitive  in  its  fastnesses  (printed  in  BLAIKIE'S 
Itinerary  of  Prince  Charles  Edward,  pp.  111- 
126). 

[Mackenzie's  History  of  the  Macdonalds  ; 
Andrew  Lang's  Pickle  the  Spy,  1897,  and  Com- 
panions of  Pickle,  1898,  with  the  authorities 
therein  mentioned;  Blaikie's  Itinerary  of  Prince 
Charles  Edward.]  T.  F.  H. 

MACDOUGALL,  SIB  DUNCAN  (1787- 
1862),  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  79th  Came- 
ron highlanders,  son  of  Patrick  MacDougall 
of  Soroba,  Argyleshire,  by  his  wife  Mary, 
daughter  of  Duncan  M'Vicar,  was  born  at 
Soroba  in  1787.  Educated  at  Edinburgh,  he 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  1804,  served  in 
the  53rd  and  85th  foot  on  the  frontier,  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  the  peninsu- 
lar war.  He  took  part  in  the  third  siege 
and  in  the  capture  by  storm  of  Badajos  on 
6  April  1812,  in  the  siege  and  in  the  cap- 
ture on  27  June  of  the  forts  of  Salamanca. 
In  the  battle  of  Salamanca  on  22  July,  he 
gallantly  saved  the  colours  of  his  regiment 
and  was  severely  wounded.  He  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Burgos  in  September  and 
October  and  the  retreat  from  it,  at  the  siege 
and  capture  on  31  Aug.  1813  of  St.  Sebas- 
tian, at  the  passage  of  the  Bidassoa  in  Octo- 
ber, at  the  battles  of  Nivelle  (10  Nov.),  the 
Nive  (9  to  13  Dec.),  and  the  investment  of 
Bayonne.  He  received  three  medals  for  his 
peninsular  services.  He  took  part  in  the 
American  war  of  1814,  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Bladensburg  on  24  Aug.,  the  cap- 
ture of  Washington,  and  the  attack  on  Bal- 
timore on  12  Sept.,  when  he  was  aide-de- 
camp to  Major-general  Robert  Ross  [q.  v.], 
who  was  killed.  He  also  served  in  the  opera- 
tions against  New  Orleans  in  December  1814 
and  January  1815,  was  aide-de-camp  to  Lieu- 
tenant-general Sir  Edward  Pakenham  [q.  v.], 


MacDougall 


121 


MacDougall 


•when  that  officer  was  killed  at  the  assault 
of  7  Jan.,  and  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Fort 
Bowyer  in  Florida.  In  1825,  when  in  com- 
mand of  the  79th  foot  at  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia,  he  was  entrusted  with  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  colonial  militia.  In  1835  he 
relinquished  the  command  of  his  regiment 
and  retired  from  the  active  list  in  order  to 
join  the  British  auxiliary  legion  of  Spain 
as  quartermaster-general  and  second  in  com- 
mand under  his  friend  Sir  De  Lacy  Evans 
[q.  v.l  For  his  services  in  Spain  he  re- 
ceived from  Queen  Isabella  II  the  order  of 
knighthood  of  St.  Ferdinand.  In  later  years 
he  raised  the  Lancashire  artillery  militia. 
A  prominent  figure  in  the  volunteer  move- 
ment of  1859,  he  presided  at  the  great 
meeting  at  St.  Martin's  Hall,  London,  at 
which  it  was  inaugurated.  He  published 
a  very  useful  pamphlet  in  1860  entitled 
*  Hints  to  Volunteers  on  various  Subjects.' 
He  died  on  10  Dec.  1862,  and  was  buried 
in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  where 
there  is  a  monument  with  a  bust  by  Adams 
to  his  memory.  He  was  twice  married  :  first, 
in  1817,  to  Anne,  daughter  of  Colonel 
Smelt,  governor  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  by  whom 
he  left  an  only  son,  Patrick  Leonard  [q.  v. 
Suppl.];  and,  secondly,  in  1844,  to  Hannah, 
widow  of  Colonel  Nicholson  of  Springfield 
House,  Liverpool. 

[War  Office  Records;  Despatches;  Army 
Lists  ;  private  information.]  R.  H.  V. 

MACDOUGALL,  SIB  PATRICK 
LEONARD  (1819-1894),  general,  colonel  of 
the  Leinster  regiment,  and  military  author, 
born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer,  France,  on  10  Aug. 
1819,  was  son,  by  his  first  wife,  of  Sir  Dun- 
can MacDougall  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  Educated  at 
the  Military  Academy  at  Edinburgh  and  at 
the  Royal  Slilitary  College  at  Sandhurst,  he 
received  a  commission  as  second  lieutenant 
in  the  Ceylon  rifle  regiment  on  13  Feb.  1836, 
in  July  exchanged  into  the  79th  Cameron 
highlanders,  and  on  26  July  1839  into  the 
36th  foot.  His  further  commissions  were 
dated:  lieutenant  11  May  1839,  captain 
7  June  1844,  major  9  Feb.  1849,  brevet  lieu- 
tenant-colonel 17  July  1855,  brevet  colonel 
17  July  1858,  major-general  6  March  1868, 
lieutenant-general  1  Oct.  1877,  colonel  of 
the  2nd  battalion  of  the  West  India  regi- 
ment 21  Dec.  1881,  general  1  Oct.  1883, 
colonel  of  the  Leinster  regiment  26  Aug. 
1891. 

In  1840  MacDougall  entered  the  senior 
department  of  the  Royal  Military  College  at 
Sandhurst ;  he  left  in  1842  with  the  highest 
class  certificate  and  special  commendation. 
Transferred  on  25  June  1844  to  the  Royal 


Canadian  rifle  regiment,  he  joined  it  at 
Toronto,  Canada,  and  for  the  next  ten  years 
served  as  a  regimental  officer  there  and  at 
Kingston.  On  3 March  1854  he  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  studies  at  Sandhurst,  but 
the  following  year  was  sent  on  particular 
service  to  the  Crimea,  where  he  acted  as 
assistant  quartermaster-general  on  the  staff 
of  Brigadier-general  D.  A.  Cameron  in  the 
expedition  to  Kertch  in  May  1855,  and 
attended  Lord  Raglan  in  the  trenches  at  the 
unsuccessful  assaults  on  the  Redan  on  1 8  June. 
For  his  Crimean  services  he  received  the  war 
medal  and  clasp,  the  Turkish  medal,  and  a 
brevet  lieutenant-colonelcy.  On  his  return 
home  he  resumed  his  appointment  at  Sand- 
hurst, which  he  held  until  1858. 

In  1856  his  principal  work,  '  The  Theory 
of  War  :  illustrated  by  numerous  Examples 
from  Military  History,'  was  published,  and 
a  second  edition  appeared  in  1858.  It  soon 
became  a  text-book  of  military  instruction, 
was  translated  into  French  and  German,  and 
gave  its  author  a  first  place  among  English 
military  writers.  In  1857,  in  a  pamphlet 
entitled '  The  Senior  Department  of  the  Royal 
Military  College,'  MacDougall  drew  attention 
to  the  want  of  proper  instruction  for  staff 
officers,  and  on  the  formation  of  the  staff 
college  on  5  Feb.  following,  he  became 
its  first  commandant.  He  published  in  1858 
a  treatise  written  expressly  for  students  of 
military  history,  entitled  '  The  Campaigns 
of  Hannibal  arranged  and  critically  con- 
sidered.' 

During  his  tenure  of  office  at  the  staff 
college  he  was  an  industrious  writer  and 
lecturer,  taking  as  some  of  his  subjects 
'Napoleon's  Campaign  in  Italy  in  1796,' 
'  The  Military  Character  of  the  great  Duke  of 
Marlborough,'  '  General  Sir  Charles  James 
Napier  as  Conqueror  and  Governor  of  Sind.' 
He  wrote  the  obituary  notice  of  Napier  which 
appeared  in  the  '  Times '  of  13  Feb.  1860,  and 
in  1862  published  'Forts  versus  Ships'  and 
'  Defence  of  the  Canadian  Lakes  and  its 
influence  on  the  general  Defence  of  Canada,' 
both  written  in  crossing  the  Atlantic  on  a 
short  visit  to  America.  In  1864  his  life  of 
his  father-in-law,  the  historian  of  the  penin- 
sular war,  Sir  William  Francis  Patrick 
Napier  [q.  v.],  edited  by  Lord  Aberdare,  was 
published  in  two  octavo  volumes,  and  in 
the  same  year  '  Modern  Warfare  as  in- 
fluenced by  Modern  Artillery.'  Early  in 
1865  he  contributed  articles  on  Sir  William 
Napier  both  to  the  'Edinburgh'  and  the 
'Quarterly'  Reviews. 

MacDougall  was  appointed  adjutant- 
general  of  Canadian  militia  in  May  1865. 
His  services  in  the  Fenian  raid  of  1866  were 


MacDougall 


122 


Macfie 


brought  to  the  especial  notice  of  the  authori- 
ties at  home  by  Lord  Monck,  the  governor- 
general  (Detpatch  No.  53,  14  June  1866), 
who  was  so  impressed  with  the  value  of 
MacDougall's  work  in  the  organisation  of 
the  militia  and  volunteers  that,  on  leaving 
Canada,  he  wrote  officially  to  thank  him  for 
having  '  laid  the  foundation  of  a  military 
system  inexpensive,  unoppressive,  and  effi- 
cient/ and  sent  a  copy  to  the  home  authori- 
ties. During  MacDougall's  service  on  the 
staff'  in  Canada  he  lectured  on  military  sub- 
jects from  time  to  time,  and  published  a 
pamphlet  on  the  '  Defence  of  Canada.' 

Returning  to  England  in  April  1869  he 
wrote  '  The  Army  and  its  Reserves,'  and  was 
much  occupied  with  the  then  burning  ques- 
tion of  army  reform.  In  October  1871  he 
was  appointed  deputy  inspector-general  of 
the  auxiliary  forces  at  headquarters.  He 
presided  over  Cardwell's  '  Localisation  Com- 
mittee '  in  that  year,  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant which  have  ever  sat  at  the  war  office, 
whose  report,  generally  adopted,  proposed 
by  the  fusion  of  the  regular,  reserve,  and 
auxiliary  forces  under  the  generals  com- 
manding districts,  to  form  one  army  for  de- 
fence under  the  Commander-in-chief  and  by 
the  institution  of  linked  battalions,  to  have 
always  one  at  home  and  one  abroad,  with 
depot  centres  for  enlisting  and  training  re- 
cruits. 

For  five  years  from  April  1873  MacDou- 
gall was  head  of  the  intelligence  branch  of 
the  war  office,  at  first  as  deputy  adjutant- 
general,  and  afterwards  as  deputy  quarter- 
master-general. Created  a  K.C.M.G.  on 
30  May  1877,  he  was  a  year  later  appointed 
to  the  command  in  North  America,  just  at 
a  time  when  relations  with  Russia  were 
strained  after  the  Russo-Turkish  war.  He 
undertook  to  have  ten  thousand  trained  and 
disciplined  Canadian  volunteers  available 
for  service  wherever  required,  in  a  few  weeks 
after  the  offer  of  their  service  was  accepted, 
thus  instituting  a  valuable  precedent  which 
has  since  been  followed,  not  only  by  Canada, 
but  by  most  of  the  self-governing  colonies — 
notably  in  the  recent  South  African  troubles 
— to  the  great  advantage  of  the  empire. 

MacDougall  returned  to  England  in  May 
1883,  and  retired  from  the  active  list  in 
July  1885.  He  died  at  his  residence,  Mel- 
bury  Lodge,  Kingston  Hill.  Surrey,  on 
28  Nov.  1894,  and  was  buried  at  East 
Putney  cemetery,  the  sergeants  of  the  King- 
ston depot  carrying  his  body  to  the  grave. 
He  was  twice  married:  first,  in  1844,  to 
Louisa  Augusta  (d.  1856),  third  daughter  of 
Sir  William  Francis  Patrick  Napier ;  and, 
secondly,  in  1860,  to  Marianne  Adelaide, 


who  survived  him,  daughter  of  Philip  John 
Miles  of  Leigh  Court,  Somerset.  There  was 
no  issue  of  either  marriage.  A  miniature  of 
Sir  Patrick  MacDougall  by  Notman  of  Mont- 
real, Canada,  is  in  Lady  MacDougall's  pos- 
session. 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  men- 
tioned, and  many  articles  in  the  reviews 
and  magazines,  MacDougall  was  the  author 
of  the  following:  'Emigration:  its  Advan- 
tages to  Great  Britain  and  her  Colonies, 
together  with  a  detailed  Plan  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  the  proposed  Railway  between 
Halifax  and  Quebec,  by  means  of  Coloniza- 
tion,' London,  1848,  8vo;  'Modern  Infantry 
Tactics,'  London,  1873,  8vo  ;  '  Short  Service 
Enlistment  and  the  Organisation  of  our 
Infantry  as  illustrated  by  Recent  Events,' 
Edinburgh,  1883,  8vo. 

[War  Office  Records ;  obituary  notice  in 
Times  of  30  Nov.  1894;  Despatches;  Army 
Lists  ;  private  information.]  R.  H.  V. 

MACFIE,  ROBERT  ANDREW  (1811- 
1893),  free-trade  advocate,  son  of  John 
Macfie,  sugar  refiner,  of  Leith,  by  Alison, 
second  daughter  of  William  Thorburn,  was 
born  at  Leith  on  4  Oct.  1811.  Educated  at 
the  high  schools  of  Leith  and  Edinburgh, 
and  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  he  en- 
tered, in  1827,  his  father's  business,  of  which 
about  ten  years  later  he  established  a  branch 
at  Liverpool.  There  he  co-operated  with 
Leone  Levi  in  founding  the  chamber  of  com- 
merce, and  was  elected  trustee  of  the  Ex- 
change. He  retired  from  business  about 
1863  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  to  pub- 
lic objects.  As  member  for  Leith  Burghs 
in  the  parliament  of  1868-74,  he  made  him- 
self conspicuous  by  his  uncompromising  ad- 
vocacy of  free  trade  in  inventions,  proposing 
a  system  of '  national  recompenses '  in  lieu  of 
patents.  He  also  agitated  for  the  abridg- 
ment of  authors'  copyrights.  These  extreme 
views  he  combined  with  an  earnest  solici- 
tude for  the  consolidation  and  defence  of  the 
empire,  which  rendered  him  a  determined 
opponent  of  all  tampering  with  the  Union, 
and  a  pioneer  of  imperial  federation.  He 
died  at  his  country  seat,  Dreghorn,  near 
Edinburgh,  on  16  Feb.  1893.  He  was 
F.R.C.I.  and  F.R.S.E.,  and  a  Knight  Com- 
mander of  the  Hawaian  Order  of  Kalakaua. 

Macfie  married  in  1840  Caroline  Eliza, 
daughter  of  John  Eastin  of  Conrance  II  ill, 
Dumfries. 

Macfie  published  :  1.  '  The  Patent  Ques- 
tion :  a  solution  of  difficulties  by  abolishing 
or  shortening  the  Inventor's  monopoly  and 
instituting  National  Recompenses,'  London, 
1863,  8vo.  2.  'Recent  Discussions  on  the 


Mcllwraith 


123 


Mcllwraith 


Abolition  of  Patents  for  Inventions  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  France,  Germany,  and  the 
Netherlands,'  London,  1869, 8vo.  3.  '  Colo- 
nial Questions  pressing  for  immediate  solu- 
tion in  the  interest  of  the  Nation  and  the 
Empire,' London,  1871, 8vo.  4.  'Copyright 
and  Patents  for  Inventions.  Pleas  and  plans 
for  cheaper  books  and  greater  industrial 
freedom,'  Edinburgh,  1871,  8vo.  5.  'A! 
Glance  at  the  Position  and  Prospects  of  the  , 
Empire,'  London,  1872,  8vo.  6.  '  The 
Patent  Question  in  1875 ;  with  a  suggestion  j 
as  to  Copyright,'  London,  1875,  8vo.  7. 
'  Cries  in  a  Crisis  for  Statesmanship  popular 
and  patriotic  to  test  and  contest  Free 
Trade  in  our  Manufactures,'  London,  1881, 
8vo.  8.  '  The  Patent  Bills  of  1883 :  private 
aims  and  public  claims,'  Edinburgh,  1883, 
8vo.  9.  '  The  Questions  put  by  the  Royal 
Commissioners  on  the  Depressed  State  of 
Trade  dealt  with  in  an  independent  but 
sympathetic  spirit,'  Edinburgh,  1885,  8vo. 
10.  'The  Scotch  Church  Question.  Letter 
of  an  Heritor  in  a  country  parish,  and 
Notes  on  the  Question  how  to  adapt  and 
improve  the  Ecclesiastical  System  of  Scot- 
land without  destroying  it,'  Edinburgh, 
1885,  8vo.  11.  '  Offhand  Notes  on  "  Prayers 
for  Social  and  Family  Worship  for  the  use 
of  Soldiers,  Sailors,  Colonists,  Sojourners  in 
India,  prepared  by  a  Committee  of  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land :  a  revised  edition,  1889,'"  Edinburgh, 
1892. 

[Scots  Mag.  1810,  p.  957 ;  Men  and  Women 
of  the  Time,  1891;  Scotsman,  18  Feb.  1893; 
Ann.  Keg.  1893,  ii.  151;  List  of  Members  of 
Parliament  (official);  Simmonds's  British  Koll 
of  Honour ;  Brit.  Mus  Cat.]  J.  M.  R. 

McILWRAITH,  SIR  THOMAS  (1835- 
1900),  premier  of  Queensland,  son  of  John 
Mcllwraith  of  Ayr,  Scotland,  and  his  wife 
Janet  Hamilton,  daughter  of  John  Howat, 
was  born  at  Ayr  on  17  May  1835,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  academy  in  that  town  and  at  I 
Glasgow  University  for  the  profession  of  an 
engineer.  In  1854  he  followed  an  elder 
brother  to  Victoria  and  obtained  employment 
on  the  Victorian  railways,  and  afterwards  I 
with  the  well-known  contractors,  Cornish  X.- 
Bruce. In  1861,  having  gradually  bought  ! 
up  a  good  deal  of  land  in  Queensland,  he 
began  to  reside  there  in  part  and  give  much 
attention  to  pastoral  pursuits ;  in  1869 
he  was  elected  to  the  legislative  assembly 
of  that  colony  as  member  for  Maranoa,  and 
in  1870  settled  entirely  in  Queensland. 

In  January  1874  Mcllwraith  took  office 
as  minister  for  works  and  mines  under  Arthur 
Macalister  [q.  v.],  but  resigned  in  October, 
and  for  some  time  took  no  special  part  in 


politics.  In  1878  he  was  returned  for  Mul- 
grave,  and  on  21  Jan.  1879,  after  the  defeat 
of  the  ministry  of  the  Hon.  John  Douglas, 
became  premier  and  colonial  treasurer.  The 
programme  of  his  first  session  embraced  a 
large  scheme  of  local  government  and  a  re- 
form of  the  immigration  system.  On  24  Dec. 
1881  he  took  the  post  of  colonial  secretary 
instead  of  treasurer.  Probably  the  most  im- 
portant event  of  his  administration  was  his 
annexation  of  New  Guinea  to  Queensland 
on  4  April  1883  ;  it  was  a  daring  act  for  a 
colonial  statesman,  and,  after  rousing  much 
criticism  at  home,  was  disallowed  by  Glad- 
stone's government.  As  an  almost  imme- 
diate result  of  the  disallowance,  and  to  the 
great  indignation  of  the  Australian  colonies, 
Germany  seized  New  Guinea  and  several 
places  in  the  Western  Pacific  ;  and  the  im- 
perial government,  was  shortly  compelled  to 
follow  Mclhvraith's  lead  and  take  over  a 
large  part  of  New  Guinea.  On  the  question 
of  a  railway  concession  to  an  English  com- 
pany on  the  land  grant  system  he  was  left 
in  a  minority  at  the  general  election  of  this 
year,  and  resigned  office  in  November  1883, 
after  being  twice  beaten  in  the  House  of 
Assembly.  Very  soon  after  this  defeat  he 
left  for  Great  Britain,  where  he  spent  some 
months,  receiving  the  freedom  of  Ayr  and 
an  honorary  LL.D.  from  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity. 

On  his  return  to  Queensland  Mcllwraith 
professed  to  have  retired  from  politics,  but 
in  1888  he  again  stood  for  parliament,  was 
elected  for  North  Brisbane,  and  on  a  pro- 
gramme of  a  '  national  party '  came  into 
power  at  once  on  13  June  as  premier,  holding 
office  both  as  colonial  secretary  and  treasurer. 
He  began  by  a  difference  with  the  governor, 
Sir  Anthony  Musgrave  [q.  v.],  on  the  con- 
tention that  the  latter  was  bound  to  follow 
the  advice  of  his  ministers  in  exercising  the 
crown's  prerogative  of  mercy  ;  the  point  was 
decided  in  Mcllwraith's  favour.  In  October 
he  came  into  collision  with  the  imperial 
government  on  the  subject  of  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  governor;  but  in  this  case  his 
contention  was  not  made  good.  On  30  Nov. 
Mcllwraith  relinquished  the  position  of  pre- 
mier to  Mr.  Boyd  Dunlop  Morehead,  though 
he  remained  in  the  cabinet  without  portfolio 
and  proceeded  on  a  voyage  to  China  and 
Japan  for  his  health.  In  September  1889, 
soon  after  his  return,  he  split  with  his  col- 
leagues on  questions  of  finance,  and  in  the 
new  session  joined  with  his  former  opponent, 
Sir  Samuel  Griffith,  to  defeat  them.  In 
August  1890  he  became  colonial  treasurer 
in  Griffith's  ministry.  At  this  time  he  re- 
ceived an  invitation  from  Scotland  to  return 


Mackay 


124 


Mackay 


thither  and  contest  Ayr,  his  native  city,  but 
lie  declined.  In  March  1891  he  represented 
Queensland  at  the  federation  convention 
held  at  Sydney.  In  November  1892  he  took 
another  voyage  for  his  health,  this  time  to 
Northern  India,  returning  in  March  1893  to 
•find  that  the  premier  had  resigned  and  the 
ministry  was  in  a  manner  in  commission. 
On  27  March  he  was  called  upon  to  form  a 
ministry.  A  general  election  soon  followed, 
and  he  came  in  again  with  a  larger  working 
majority  than  any  administration  Queens- 
land had  ever  had  before.  The  difficulty 
which  faced  him  at  that  time  was  the  atti- 
tude of  the  so-called  labour  party.  On 
27  Oct.  he  resigned  the  position  of  premier 
owing  to  the  failure  of  his  health,  but  nomi- 
nally remained  in  the  ministry ;  on  15  Jan. 
1893  he  came  to  England  for  medical  ad- 
vice ;  and  in  a  short  time  his  illness  became 
so  pronounced  that  he  could  not  return  to 
Queensland.  For  six  years  following  he  was 
in  the  hands  of  specialists  and  confined  to 
the  house.  In  1895  he  was  ottered  but  de- 
clined the  position  of  agent-general.  He 
died  on  17  July  1900  at  208  Cromwell  Road, 
London,  and  was  buried  at  Ayr. 

Mcllwraith's  reputation  was  not  confined 
to  his  own  colony,  where  his  influence  was 
commanding.  But  his  connection  with  the 
Queensland  Investment  and  Land  Mortgage 
Company  involved  him  in  a  series  of  legal 
actions  which  came  to  an  end  in  1892.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  severely  criticised  over  the 
conduct  of  business  by  the  Queensland  Na- 
tional bank,  of  which  he  was  a  director.  He 
was  an  associate  of  the  Institute  of  Civil 
Engineers  and  was  made  K.C.M.G.  in  1882. 

Mcllwraith  married,  on  14  June  1879, 
Harriette  Ann,  daughter  of  Hugh  Mosman 
of  Armidale,  New  South  Wales,  who  with 
four  daughters  survived  him. 

[InnesAddison's  Graduates  of  Glasgow,  p.  376  ; 
Mennell's  Diet,  of  Australasian  Biogr. ;  British 
Australasian,  19  July  1900;  The  Queenslander, 
21  July  1900;  Queensland  Blue  Books  and 
Parliamentary  Debates.]  C.  A.  H. 

MACKAY,  ALEXANDER  (1815-1 895), 
educational  writer,  born  in  Thurso  on  15  Nov. 
1815,  was  the  youngest  of  the  eight  children 
of  Murdoch  Mackay,  farmer,  of  Latheron, 
Caithness.  On  his  father's  second  marriage 
young  Mackay  went  to  Aberdeen,  where 
he  studied  at  King's  College,  and  graduated 
M.A.  in  1840.  In  1844  he  became  the  first 
Free  church  minister  of  Rhynie  in  Aberdeen- 
shire,  the  established  minister  of  which  had 
been  one  of  the  seven  clergymen  of  Strath- 
bogie  deposed  by  the  evangelical  majority  of 
the  church  of  Scotland.  Here  his  geological 


studies,  chieflyin  connection  with  rare  fossils 
found  in  the  old  red  sandstone  in  a  quarry 
near  Rhynie,  brought  him  into  communica- 
tion with  Hugh  Miller,  Sir  A.  Ramsay,  of 
the  Geological  Survey,  Sir  Roderick  I.  Mur- 
chison,  and  Dr.  A.  Keith  Johnston,  who  re- 
commended him  as  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  in  1859. 

In  1861  Mackay  published  a  '  Manual  of 
Modern  Geography,  Mathematical,  Physical, 
and  Political,'  which  attracted  much  at- 
tention, and  has  since  proved  a  mine  of 
wealth  to  other  writers  on  geography.  In 
1866  the  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  on 
him  by  King's  College,  Aberdeen. 

In  1867,  finding  the  charge  of  a  congrega- 
tion less  congenial  than  literary  work,  he 
resigned  his  pastorate  at  Rhynie  and  went 
to  Edinburgh,  from  which  he  removed  to 
Ventnor  in  1878.  During  this  period  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  works  on  geo- 
graphy and  kindred  subjects.  He  had  just 
completed  the  rewriting  and  revision  of 
proofs  of  his  work  on  physiography  and 
physical  geography,  when  he  died  suddenly 
at  Ventnor  on  31  Jan.  1895.  Mackay  mar- 
ried in  November  1846  Margaret  Lillie, 
daughter  of  Alexander  Lillie  of  Banff.  By 
her  he  had  five  sons,  all  of  whom  he  sur- 
vived. One  of  them  was  the  well-known 
missionary  of  Uganda,  Alexander  Murdoch 
Mackay  [q.  v.] 

Mackay  s  works  have  had  a  very  large 
circulation,  and  are  characterised  by  the  best 
qualities  of  the  old  school  of  geographical 
text-books,  being  full  of  facts  systemati- 
cally arranged,  scrupulously  verified,  and 
illustrated  by  brief  notes  of  general  interest. 
In  one  instance  he  made  an  attempt  to  fasten 
the  elementary  facts  on  the  minds  of  young 
scholars  by  producing  a  '  Rhyming  Geo- 
graphy '  (1873 ;  new  edit.  1876),  some  of  the 
stanzas  of  which,  once  read,  are  difficult  to 
forget.  His  most  arduous  piece  of  work  was 
an  ingenious  mnemonic  system  for  remem- 
bering numbers,  which  he  developed  in  a 
book  entitled  '  Facts  and  Dates '  (1869 ;  3rd 
edit.  1879). 

Mackay  was  also  the  author  of  the  follow- 
ing works:  1.  'Elements  of  Modern  Geo- 
graphy,' 1864;  12th  edit.  1872.  2.  'Out- 
lines of  Modern  Geography,'  1865.  3.  « First 
Steps  in  Geography,'  1869.  4.  '  Geography 
of  the  British  Empire,'  1869.  5.  '  The  In- 
termediate Geography,'  1874;  10th  edit. 
1885.  6.  'Life  and  Times  of  the  late 
Rev.  George  Davidson,  Latheron,'  1875. 
7.  '  Handbook  to  the  Seat  of  War  in  Turkey,' 
1877.  8.  '  Physiography  and  Physical  Geo- 
graphy,' 1877.  He  also  edited  and  revised 
Reid's  '  Elements  of  Astronomy,'  1874. 


Mackenzie 


125 


Mackenzie 


[The  G-eographical  Journal,  v.  276-7  ;  private 
information  ;  Mrs.  J.  W.  Harrison's  Story  of 
Mackay  of  Uganda ;  Brit.  Museum  Cat.] 

G.  S-H. 

MACKENZIE,  COLIN  (1806-1881), 
lieutenant-general  in  the  Indian  army,  born 
in  London  on  25  March  1806,  and  baptised 
at  St.  James's  Church,  Piccadilly,  was 
youngest  son  but  one  of  Kenneth  Francis 
Mackenzie  (d.  1831)  and  his  wife,  Anne 
Townsend.  His  father,  who  belonged  to 
the  Redcastle  branch  of  Mackenzies,  was 
attorney-general  of  Grenada,  and  lost  much 
during  the  war  with  France,  1793-1815. 
Colin  was  educated  successively  at  a  school 
in  Cumberland,  at  Dollar,  and  at  Os- 
westry,  and  in  1825  he  was  appointed  a 
cadet  of  infantry  on  the  Madras  establish- 
ment. He  served  as  adjutant  of  the  48th 
Madras  native  infantry  in  the  Coorg  cam- 
paign in  1834,  and  was  present  in  all  the 
actions  of  that  campaign,  during  a  portion  of 
which  he  held  the  appointment  of  deputy- 
assistant  quartermaster-general.  At  the 
close  of  the  campaign  his  services  were 
favourably  noticed  by  the  brigadier-general 
commanding  the  force.  In  1836  he  ac- 
companied Captain  (afterwards  Admiral  Sir 
Henry  Ducie)  Chads  in  an  expedition  to  the 
Straits  of  Malacca,  which  had  been  organised 
for  the  purpose  of  extirpating  piracy  in  those 
seas.  Although  Mackenzie  was  on  board 
Captain  Chads's  ship  only  as  a  passenger,  his 
services  and  his  gallantry  were  such  that  they 
elicited  warm  acknowledgments  from  Captain 
Chads  and  afterwards  from  Lord  Auckland, 
then  governor-general  of  India,  who  selected 
him  in  1840  for  employment  with  the  force 
then  serving  in  Afghanistan.  In  this  un- 
fortunate expedition,  which,  owing  mainly  to 
the  incompetence  of  the  general  in  command, 
ended  in  the  complete  destruction  of  a  large 
1'ritishforce,  Mackenzie  greatly  distinguished 
himself.  He  was  employed  at  first  as 
assistant  political  agent  under  Mr.  (after- 
wards Sir  George)  Clerk  at  Peshawar. 
Thence  he  proceeded  to  Kabul,  where  he 
joined  a  corps  of  sappers  which  had  been 
raised  in  Afghanistan  by  George  Broadfoot, 
a  shipmate  of  his  on  his  voyage  to  India. 
Mackenzie  led  the  advanced  guard  of  Sir 
Robert  Sale's  force  as  far  as  Gundamack  on 
its  march  to  Jellalabad,  and  then,  returning 
to  Kabul,  he  commanded  a  so-called,  but 
absolutely  indefensible,  fort,  called  the  fort 
of  Nishan  Khan,  in  which  the  commissariat 
of  Shah  Soojah's  troops  was  kept.  He  was 
in  command  of  this  fort  when  the  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Afghans  at  Kabul  broke  out. 
Kaye,  in  his  history  of  the  first  war  in 
Afghanistan,  thus  describes  Mackenzie's  de- 


fence :  '  On  3  Nov.  it  became  certain  that 
Mackenzie,  with  all  his  gallantry  and  all  his 
laborious  zeal,  working  day  and  night  with- 
out food  and  without  rest,  conducting  the 
defence  with  as  much  judgment  as  spirit, 
could  not  much  longer  hold  his  post.  His 
men  were  wearied  out,  his  ammunition  was 
exhausted,  his  wounded  were  dying  for  want 
of  medical  aid.  He  had  defended  his  position 
throughout  two  days  of  toil,  suffering,  and 
danger ;  and  no  aid  had  come  from  canton- 
ments, none  was  likely  to  come.  So,  yield- 
ing at  last  to  the  importunity  of  others,  he 
moved  out  of  the  fort  and  fought  his  way  by 
night  to  cantonments.  It  was  a  difficult 
and  hazardous  march ;  and  almost  by  a 
miracle  Mackenzie  escaped  to  encounter  new- 
dangers,  to  sustain  new  trials,  and  to  live  in 
habitual  gratitude  to  God  for  his  wonderful 
preservation.' 

In  the  following  month  Mackenzie  was 
present  at  the  conference  between  the  envoy, 
Sir  William  Kay  Macnaghten  [l-v.],  and  the 
Afghan  chief,  Akbar  Khan.  He  and  Eldred 
Pottinger  [q.v.]  had  in  vain  endeavoured  to 
dissuade  Macnaghten  from  attending  the 
conference,  assuring  him  that  there  were 
strong  grounds  for  suspecting  treachery. 
But  the  conference  took  place  and  the  envoy 
was  treacherously  seized  and  shot  by  Akbar 
Khan.  At  the  same  time  Mackenzie  and 
George  Lawrence  [q.v.]  were  made  prisoners. 
Later  on,  duriug  the  unfortunate  retreat 
from  Kabul,  Mackenzie,  who  had  been  set 
free,  displayed  the  greatest  courage  and 
excellent  judgment,  and  did  all  in  his  power 
to  stimulate  the  efforts  of  the  officers  in  supe- 
rior military  command.  Indeed  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that,  if  Mackenzie  had  been  the 
general  in  command,  instead  of  being  only  a 
captain,  the  disasters  which  attended  the  first 
Afghan  war  might  have  been  averted.  In 
the  course  of  the  retreat,  it  having  been 
arranged  that  hostages  should  be  given  up 
to  Akbar  Khan,  Mackenzie  was  selected  as 
one  of  them.  His  selection  was  approved 
by  Akbar  Khan  as  a  man  who  was  certain 
to  keep  his  word.  In  consequence  of  his- 
deeply  religious  life  the  Afghans  called  him 
the  '  English  Moollah,'  and  had  the  greatest 
confidence  in  him.  While  in  this  position 
he  was  deputed  by  Eldred  Pottinger,  with 
the  approval  of  Akbar  Khan,  to  convey  letters 
to  the  political  agent  at  Jellalabad  and  to 
General  Sir  George  Pollock  [q.  v.],  who  had 
reached  that  place.  On  both  these  missions 
he  had  more  than  one  very  narrow  escape, 
and  after  ithe  second  he  was  attacked  by  a 
dangerous  illness  which  nearly  cost  him  his 
life.  Mackenzie  was  subsequently  carried  off" 
by  Akbar  Khan  with  the  rest  of  the  hostages 


Mackenzie 


126 


Mackenzie 


and  prisoners,  and  with  them  was  being  re- 
moved over  the  Hindu  Kiish,  whence  they 
were  to  be  sent  to  Bokhara  to  be  sold  as 
slaves,  when,  owing  to  the  arrival  of  Pol- 
lock's force  in  the  vicinity  of  Kabul  and  the 
flight  of  Akbar  Khan,  the  Afghan  in  charge 
of  the  prisoners  was  induced  by  a  guaran- 
tee of  a  large  sum  of  money  to  release  them. 
Before  returning  to  India  Mackenzie  took 
part  with  Henry  Havelock  [see  HAVELOCK, 
SIK  HENRY]  on  the  assault  upon  the  fort  of 
Istaliff.  He,  like  Eldred  Pottinger  and  the 
others  who  had  distinguished  themselves 
during  the  insurrection  and  the  retreat,  was 
one  of  the  victims  of  the  unreasoning  preju- 
dice which  led  Lord  Ellenborough  [see  LAW, 
EDWARD,  EARL  OF  ELLENBOROUGH]  to  treat 
with  studied  neglect  all  who  had  been  in 
any  way  connected  with  the  recent  disasters, 
except  the  garrison  of  Jellalabad.  Macken- 
zie was  refused  the  Kabul  medal  and  the  six 
months'  pay  which  accompanied  it,  and  it 
was  not  until  1853  that,  owing  to  the  inter- 
position of  Lord  Dalhousie,  it  was  granted 
to  him.  He  was  also  created  a  C.B. 

Mackenzie  was  subsequently  employed  on 
the  north-west  frontier  to  raise  a  Sikh  regi- 
ment (the  4th),  with  which  he  kept  the 
peace  of  the  border  during  the  last  Sikh 
campaign.  It  was  while  thus  employed 
that  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Lord  Dal- 
housie, who  formed  a  high  opinion  of  his 
character  and  of  his  talents.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  by  his  advice  that  Lord  Dalhousie 
was  induced  to  abandon  an  idea  he  had 
formed  of  making  over  to  Afghanistan  the 
country  between  the  Indus  and  the  Suleiman 
range.  Mackenzie  urged  that  Peshawar  was 
the  gate  of  India,  and  therefore  should  not 
be  given  up.  He  was  still  a  regimental 
captain  when,  in  1850,  he  was  appointed  by 
Lord  Dalhousie  brigadier-general  in  com- 
mand of  the  Ellichpiir  division  of  the  Hy- 
derabad contingent.  In  nominating  Mac- 
kenzie for  this  post  the  governor-general 
remarked  that  'the  gallantry,  ability,  and 
endurance  displayed  by  him  at  the  time  of 
the  rising  at  Kabul  are  amply  recorded,  and 
in  connection  with  the  subsequent  events  of 
that  period  entitle  him  to  a  higher  reward 
at  the  hands  of  the  government  of  India 
than  the  command  of  a  local  corps  in  the 
Sutlej  provinces.'  Mackenzie  had  held  his 
new  command  for  some  years  when  a  mutiny 
occurred  in  one  of  the  cavalry  regiments  of 
the  contingent  which  nearly  cost  him  his 
life.  In  September  1855,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  Muharram  procession  at  Bolarum,  the 
great  day  of  which  happened  that  year  to  be 
a  Sunday,  Mackenzie  issued  orders  which  in 
the  first  instance  prohibited  any  procession 


being  held  on  the  Sunday,  but  were  subse- 
quently so  far  modified  as  to  permit  of  the 
processions  taking  place  within  the  lines  of 
I  the  regiments,  but  not  in  the  barracks  or 
,  along  the  roads.  This  order  was  openly 
[  violated  by  the  3rd  cavalry  regiment  of  the 
|  contingent,  which  marched  past  the  bri- 
gadier's house  and  grounds,  making  a  hideous 
din  when  the  procession  reached  that  spot. 
Mackenzie  sent  out  orderlies  to  stop  them, 
and,  this  interference  proving  ineffectual, 
went  out  himself  unarmed  and  seized  two 
small  standards  which  the  sepoys  were 
carrying.  The  result  was  a  tumult,  in  the 
course  of  which  Mackenzie  was  dangerously 
wounded.  The  government,  while  paying  a 
high  tribute  to  Mackenzie  '  as  a  good  and 
distinguished  soldier,  and  as  honourable, 
conscientious,  and  gallant  a  gentleman  as 
the  ranks  of  the  army  can  show,'  condemned 
the  course  taken  by  him  on  this  occasion  as 
rash  and  ill-judged. 

Although  this  judgment  was  questioned 
by  some  very  distinguished  officers,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  it  had  an  unfortunate 
influence  upon  Mackenzie's  subsequent  career. 
He  was  compelled  by  his  wounds  to  return 
to  England  for  a  time.  Afterwards  he  held 
the  political  appointment  of  agent  to  the 
governor-general  with  the  Nawab  Nazim  of 
Bengal ;  but  there  he  appears  not  to  have 
received  the  support  which  ought  to  have 
been  afforded  to  him  at  headquarters,  and  he 
was  transferred  to  one  of  the  civil  depart- 
ments of  the  army  as  superintendent  of  army 
clothing,  a  post  ludicrously  inappropriate  to 
his  previous  services.  Some  years  later,  on 
his  claiming  a  divisional  command  in  his 
own  presidency,  it  was  withheld  from  him 
by  the  commander-in-chief  on  the  ground  of 
the  censure  which  had  been  passed  upon 
him  in  the  Bolarum  case.  On  that  occasion 
the  governor  of  Madras  (Francis,  lord  Napier 
[q.v.Suppl.])  and  one  of  the  members  of  coun- 
cil expressed  strong  disapproval  of  the  corn- 
mander-in-chief's  decision,  and  referred  the 
question  to  the  secretary  of  state,  who,  how- 
ever, declined  to  interfere.  Mackenzie  finally 
left  India  in  1873,  and  died  at  Edinburgh  on 
22  Oct.  1881.  A  photogravure  portrait  of 
Mackenzie,  aged  74,  is  prefixed  to  Mrs. 
Mackenzie's  '  Storms  and  Sunshine  '  (Edin- 
burgh, 1884,  2  vols.)  Mackenzie  married 
first,  in  May  1832,  Adeline,  eldest  daughter 
of  James  Pattle  of  the  Bengal  civil  service, 
who  died  four  years  afterwards.  He  married 
secondly,  in  1843,  Helen,  eldest  daughter  of 
Admiral  John  Erskine  Douglas,  who  survives 
him,  and  has  published  several  works  re- 
lating to  India,  besides  the  life  of  her  hus- 
band. 


Mackinnon 


127 


Mackinnon 


[History  of  the  War  in  Afghanistan,  by  J.  W. 
Kaye,  F.K.S. ;  Storms  ;md  Sunshine  of  a  Soldier's 
Life,  by  Mrs.  Colin  Mackenzie  ;  Twelve  Indian 
Statesmen,  by  George  Smith,  C.I.E.,  LL.  D. ; 
India  Office  Records ;  Boase's  Modern  English 
Biojrr. ;  Illustrated  London  News,  Ixxix.  464 
(with  portrait).]  A.  J.  A. 

MACKINNON,  SIR  WILLIAM,  first 
baronet  (1823-1893),  founder  of  the  British 
East  Africa  Company,  born  at  Campbeltown 
in  Argyleshire  on  31  March  1823,  was  the  son 
of  Duncan  Mackinnon  of  Campbeltown,  by 
his  wife  Isabella  (d.  21  April  1861),  daughter 
of  John  Currie  of  the  same  town.  He  was 
educated  at  Campbeltown,  and  was  trained 
to  the  grocery  trade  there.  Early  in  life, 
however,  he  came  to  Glasgow,  and  was  em- 
ployed in  a  silk  warehouse  and  afterwards  in 
the  office  of  a  merchant  engaged  in  the 
Eastern  trade.  In  1847  he  went  out  to 
India  and  joined  his  old  schoolfellow,  Robert 
Mackenzie,  who  was  engaged  in  the  coasting 
trade  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Together  they 
founded  the  firm  of  Mackinnon,  Mackenzie,  & 
Co.  On  29  Sept.  1856  the  Calcutta  and  j 
Burmah  Steam  Navigation  Company  was  ! 
founded  mainly  through  Mackinnon's  exer- 
tions. It  was  renamed  the  British  India 
Steam  Navigation  Company  on  8  Dec.  1862. 
The  company  began  with  a  single  steamer 
plying  between  Calcutta  and  Rangoon,  but 
under  Mackinnon's  direction  it  became  one 
of  the  greatest  shipping  companies  in  the 
world.  Under  his  guidance  it  developed,  and 
in  many  instances  created,  a  vast  trade  around 
the  coast  of  India  and  Burmah,  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  besides 
establishing  subsidiary  lines  of  connection 
with  Great  Britain,  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
and  Australia.  He  was  careful  to  have  his 
ships  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
could  be  used  for  the  transport  of  troops, 
thus  relieving  the  Indian  government  from 
the  necessity  of  maintaining  a  large  trans- 
port fleet.  His  great  business  capacity  did 
not  impair  the  humanity  of  his  disposition. 
On  learning  that  his  agents  during  a  famine 
in  Orissa  had  made  a  contract  with  govern- 
ment for  the  conveyance  of  rice  from 
Burmah  at  enhanced  rates,  he  at  once 
cancelled  the  agreement,  and  ordered  that 
the  rice  should  be  carried  at  less  than  the 
ordinary  price. 

About  1873  the  company  established  a 
mail  service  between  Aden  and  Zanzibar. 
Mackinnon  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
sultan,  Seyyid  Barghash,  and  in  1878  he 
opened  negotiations  with  him  for  the  lease 
of  a  territory  extending  1,150  miles  along 
the  coast  line  from  Tungi  to  Warsheik,  and 
extending  inland  as  far  as  the  eastern  pro- 


vince of  the  Congo  Free  State.  The  district 
comprised  at  least  590,000  square  miles,  and 
included  Lakes  Nyasa,  Tanganyika,  and 
Victoria  Nyanza.  The  British  government, 
however,  declined  to  sanction  the  conces- 
sion, which,  if  ratified,  would  have  secured 
for  England  the  whole  of  what  is  now 
German  East  Africa.  In  1886  the  foreign 
minister  availed  himself  of  Mackinnon's 
influence  to  secure  the  coast  line  from 
Wanga  to  Kipini.  A  charter  was  granted, 
and  the  Imperial  British  East  Africa  Com- 
pany was  formally  incorporated  on  18  April 
1888,  with  Mackinnon  as  chairman.  The 
company  acquired  a  coast  line  of  150  miles, 
including  the  excellent  harbour  of  Mombasa, 
and  extending  from  the  river  Tana  to  the 
frontier  of  the  German  protectorate.  The 
company,  which  included  among  its  prin- 
ciples the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  the 
prohibition  of  trade  monopoly,  and  the 
equal  treatment  of  all  nationalities,  found 
itself  seriously  handicapped  in  its  relations 
with  foreign  associations,  such  as  the  Ger- 
man East  African  Company,  by  the  strenuous 
support  which  they  received  from  their 
respective  governments.  The  British  go- 
vernment, on  the  other  hand,  was  debarred 
by  the  principles  of  English  colonial  ad- 
ministration from  affording  similar  assistance. 
The  territory  of  the  company  was  *finally 
taken  over  by  the  British  government  on 
1  July  1895  in  return  for  a  cash  payment. 

Mackinnon  had  a  great  part  in  promoting 
Sir  H.  M.  Stanley's  expedition  for  the  relief 
of  Emin  Pasha.  In  November  1886  he 
addressed  a  letter,  urging  immediate  action, 
to  Sir  James  Fergusson,  under-secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs,  and  followed  this 
by  submitting  to  Lord  Iddesleigh,  the  foreign 
secretary,  a  memorandum  suggesting  the 
formation  of  a  small  committee  to  send  out 
an  expedition.  He  and  his  friends  sub- 
scribed more  than  half  the  sum  of  29,000/. 
provided  for  the  venture,  the  rest  being 
furnished  by  the  Egyptian  government  (cf. 
In  Darkest  Africa,  1890,  prefatory  epistle). 

Mackinnon  was  for  some  time  a  director 
of  the  City  of  Glasgow  Bank,  and  assisted 
to  extricate  the  concern  from  its  earlier 
difficulties.  In  1870,  finding  that  he  could 
not  approve  the  policy  of  the  other  directors, 
he  resigned  his  seat  on  the  board.  On  the 
failure  of  the  bank  in  1878  the  liquidators 
brought  a  claim  against  him  in  the  court  of 
session  for  about  400,000/.  After  a  pro- 
tracted litigation  Mackinnon,  who  had 
peremptorily  declined  to  listen  to  any  sugges- 
tion of  compromise,  was  completely  exone- 
rated by  the  court  from  the  charges  brought 
against  him,  and  it  was  demonstrated  that 


Macknight 


128 


McLachlan 


the  course  taken  by  the  directors  was  con- 
trary to  his  express  advice. 

Mackinnon  was  one  of  the  chief  sup- 
porters of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  however,  the 
passage  of  the  Declaratory  Act,  of  which 
he  disapproved,  led  to  some  difference  of 
opinion  between  him  and  the  leaders  of  the 
church,  and  he  materially  assisted  the 
seceding  members  in  the  Scottish  highlands. 
In  1891  he  founded  the  East  African 
Scottish  Mission. 

In  1882  Mackinnon  was  nominated  C.I.E., 
and  on  15  July  1889  he  was  created  a 
baronet.  He  died  in  London,  in  the  Bur- 
lington Hotel,  on  22  June  1893,  and  was 
buried  at  Clachan  in  Argyleshire  on  28  June. 
He  was  a  highlander  of  the  best  type,  a 
hospitable  host,  and  a  generous  benefactor. 
He  possessed  great  administrative  ability. 
"When  Sir  Bartle  Frere  sent  Sir  Lewis  Pelly 
to  the  Persian  Gulf  in  1862  he  said,  '  Look 
out  for  a  little  Scotsman  called  Mackinnon  ; 
you  will  find  him  the  mainspring  of  all  the 
British  enterprise  there.' 

On  12  May  1856  Mackinnon  married 
Janet  Colquhoun  (d.  1894),  elder  daughter 
of  John  Jameson  of  Woodside  Crescent, 
Glasgow.  He  had  no  issue. 

[Scotsman,  23,  29  June  1893;  Glasgow  Herald, 
23  June  1893;  D.  D.  Mackinnon's  Memoirs  of 
Clan  Fingon,  1899,  pp.  194-9  ;  Times,  23  June 
1893.]  E.  I.  C. 

MACKNIGHT,  THOMAS  (1829-1899), 
political  writer,  born  at  Gainsford,  co.  Dur- 
ham, on  15  Feb.  1829,  was  son  of  Thomas 
Macknight  and  his  wife  Elizabeth.  After 
being  educated  at  a  school  at  Gainsford  kept 
by  Dr.  Bowman,  Macknight  removed  to 
London,  and  on  28  Sept.  1849  entered  the 
medical  faculty  at  King's  College.  In  1850 
he  won  the  Stephen  prize  for  an  essay  on 
'  The  Historical  Plays  of  Shakespeare ' 
(London,  1850,  8vo),  and  in  1851  the 
Leathes  prize  for  divinity ;  he  also  obtained 
three  special  certificates  for  physiology, 
chemistry,  and  botany.  He  was  president 
of  the  King's  College  Literary  and  Scientific 
Union,  and  published  an  '  Address  on  the 
Literature  of  the  Age,'  which  he  delivered 
on  12  March  1851.  He  left  King's  College 
in  1851,  and  took  to  writing  for  the  press  ; 
he  was  a  whig  of  the  Palmerstonian  school, 
and  his  first  book,  published  anonymously, 
was  'The  Right  Hon.  Benjamin  Disraeli:  a 
Literary  and  Political  Biography'  (London, 
1854,  8vo),  in  which  Disraeli's  career  and 
policy  were  vigorously  attacked.  The  book 
was  at  the  time  attributed  to  (Sir)  William 
Harcourt,  and  Lord  Lyndhurst  denounced 


it  as  'a  very  blackguard  publication  and 
written  in  a  very  blackguard  style  '  (Croker 
Papers,  1885,  iii.  310).  Macknight's  next 
book  was  'Thirty  Years  of  Foreign  Policy  : 
a  History  of  the  Secretaryships  of  the  Earl 
of  Aberdeen  and  Viscount  Palmerston '  (Lon- 
don, 1855,  8vo) ;  this  is  a  defence  of  the 
policy  leading  up  to  the  Crimean  war,  which 
Macknight  declared  to  be '  inevitable.'  From 
these  party  pamphlets  Macknight  turned  to 
his  most  substantial  work,  his  '  History  of 
the  Life  and  Times  of  Edmund  Burke '  (Lon- 
don, 1858-60,  3  vols.  8vo),  which  remains 
the  best  detailed  life  of  Burke ;  it  had  occu- 
pied much  of  Macknight's  time  since  he  left 
King's  College,  and  he  had  published  two 
papers  on  Burke  in  '  Fraser's  Magazine  '  for 
November  and  December  1851.  In  1863 
he  published  his  '  Life  of  Henry  St.  John, 
Viscount  Bolingbroke '  (London,  8vo). 

Early  in  1866  Macknight  was  appointed 
to  succeed  Mr.  Frank  H.  Hill  as  editor  of 
the  Belfast  '  Northern  Whig.'  He  crossed 
to  Ireland  on  31  Jan.  1866,  and  remained 
editor  of  the  '  Whig '  for  thirty-two  years. 
He  made  his  paper  the  mainstay  of  the 
liberal  party  in  Ireland,  and  vigorously  de- 
fended the  Irish  church  disestablishment 
and  the  land  acts  of  Gladstone's  government 
from  1868  to  1874.  The  influence  of  the 
'  Northern  Whig '  under  his  editorship  was- 
mainly  responsible  for  the  return  of  Mr. 
(afterwards  Sir  Thomas)  McClure,  a  liberal, 
and  Mr.  William  Johnston  of  Bally  kilbeg,  an 
independent,  as  members  for  Belfast  in  1868. 
For  his  services  on  this  occasion  he  was  pre- 
sented with  a  testimonial  by  his  friends  on 
26  May  1869.  Macknight  also  supported 
Gladstone's  government  from  1880  to  1885, 
but,  like  most  liberals  in  Ulster,  he  differed 
from  Gladstone  on  home  rule,  and  remained 
a  staunch  unionist  till  his  death ;  he  con- 
tinued, however,  to  advocate  drastic  measures- 
of  land  reform  in  Ireland. 

In  1891  Macknight  was  presented  with 
another  testimonial  in  recognition  of  his 
twenty-five  years'  service  as  editor  of  the 
'  Northern  Whig,'  and  in  1896  he  published 
'  Ulster  as  it  was  and  as  it  is  ;  or,  Twenty- 
eight  Years'  Experience  as  an  Irish  Editor r 
(London,  2  vols.  8vo).  Macknight  died  at 
his  residence,  28  Wellington  Park,  Belfast, 
on  19  Nov.  1899. 

[Macknight's  works  in  Brit.  Mus.  Libr. ; 
Belfast  Northern  Whig,  20  Nov.  1899 ;  Who's 
Who,  1899 ;  private  information.]  A.  F.  P. 

McLACHLAN,       THOMAS      HOPE 

(1845-1897),  landscape  painter,  the  second 
son  of  Thomas  McLachlan,  banker,  and  his 
wife  Jane  Hope,  was  born  at  Carbury  Hall, 


McLachlan 


129 


Maclean 


Darlington,  on  16  March  1845.  Educated 
at  Merchiston  Castle  school,  Edinburgh, 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  B.A.  in  1868,  and  was  bracketed 
first  in  the  moral  science  tripos,  he  entered 
Lincoln's  Inn  on  27  Oct.  1865,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  on  17  Nov.  1868.  For  some 
years  he  practised  in  the  court  of  chancery, 
but  he  did  not  care  for  the  work  and  had 
few  briefs.  His  desire  was  to  be  a  painter, 
and,  encouraged  by  John  Pettie  [q.  v.]  and 
others  who  believed  in  his  gifts,  he,  in  1878, 
gave  up  law  and  took  to  art.  He  had  no 
academic  training  to  begin  with,  and  the 
•short  time  he  spent  in  the  studio  of  Carolus 
Duran  at  a  later  date  was  of  little  account ; 
but  he  studied  the  early  English  landscape 
painters,  and  later  was  considerably  in- 
fluenced by  the  work  of  the  French  roman- 
ticists and  Cecil  Gordon  Lawson  [q.  v.]  His 
work  was  always  individual  and  interesting, 
for  he  had  a  poetic  apprehension  of  nature, 
and  was  peculiarly  sensitive  to  grave  and  im- 
pressive emotions  which  belong  to  twilight, 
night,  and  solitude.  And  while  his  technique 
•was  somewhat  faulty,  he  designed  with  dignity 
and  was  a  refined  and  powerful  colourist. 

He  exhibited  at  the  Academy  and  the 
Grosvenor,  and  later  at  the  New  Gallery  and 
the  Institute  of  Painters  in  Oil-colours,  of 
which  he  was  a  member ;  but  it  was  not 
until  1896,  when  he  became  associated  with 
five  other  painters  in  the  '  Landscape  Ex- 
hibition '  at  the  Dudley  Gallery,  that  the 
beauty  of  his  work,  there  seen  more  in  a 
mass  and  in  more  congenial  surroundings, 
•drew  the  attention  it  deserved.  But  he 
lived  to  share  in  only  another  exhibition, 
for  on  1  April  1897  he  died  at  Weybridge. 
In  June  of  that  year  a  collection  of  his  pic- 
tures was  brought  together  in  the  studios  of 
his  friends,  Mr.  Leslie  Thomson  and  Mr. 
11.  AV.  Allan,  and  shortly  afterwards  some 
of  his  admirers  presented  a  characteristic 
work,  '  Ships  that  pass  in  the  Night,'  to  the 
National  Gallery. 

In  1870  he  married  Jean,  youngest  daugh- 
ter of  William  Stow  Stowell  of  Faverdale, 
who  with  the  son  and  daughter  of  the  mar- 
riage survived  him.  A  portrait  drawn  in 
red  chalk  by  E.  R.  Hughes  has  been  repro- 
duced, a  small  portrait  is  worked  into  a 
headpiece  in  the  '  Magazine  of  Art'  (1895), 
and  in  the  '  Art  Journal '  (1897)  a  photo- 
graph is  reproduced. 

[Private  information;   Foster's  Men  at  the 
Bar,  1885 ;  Preface  to  Catalogue  of  Memorial 
Exhibition  by  Selwyn  Image;  Magazine  of  Art, 
895;   Saturday  Review,  12  June    1897;    Art 
Journal,  May  1897 ;  Exhibition  Catalogues ;  Cat. 
National  Gallery  of  British  Art.]         J.  L.  C. 
VOL.  III. — SUP. 


MACLEAN,  SIR  JOHN  (1811-1895), 
archaeologist,  son  of  Robert  Lean  of  Tre- 
hudrethbarton,  in  Blisland,  Cornwall,  and 
his  wife  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Thomas 
Every  of  Bodmin,  was  born  at  Trehudretb, 
on  17  Sept.  1811.  In  1845,  as  a  descendant 
of  the  Dochgarroch  branch  of  the  clan  Lean, 
he  resumed  the  prefix  of  Mac. 

Maclean  entered  the  ordnance  department 
of  the  war  office  in  1837,  was  keeper  of  the 
ordnance  records  in  the  Tower  of  London 
from  1855  to  1861,  and  deputy  chief  auditor 
of  army  accounts  from  1865  to  1871.  In 
that  year  he  retired  on  a  pension,  and  on. 
14  Jan.  1871  was  knighted  at  Osborne. 
While  engaged  in  official  life  he  dwelt  at 
Pallingswick  Lodge,  Hammersmith,  and  as 
an  active  churchman  took  much  interest  in 
the  ecclesiastical  administration  of  the 
parish  of  St.  John,  Hammersmith.  After 
his  retirement  he  lived  at  Bicknor  Court, 
near  Coleford,  Gloucestershire,  and  from, 
about  1887  at  Glasbury  House,  Clifton, 
where  he  died  on  6  March  1895.  He 
married  at  Holland  church,  Cornwall,  on 
5  Dec.  1835,  Mary  (b.  1813),  elder  daughter 
and  coheiress  of  Thomas  Billing,  of  Blisland 
and  St.  Breward.  She  survived  her  husband. 

Maclean's  great  undertaking  was :  1. 
'Parochial  and  Family  History  of  the 
Deanery  of  Trigg  Minor,'  3  vols.,  a  rural 
deanery  of  East  Cornwall,  comprising  the 
topographical  particulars  of  several  important 
parishes,  the  principal  of  which  was  Bodmin, 
and  containing  elaborate  pedigrees  of  many  of 
the  leading  families  in  the  county.  It  came 
out  in  parts  between  1868  and  1879,  and  in  it 
was  embodied  the  labour  of  twenty  years. 
His  other  works  and  editions  included: 
2. '  The  Life  and  Times  of  Peter  Carew,'  1857. 
3.  '  Letters  from  George,  lord  Carew,  to  Sir 
Thomas  Roe,  1615-17,'  Camden  Society, 
1860.  4.  '  Letters  from  Sir  Robert  Cecil 
to  Sir  George  Carew,'  Camden  Society, 
1864.  5.  '  The  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Seymour, 
knight,  Baron  Seymour  of  Sudeley,'  1869 
(one  hundred  copies  only).  After  his 
withdrawal  into  Gloucestershire  he  edited 

6.  'The  Berkeley  Manuscripts:  John  Smyth's 
Lives    of  the  Berkeleys,'   1883-5,   3  vols. 

7.  '  Annals  of  Chepstow  Castle.     By  John 
Fitchett   Marsh,'  1883;   and  8.  'Historical 
and  Genealogical  Memoir  of  the  Family  of 
Poyntz,'1886.    With  AV.  C.  Heane  he  edited 
9.  'The  Visitation  of  Gloucester  in  1623,' 
Harleian  Society,  1885.     AArhile  living  in 
London  Maclean  shared  with  enthusiasm  in 
the  work  of  its  chief  antiquarian  societies. 
He  was  elected  F.S.A.  on  15  Dec.  1855,  and 
was  long  a  member  of  the  council.     At  the 
meetings  of  the  Royal  Archaeological  In- 


Macleod 


McMurdo 


stitute  he  was  a  frequent  attendant,  supplied 
articles  to  the  journal,  and  completed  the 
general  index  to  its  first  twenty-five  volumes. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Harleian 
Society,  and  co-operated  with  Dr.  Drake  and 
Colonel  Vivian  in  editing  and  annotating 
'  The  Visitation  of  Cornwall  in  1620.' 

Maclean  joined  in  the  foundation  of  the 
Bristol  and  Gloucester  Archaeological  So- 
ciety, contributed  many  papers  to  its  *  Trans- 
actions,' and  edited  vols.  iii-xvi.,  a  silver 
inkstand  being  presented  to  him  for  his  ser- 
vices. Many  articles  by  him  appeared  in 
the  publications  of  the  Royal  Institution  of 
Cornwall,  the  Clifton  Antiquarian  Club,  and 
the  Somerset  Archaeological  and  Nat  oral  His- 
tory Society. 

[Boase  and  Courtney's  Bibl.  Cornub.  i.  333-4, 
ii.  973,  1273;  Boase's  Collectanea  Cornub.  pp. 
523-4;  Maclean's  Trigg  Minor,  i.  390; 
Academy,  16  March  1895,  p.  237;  Trans. 
Bristol  and  Gloucester  Archseol.  Soc.  xix.  3, 
168-9  ;  Bod's  Peerage,  1894.]  W.  P.  C. 

MACLEOD,  SIB  JOHN  MACPHER- 
SON  (1792-1881),  Indian  civilian,  born  at 
Ardarden  in  Dumbartonshire  in  1792,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Donald  Macleod  of  St. 
Kilda,  colonel  in  the  Madras  army,  by  his 
wife,  Diana,  daughter  of  Donald  Macdonald 
of  Tormore  in  Inverness-shire.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Haileybury  and  at  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  and  obtained  a  writership  in  the 
Madras  civil  service  on  27  July  1811.  On 
7  Jan.  1814  he  was  appointed  second  assis- 
tant to  the  secretary  to  government  in  the 
several  civil  departments,  and  on  8  July  was 
promoted  to  be  first  assistant.  In  1816  he 
was  nominated  secretary  and  member  of  the 
committee  for  revising  the  customs  laws. 
After  a  three  years'  visit  to  England  he  was 
appointed  acting  secretary  to  government 
in  the  financial  and  general  departments  on 
27  June  1823,  and  on  6  July  1824  he  was 
permanently  confirmed  as  secretary.  In 
1825  he  became  Tamil  translator  to  govern- 
ment, and  member  of  the  college  board,  of 
the  board  of  public  instruction,  and  of  the 
mint  committee.  On  14  April  1826  he  was 
nominated  Persian  translator  to  government, 
and  on  20  Feb.  1827  he  became  secretary  in 
the  revenue  and  judicial  departments.  On 
16  Jan.  1829  he  was  appointed  a  temporary 
member  of  the  board  of  revenue,  and  he 
afterwards  was  permanently  confirmed  third 
member.  On  22  June  1832  he  received  the 
post  of  commissioner  for  the  government  of 
Mysore,  and  in  1834  he  was  deputed  to 
Hyderabad  on  special  duty  by  the  governor- 
general.  Macleod's  work  in  Mysore  was  of 
especial  importance.  The  province  had  in 
the  previous  year  been  transferred  from 


native  rule  to  English  superintendence.  The 
task  of  organising  the  financial  and  political 
administration  fell  largely  upon  him  and 
was  carried  out  with  ability  and  success. 
On  19  Feb.  1835  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Indian  law  commission,  and  in  1836 
member  of  the  committee  for  revising  the 
system  of  prison  discipline  throughout  India. 
He  returned  to  England  in  July  1838  and 
retired  from  the  service  in  1841.  In  1866 
he  was  nominated  K. C.S.I.,  and  in  1871  a 
privy  councillor.  He  died  on  1  March  1881 
at  his  London  residence,  1  Stanhope  Street, 
Hyde  Park.  In  1822  he  married  Catharine, 
daughter  of  William  Greig  of  Thornhill  in 
the  county  of  Stirling. 

[Times,  31  March  1881 ;  Dodwell  and  Miles's 
Madras  Civil  Servants,  1839 ;  Prinsep's  Record 
of  Services  of  Civil  Servants  in  the  Madras  Pre- 
sidency, 1885.]  E.  I.  C. 

MACMAHON,  JOHN  HENRY  (1829- 
1900),  scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Dublin 
in  1829,  was  son  of  John  Macmahon,  a 
barrister.  He  was  educated  at  Enniskillen, 
and  on  1  July  1846  entered  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  as  a  pensioner;  he  graduated  B.A. 
in  1852,  being  senior  moderator  and  gold 
medallist  in  ethics  and  logic,  and  proceeded 
M.A.  in  1856.  He  took  holy  orders  in  1853, 
and  held  for  some  years  a  cure  of  souls  under 
Dr.  Alexander,  the  present  primate  of  Ire- 
land, but  retired  from  parochial  work  after 
the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  church  in 
1869.  He  was  subsequently  chaplain  to  the 
lord-lieutenant,  and  from  1890  to  the  Mount- 
joy  prison.  He  died  at  Dublin  on  23  May  1900. 

MacMahon  was  deeply  read  in  Aristotle, 
the  Christian  fathers,  and  the  schoolmen, 
but  was  not  an  original  thinker.  He  con- 
tributed to  Bohn's  '  Classical  Library '  the 
'Metaphysics  of  Aristotle,  literally  trans- 
lated from  the  Greek,  with  Notes,  Analysis, 
Questions,  and  Index,'  London,  1857,  8vo ; 
and  to  Clarke's '  Ante-Nicene  Library  '  '  The 
Refutation  of  all  Heresies  by  Hippolytus, 
translated,'  Edinburgh,  1888,  8vo.  He  was 
also  author  of  'A  Treatise  on  Metaphysics, 
chiefly  in  reference  to  Revealed  Religion}' 
London,  1860, 8vo  (an  essay  similar  in  scope 
to  Mansel's  celebrated '  Bampton  Lectures' ), 
and  of  '  Church  and  State  in  England :  its 
[sic]  Origin  and  Use,'  London,  1873, 8vo  (an 
historico-juristic  argument  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  established  church). 

[Cat.  Dubl.  Grrad. ;  Times,  24  May  1900; 
Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ;  information  from  the  registrar 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.]  J.  M.  E. 

McMURDO,  SIR  WILLIAM  MONT- 
AGU SCOTT  (1819-1894),  general,  born 
on  30  May  1819,  was  son  of  Lieutenant- 


McMurdo 


Maitland 


colonel  Archibald  McMurdo  of  Lotus,  Kirk- 
cudbrightshire. After  passing  through  Sand- 
hurst, he  was  commissioned  as  ensign  in  the 
8th  foot  on  1  July  1837,  and  obtained  a  lieu- 
tenancy in  the  22nd  foot  on  5  Jan.  1841. 
The  regiment  went  to  India  in  that  year, 
and  was  stationed  at  Karachi.  It  formed 
part  of  the  force  with  which  Sir  Charles 
James  Napier  [q.  v.]  took  the  field  against 
the  amirs  of  Sind  in  December  1842,  and 
McMurdo  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  quar- 
termaster-general's department.  At  the 
battle  of  Meeanee  on  17  Feb.  1843  he  killed 
three  men,  fighting  hand  to  hand,  and  three 
more  in  the  battle  of  Hyderabad  on  24  March, 
where  he  was  himself  severely  wounded. 
Two  days  before,  he  had  been  sent  with  250 
Poonah  horse  to  reinforce  Major  Stack's 
column  on  its  march  to  join  Napier,  and  he 
saved  the  baggage  of  the  column  from  cap 
ture.  He  was  three  times  mentioned  in 
despatches  {London  Gazette,  11  April,  9  May, 
and  6  June  1843),  and  received  the  medal 
with  two  clasps. 

He  obtained  a  company  in  the  28th  foot 
on  8  July  1843,  and  was  transferred  to  the 
78th  highlanders  on  20  Oct.;  but  he  re- 
mained at  the  head  of  the  quartermaster- 
general's  department  in  Sind  till  Decem- 
ber 1847,  performing  the  duties  '  with  great 
ability  and  vast  labour '  {Napier's  Life,  iv. 
394).  He  took  part  in  the  operations  against 
the  hillmen  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus 
in  1844-5,  where  he  again  distinguished 
himself  by  his  intrepidity  (ib.  iii.  238). 
Napier  spoke  of  him  as  '  an  ornament  to 
Scotland'  (ib.  p.  81),  and  on  4  Sept.  1844 
he  married  Napier's  daughter,  Susan  Sarah. 
He  received  a  brevet  majority  on  18  Feb. 
1848.  When  Napier  returned  to  India  as 
commander-in-chief  in  1849,  McMurdo  went 
with  him  as  aide-de-camp.  He  acted  as  as- 
sistant adjutant-general  from  Novemberl849 
till  November  1851,  and  took  part  in  the 
operations  against  the  Afridis,  including 
the  forcing  of  the  Kohat  pass,  for  which  he 
received  the  medal  and  clasp.  In  1850  he 
published  a  pamphlet,  '  Sir  Charles  Napier's  j 
Indian  Baggage  Corps,'  in  reply  to  Colonel 
Burlton's  comments  on  Napier's  letter  to  Sir 
John  Hobhouse. 

.  He  became  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army 
on  21  Oct.  1853,  and  was  assistant  adjutant- 
general  at  Dublin  from  May  1854  to  January 
1855.  On  2  Feb.  he  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  the  new  land  transport  corps,  and 
was  sent  to  the  Crimea,  with  the  local  rank 
of  colonel,  to  reorganise  the  transport  ser- 
vice. This  he  did  with  great  energy  and 
success.  On  one  of  his  demands  the  secre- 
tary to  the  treasury,  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan, 


had  written, '  Col.  McMurdo  must  limit  his 
expenditure.'  McMurdo  replied:  'When 
Sir  Charles  Trevelyan  limits  the  war,  I  will 
limit  my  expenditure'  (HAMLET,  p.  208). 
Before  the  war  ended,  his  corps  numbered 
seventeen  thousand  men,  with  twenty-eight 
thousand  horses,  mules,  &c.  He  also  took 
over  the  working  of  the  railway.  He  was 
made  aide-de-camp  to  the  queen  and  brevet- 
colonel  on  11  Dec.  1855,  and  C.B.  on  2  Jan. 
1857.  He  received  the  medal  with  one 
clasp,  the  Turkish  medal,  the  legion  of 
honour  (4th  class),  and  Medjidie  (4th 
class). 

After  the  war  the  land  transport  corps 
was  converted  into  the  military  train,  and 
McMurdo  was  made  colonel-commandant  of 
it  on  1  April  1857.  In  1859  the  volunteer 
movement  began ;  in  February  1860  McMurdo 
was  appointed  -inspector,  and  in  June  in- 
spector-general, of  volunteers.  He  held  this 
office  till  January  1865,  to  the  great  advan- 
tage of  the  force.  It  was  '  a  post  to  which 
he  seems  to  have  had  a  peculiar  call,  and  in 
which  his  zeal,  faithfulness,  and  ability  have 
been  as  conspicuous  as  his  gallantry  hereto-, 
fore  in  the  field '  (Naval  and  Military 
Gazette,  28  Jan.  1865).  On  his  retirement 
from  it  he  received  a  testimonial  from  volun- 
teer officers.  He  became  colonel  of  the 
Inns  of  Court  volunteers  on  23  Jan.,  and  of 
the  Engineer  and  Railway  volunteer  staff 
corps  on  9  Feb.  1865.  In  1869  he  published 
'  Rifle  Volunteers  for  Field  Service :  their 
Arms,  Equipment,  and  Administration,'  a 
pamphlet  of  twenty-seven  pages,  giving  his 
advice  to  the  commanding  officers  of  corps. 

He  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Dublin 
district  from  October  1866  to  February  1870, 
and  a  district  in  Bengal  from  May  1870  to 
March  1873.  He  was  promoted  major-gene- 
ral on  6  March  1868,  lieutenant-general  on 
10  Feb.  1876,  and  general  on  20  May  1878. 
He  was  given  the  colonelcy  of  the  69th  foot 
in  July  1876,  was  transferred  to  the  15th 
foot  in  August  1877,  and  to  the  22nd 
(Cheshire  regiment)  in  June  1888.  On 
24  May  1881  he  was  made  K.C.B.,  and  on 
1  July  he  was  placed  on  the  retired  list.  He 
died  at  Nice  on  2  March  1894.  His  wife 
survived  him.  They  had  several  children. 

[Times.  3  March  1894;  Broad  Arrow, 
10  March  1894;  Napier's  Life  of  Sir  C.  J. 
Napier;  Napier's  Conquest  of  Scinde  ;  King- 
lake's  War  in  the  Crimea ;  Hamley's  War  in 
the  Crimea.]  E.  M.  L. 

MAITLAND,  EDWARD  (1824-1897), 
mystical  writer,  born  at  Ipswich  on  27  Oct. 
1824,  was  the  son  of  Charles  David  Mait- 
land, perpetual  curate  of  St.  James's  Chapel, 
Brighton;  he  was  the  nephew  of  General 

K  2 


Maitland 


132 


Maitland 


Sir  Peregrine  Maitland  [q.  v.],  and  brother 
of  Brownlow  Maitland  and  of  Charles 
Maitland  (1815-1866)  [q.  v.l  His  father 
was  a  noted  preacher,  and  Edward  Mait- 
land was  brought  up  among  strict  evan- 
gelical ideas,  and  rigorous  theories  about 
original  sin  and  atonement.  After  educa- 
tion at  a  large  private  school  in  Brighton,  he 
was  admitted  as  a  pensioner  at  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  on  19  April  1843,  and  graduated 
B.A.  in  1847.  He  was  destined  by  his 
family  for  the  pulpit,  but  was  diverted  from 
taking  orders  by  doubts  as  to  faith  and  voca- 
tion, and  by  the  feeling  that  the  church  was 
rather  '  a  tomb  for  the  preservation  of  em- 
balmed doctrines  '  than  a  living  organism. 
In  his  perplexity  he  got  leave  of  absence 
from  his  home  for  a  year,  and  left  England. 
He  went  in  1849  to  California,  became  one 
of  the  band  of  '  forty-niners,'  and  remained 
abroad,  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  mainly 
in  America  and  Australia,  where  he  became 
a  commissioner  of  crown  lands,  until  the  one 
year  of  absence  had  grown  into  nine.  He 
married  in  Australia,  but  was  left  a  widower 
with  one  son  after  a  year  of  wedlock. 

Returning  to  England  at  the;  end  of  1857 
he  devoted  himself  to  literature,  with  the 
dominant  aim  of  'so  developing  the  intui- 
tional faculty  as  to  find  the  solution  of  all 
problems  having  their  basis  in  man's  spiri- 
tual nature,  with  a  view  to  the  formulation 
of  a  perfect  system  of  thought  and  rule  of 
life.'  Many  of  the  vicissitudes  of  his  life, 
both  physical  and  mental,  were  recorded 
with  but  little  distortion  in  his  romance 
called  '  The  Pilgrim  and  the  Shrine.  From 
the  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Herbert 
Ainslie,  B.A.  Cantab.,'  which  was  published 
in  1867,  and  warmly  acclaimed  by  thought- 
ful critics.  It  was  followed  by  a  romance 
called  '  The  Higher  Law '  (1869),  which  re- 
presents the  escape  of  a  youth  from  the 
trammels,  no  longer  of  orthodox  religion, 
but  of  traditional  morals.  Maitland  became 
a  figure  in  society,  and  was  appreciated 
highly  by  Lord  Houghton  and  Sir  Francis 
Hastings  Doyle.  He  began  to  write  in  the 
'  Spectator'  and  '  Examiner,'  and  did  some 
reviewing  for  the  '  Athenaeum '  from  1870 
onwards.  His  book  '  By  and  By :  an  Histo- 
rical Romance  of  the  Future '  (1873)  led  to 
his  making  the  acquaintance  of  Anna  Kings- 
ford  [q.  v.],  whom  he  visited  at  her  hus- 
band's vicarage  of  Atcham,  in  Shropshire,  in 
February  1874.  In  conjunction  with  her 
he '.  produced  anonymously,  in  1875,  '  The 
Keys  of  the  Creeds.'  At  the  close  of  1874 
his  mother  died  at  Brighton,  and  Maitland 
accompanied  Mrs.  Kingsford  to  Paris.  He 
joined  her  crusade  against  materialism,  ani- 


mal food,  and  vivisection,  upon  which  sub- 
ject he  wrote  a  forcible  letter  in  the  '  Exa- 
miner' (June  1876),  which  attracted  the 
most  widespread  attention  to  the  subject. 
In  this  same  year  he  first  saw  the  apparition 
of  his  father,  who  had  then  been  ten  years 
dead,  and  he  soon  afterwards  recognised  that 
he  '  belonged  to  the  order  of  the  mystics.' 

In  1876  Maitland  informs  us  that  he  ac- 
quired a  new  sense,  that  of  '  a  spiritual  sen- 
sitiveness,' by  means  of  which  he  opened  re- 
lations with  the  church  invisible  of  the 
spiritual  world.  He  was  able  to  see  the 
spiritual  condition  of  people.  In  a  state  of 
mind  which  must  have  approximated  to  that 
of  William  Blake,  he  tells  us  that  he  saw 
upon  one  occasion  the  soul  of  a  tree.  He 
could  also,  he  asseverated,  recall  the  memory 
of  some  of  his  past  lives.  He  was  told 
through  a  sensitive  that  these  had  been 
many,  that  he  had  lived  in  trees  and  ani- 
mals, and  that  he  had  been  a  prince.  He 
'  remembered '  a  life  lived  in  ancient  Thebes ; 
he  believed  that  he  had  been  Marcus  Aure- 
lius  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist  (hence  the 
mention  of  boiling  oil  was  inexpressibly  pain- 
ful to  him).  St.  John,  he  believed,  was  a  re- 
incarnation of  the  prophet  Daniel. 

In  1881,  before  a  highly  fashionable  audi- 
ence, he  gave  a  series  of  lectures  upon  his 
new  or,  as  he  affirmed,  revived  esoteric  creed  ; 
these  lectures  formed  the  groundwork  of  his 
'  revelation,'  in  which  Anna  Kingsford  col- 
laborated, '  The  Perfect  Way ;  or,  the  Find- 
ing of  Christ,'  1882  (revised  1887  and  1890). 
By  publishing  this  in  his  own  name  he 
admits  that  he  cut  himself  off  from  his  old 
friendships  and  all  his  literary  and  social 
ambitions.  A  striking  parallel  is  afforded 
by  the  later  life  of  Laurence  Oliphant  [q.v.l, 
with  whom  Maitland  had  a  good  deal  in 
common,  though  he  was  constrained  to  ex- 
press dissent  from  the  spiritualistic  theories 
embodied  in  '  Sympneumata.' 

Maitland  joined  the  Theosophical  Society 
about  1883,  but  the  vagaries  of  Madame  Bla- 
vatsky  soon  compelled  him  to  secede  from 
the  '  London  Lodge,'  and  in  May  1884,  in 
collaboration  with  Mrs.  Kingsford,  he  founded 
the  Hermetic  Society,  of  mystic  rather  than 
occult  character,  claiming  no  abnormal 
powers,  and  '  depending  for  guidance  upon 
no  Mahatmas.'  In  1885,  with  some  help 
from  '  Anna,'  he  rendered  into  English  the 
'  Minerva  Mundi '  and  other  hermetic  writings 
of  Hermes  Trismegistus.  In  1886  he  and 
Mrs.  Kingsford  visited  Madame  Blavatsky  at 
Ostend,  but  refused  to  be  inveigled  back  into 
the  theosophical  fold.  After  the  death  of 
Anna  Kingsford,  in  February  1888,  Maitland 
lived  alone  at  1  Thurloe  Square  Studios,  Lon- 


Malan 


133 


Malan 


don,  where  lie  professed  to  receive  continual 
'  illumination  '  from  his  former  collaborator. 
Henceforth  he  devoted  his  main  energies  to 
an  elaborate  record  of  their  singular  partner- 
ship and  co-operation,  though  he  still  found 
time  to  do  a  certain  amount  of  journalistic 
work,  and  in  November  1891,  in  response  to 
astral  intimations,  he  founded  the  Esoteric 
Christian  Union.  His  later  works  were 
'  Clothed  with  the  Sun,  being  the  Book  of 
the  Illuminations  of  Anna  (Bonus)  Kings- 
ford,'  1889 ;  '  The  New  Gospel  of  Interpreta- 
tion,' 1892  ;  and  '  Anna  Kingsford.  Her  Life, 
Letters,  Diary,  and  Work.  By  her  Collabo- 
rator .  .  .  with  a  Supplement  of  Post-mor- 
tem Communications,'  2  vols.  1896.  After 
the  conclusion  of  this  last,  which  he  regarded 
as  his  magnum  opus,  Maitland's  physical  and 
mental  decline  was  remarkably  rapid.  In 
1896  he  went  to  reside  with  Colonel  Currie 
at  The  Warders,  Tonbridge,  and  he  lost  the 
power  of  speech  some  months  before  his 
death,  on  2  Oct.  1897.  He  was  buried  in 
Tonbridge  cemetery  on  5  Oct.  By  his  wife 
Esther,  who  died  in  Australia,  he  left  a  son, 
a  surgeon-major  in  the  Bombay  medical  ser- 
vice. 

Physically,  Maitland  was  a  giant,  and  his 
moral  and  intellectual  gifts  were  of  a  very 
high  order.  A  pure  and  flexible  prose  style 
lends  a  charm  to  all  his  writings,  of  which 
it  is  sad  to  reflect  that  so  little  will  survive. 
The  motto  of  his  later  life  was  '  An  honest 
god's  the  noblest  work  of  man,'  and  in  his 
strenuous  endeavours  to  construct  an  honest 
deity  (with  some  aid  from  the  Bible,  the 
sacred  books  of  the  East  and  Hermes  Tris- 
megistus,  and  also  from  Emerson,  Carlyle, 
Tucker's  'Light  of  Nature,'  Elephas  Levi, 
and  Anna  Kingsford,  but  mainly  out  of  his 
own  inner  consciousness),  he  gradually  be-  I 
came  to  all  appearance  completely  dis- 
traught. 

Good  portraits  of  Maitland  are  reproduced 
in  'Light,'  'Borderland,'  and  the  'Life  of  j 
Anna  Kingsford.'  He  had  a  large  domed 
head,  with  a  somewhat  massive  cast  of  fea- 
tures, his  face  suggesting  at  the  same  time 
intellectuality  and  will-power. 

[Most  of  Maitland's  works  are  rep'ete  "with 
autobiographical  detail,  more  particularly  'The 
Pilgrim  and  the  Shrine'  and  'Anna  Kingsford,' 
•which  is  an  autobiography  as  much  as  it  is  a 
•Life.'  See  also  Venn's  Biogr.  History  of  Caius 
College,  ii.  261;  Graduati  Ctntabr. ;  Academy, 
16  Oct.  1897;  Athenaeum,  16  Oct.  1897;  Light, 
16  Oct.  1897  (portrait);  Borderland,  ii.  383 
(portrait).]  T.  S. 

MALAN,  CESAR  JEAN  SALOMON, 
calling  himself  later  SOLOMON  C^SAR  MALAX 
(1812-1894),  oriental  linguist  and  biblical 


scholar,  was  descended  from  an  old  Walden- 
sian  family  originally  settled  at  Merindol  in 
Provence,  but  dispersed  by  religious  persecu- 
tion in  1714.  One  branch  fled  to  Geneva  ; 
here  Malan  was  born  on  22  April  1812,  his 
parents  being  Dr.  Cesar  Henri  Abraham 
Malan,  a  noted  protestant  divine,  and  Salome 
Georgette  Jeanne  Schonberger,  a  Swiss.  His 
early  education  was  given  by  his  father, 
under  whom  he  gained  a  conversational 
knowledge,  not  only  of  German,  Spanish, 
and  Italian,  but  also,  at  an  early  age,  of 
Latin.  He  had  also  begun  English,  Hebrew, 
Arabic,  and  Sanskrit.  In  1830  he  went  to 
Scotland  as  tutor  to  the  family  of  the  Mar- 
quis of  Tweeddale.  In  1833  he  matriculated 
at  St.  Edmund  Hall,  Oxford,  where  he  re- 
sided till  1837,  having  meantime  (1834) 
married  Mary,  daughter  of  John  Mortlock, 
whose  acquaintance  he  had  made  in  Geneva. 
In  1834  he  gained  the  Boden  (Sanskrit) 
scholarship,  and  in  1837  he  won  the  Pusey 
and  Ellerton  (Hebrew)  scholarship,  and  gra- 
duated (Class  II)  in  literte  humaniores. 

In  the  same  year  (1837)  Malan  accepted 
the  post  of  classical  lecturer  at  Bishop's  Col- 
lege, Calcutta,  which  he  reached  in  1838. 
He  took  Anglican  deacon's  orders  in  the 
same  year  ;  and  in  the  following  year,  be- 
coming secretary  to  the  Asiatic  Society  of 
Bengal,  gained  the  intimate  friendship  of 
the  remarkable  scholar  Csoma  Koru'si,  from 
whom  he  learned  Tibetan.  Besides  gaining 
a  knowledge  of  several  Indian  vernaculars, 
he  also  advanced  in  Chinese.  Leaving  India 
on  account  of  failing  health  in  January  1840, 
he  arrived  in  England  in  the  following  Sep- 
tember. In  1842,  after  further  travels  in 
Egypt  and  in  Palestine,  he  accepted  a  curacy 
at  Alverstoke,  Hampshire,  taking  M.A. 
(and  joining  Balliol  College)  and  also  priest's 
orders  in  1843.  His  first  wife  having  died 
in  1840,  Malan  married  in  1843  Caroline 
Selina,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  C.  M.  Mount. 
After  a  year  (1844-5)  as  perpetual  curate  of 
Crowcombe,  Malan  accepted  the  living  of 
Broadwindsor,  Dorset,  which  he  held  till 
1885.  In  1849-50  he  made  a  long  tour  in 
southern  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia, 
and  Armenia,  illustrating  this,  like  all  his 
travels,  by  excellent  sketches,  some  of  which 
have  been  published.  In  1855-6  Malan's 
Chinese  learning  came  into  notice  by  his 
publication  of  two  works  on  controversies  of 
the  time  :  (1)  '  On  the  translation  of  the  word 
"  God  "  in  Chinese '  ('Who  is  God  in  China?' 
London,  1855)  ;  (2)  '  The  Threefold  San-tze 
King  or  Triliteral  Classic  .  .  .  translated 
.  .  .  with  notes/London,  1856,  with  reference 
to  the  alleged  Christianity  of  the  rebel  chief 
Tae-ping  Wang.  During  the  next  twenty 


Malan 


134 


Malcolm 


years  Malan  was  much  occupied  with  theo- 
logical controversy,  but  published  meanwhile 
some  of  his  most  valuable  work  illustrative 
of  the  Christian  East,  especially  translations 
from  the  Syriac,  Coptic,  Ethiopic,  Armenian, 
and  Georgian  literatures.  In  1872  he  made 
a  sudden  and  highly  characteristic  visit  to 
the  Crimea,  Georgia  (where  he  was  the  guest 
of  Bishop  Gabriel  and  preached  in  Georgian 
at  the  cathedral  of  Kutais),  and  Armenia. 

In  1881  Malan  joined  in  the  onslaught 
made  by  John  William  Burgon  [q.v.  Suppl.] 
on  the  revised  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
contributing  to  his  articles,  and  himself 
publishing  a  new  version  of  Matthew  i-vi, 
with  an  appendix  giving  the  Lord's  Prayer 
in  seventy-one  languages.  This  he  followed 
up  in  1882  by  a  work  directed  against  the 
Greek  text  of  Drs.  Westcott  and  Hort,  which, 
however,  produced  no  lasting  impression. 
Shortly  before  leaving  Broad  Windsor  (1885) 
he  presented  his  great  library ,  some  four  thou- 
sand volumes,  to  various  institutions,Csoma's 
books  and  manuscripts  being  appropriately 
given  to  the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Sciences, 
the  patristic  collections  to  Keble  Library, 
and  the  rest  to  the  Indian  Institute,  Oxford. 
After  his  retirement  Malan  lived  at  Bourne- 
mouth till  his  death,  which  happened  there 
on  25  Nov.  1894  ;  he  was  buried  in  Bourne- 
mouth cemetery.  During  his  last  years  his 
chief  literary  employment  was  the  com- 
pilation of  his  '  Notes  on  Proverbs  '  (3  vols. 
published  1889,  1892-3),  a  huge  work  in 
which,  taking  the  Salomonic  text  as  a  basis, 
he  illustrated  it  by  parallels  from  the  vast 
range  of  his  reading  in  non-Christian  oriental 
literature. 

In  practical  knowledge  of  oriental  lan- 
guages Malan  had  certainly  no  equal  in 
England,  and  probably  none  in  the  world  ; 
yet  he  was  scarcely  perhaps  an  orientalist  in 
the  scientific  sense  of  the  term.  His  publi- 
cations were  all  (save  one  on  drawing  and 
two  on  ornithology)  of  an  ecclesiastical 
nature,  while  even  on  biblical  ground  his 
ultra-conservatism  is  seen  in  his  opposition 
to  modern  progressive  Hebrew  criticism, 
quite  analogous  to  his  position  above  de- 
scribed, regarding  New  Testament  research. 
The  biography  published  by  his  son  illustrates 
both  his  ability  in  drawing  and  his  great  skill 
in  oriental  call  igraphy .  Against  the  latter  we 
must  set  his  hopeless  and  wholly  unpractical 
aversion  to  oriental  transliteration.  In  botany 
and  ornithology  he  had  advanced  beyond  the 
amateur  stage,  and  in  manual  arts  such  as 
fly-fishing,  bookbinding,  and  a  performer's 
knowledge  of  the  construction  of  musical 
instruments  he  was  also  proficient.  Of  his 
numerous  publications  (over  fifty)  the 


following,  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
are  the  chief:  1.  '  The  Gospel  according  to 
St.  John,  translated  from  the  eleven  oldest 
versions,  except  the  Latin  .  .  .  with  notes,' 
London,  1862.  2.  '  Meditations  on  our 
Lord's  Passion  .  .  .  from  the  Armenian,' Lon- 
don, 1863.  3.  '  History  of  the  Georgian 
Church,'  translated  from  the  Russian  of 
Josselian,  London,  1866.  4.  '  Life  ...  of 
S.  Gregory  the  Illuminator  .  .  .  from  the 
Armenian,'  1868.  5.  '  Liturgy  of  the  Ortho- 
dox Armenian  Church,'  translated,  London, 

1870.  6.  '  Conflicts  of  the  Holy  Apostles  .  . . 
Epistle  of  S.  Dionysius  from  Ethiopic  MSS. ; 
and  the  Assumption  of  S.  John  from  the 
Armenian,'  London,  1871.     7.  '  Misawo,  the 
Japanese  Girl,  translated  from  the  Japanese,' 

1871.  8.  '  The  Divine  Liturgy  of  S.  Mark 
.   .    .  from  a  Coptic   MS.,'  London,    1872. 
9.  '  The  Coptic   Calendar  from   an  Arabic 
MS.,'  London,  1873.     10.  'History  of  the 
Copts  .  .  .  from  the  Arabic  of  ...  El  Maq- 
rizi,'  London,  1873.     11.  '  The  Divine  Eu^"- 
\6yiov  ...  of  S.  Gregory  .  .  .  from  a  Coptic 
MS.,'  London,  1875.      12.    'The  Book  of 
Adam  and  Eve  .  . .  from  the  Ethiopic,'  Lon- 
don, 1882. 

[Solomon  Csesar  Malan  ...  by  his  eldest  sur- 
viving son,  Rev.  A.  N.  Malan,  London,  1897; 
review  in  Athenaeum,  12  Feb.  1898  ;  obituary 
notice  by  Prof.  Macdonell  in  Journal  R.  Asiatic 
Soc.  1895.]  C.  B. 

MALCOLM, SIR  GEORGE  (1818-1897), 
general,  born  at  Bombay  on  10  Sept.  1818, 
was  the  only  son  of  David  Malcolm,  a  Bom- 
bay merchant,  who  was  the  brother  of  Ad- 
miral Sir  Pulteney  and  General  Sir  John 
Malcolm  [q.  v.]  He  was  commissioned  as 
ensign  in  the  E.I.C.  service  on  10  June 
1836,  and  was  posted  to  the  1st  Bombay 
native  infantry  on  18  July  1837.  He  served 
in  the  Afghan  war  of  1839  as  deputy-assis- 
tant commissary-general  and  baggagemaster 
with  the  Bombay  division,  and  was  present 
at  the  capture  of  Ghazni  and  occupation  of 
Kabul.  In  August  1840,  at  the  head  of  a 
detachment  of  Sind  horse,  he  joined  the 
force  sent  under  Major  Clibborn  to  relieve 
Kahan  in  Baluchistan,  took  part  in  the  at- 
tempt to  force  the  Nafusk  pass,  and  was 
mentioned  in  despatches  for  his  gallantry. 
He  was  also  engaged  in  the  operations 
against  Nusseer  Khan  and  the  Brahoes  and 
the  capture  of  their  camp  near  Kanda  on 
1  Dec.  He  received  the  medal. 

He  became  lieutenant  on  31  Aug.  1840. 
He  served  under  Colonel  John  Jacob  [q.  v.] 
during  the  subjugation  of  Sind,  and  was  pre- 
sent at  the  battle  of  Shadadpur  and  the  cap- 
ture of  Shahpur.  In  the  second  Sikh  war 
he  commanded  the  2nd  Sind  horse,  and  was 


Malleson 


135 


Malleson 


present  at  the  siege  of  Multan  and  the  battle 
of  Gujrat.  He  was  mentioned  in  despatches 
(London  Gazette,  19  April  1849),  received 
the  medal,  and  on  becoming  captain  in  his 
regiment  (1st  Bombay  native  infantry)  he 
•was  given  a  brevet  majority  on  22  June 
1849.  He  became  lieutenant-colonel  on 
28  Nov.  1854. 

He  served  in  the  Persian  war  of  1856-7, 
and  commanded  a  small  field  force  during 
the  Indian  mutiny.  On  29  Nov.  1857  he 
stormed  the  fortified  village  of  Halgalli. 
He  took  possession  of  Shorapur  on  9  Feb. 
1858,  and  on  2  June  he  captured  the  fort  of 
Nargund,  the  strongest  in  the  South  Maratha 
country.  He  was  mentioned  in  despatches, 
received  the  medal,  and  was  made  C.B.  on 
21  March  1859.  He  became  colonel  in  the 
army  on  30  Aug.  1860,  and  major-general  on 
15  Dec.  1867.  In  the  expedition  to  Abys- 
sinia in  1868  he  commanded  the  second  divi- 
sion, which  guarded  the  line  of  communica- 
tions. He  was  included  in  the  vote  of 
thanks  of  parliament,  was  made  K.C.B.  on 
14  Aug.  1868,  and  received  the  medal.  He 
was  promoted  lieutenant-general  on  29  May 
1875,  and  general  on  1  Oct.  1877,  and  was 
placed  on  the  unemployed  supernumerary 
list  on  1  July  1881.  He  received  the  G.C.B. 
on  29  May  1886. 

He  died  at  Leamington  on  6  April  1897. 
On  19  Oct.  1852  he  married  Wilhelrnina 
Charlotte,  youngest  daughter  of  the  Rev. 
Henry  Alright  Hughes.  She  survived  him. 
In  1868  he  printed  for  private  circulation  at 
Karachi  'Remarks  on  the  Indian  Army' 
(eighteen  pages),  in  which  he  dwelt  on  the 
danger  of  relying  on  European  troops  and  of 
neglecting  and  discrediting  the  native  army, 
as  had  been  the  tendency  since  the  mutiny. 

[Times,  7  April  1897  ;  Stocqueler's  Memorials 
of  Afghanistan,  pp.  112-21  ;  Malleson's  Indian 
Mutiny,  iii.  126,  &c. ;  Burke's  Landed  Grentry  ; 
Official  Record  of  the  Expedition  to  Abyssinia.] 

E.  M.  L. 

MALLESON, GEORGE  BRUCE  (1825- 
1898),  colonel  and  military  writer,  born  in 
London  on  8  May  1825,  was  second  son  of 
John  Malleson  of  Wimbledon,  by  Lucy 
(Nesbitt),  whose  father  was  colonial  secre- 
tary in  the  Bahamas.  He  was  educated  at 
Wimbledon  and  at  Winchester  College, 
where  he  became  an  ardent  cricketer. 
Through  Colonel  Oliphant,  a  director  of  the 
East  India  Company,  he  was  given  a  direct 
commission  as  ensign  on  11  June  1842, 
and  was  posted  to  the  C5th  Bengal  native 
infantry  on  26  Sept.  He  obtained  a  lieu- 
tenancy in  the  33rd  B.N.I,  on  28  Sept. 
1847.  He  was  appointed  to  the  commis- 
sariat department  on  30  Nov.  1852,  and 


served  in  the  second  Burmese  war,  which 
resulted  in  the  annexation  of  the  lower  pro- 
vince in  1853.  On  28  March  1856  he  was 
appointed  an  assistant  military  auditor-gene- 
ral, and  he  was  engaged  with  accounts  at 
Calcutta  during  the  mutiny.  He  wrote 
'  The  Mutiny  of  the  Bengal  Army,'  which 
was  published  anonymously  in  1857,  and 
was  known  as  '  the  red  pamphlet.'  In  this 
he  pointed  to  Lord  Dalhousie's  administra- 
tion, and  especially  the  annexation  of  Oudh, 
as  mainly  responsible  for  the  revolt. 

He  was  promoted  captain  on  16  Aug. 
1861,  major  in  the  Bengal  staft'  corps  on 
18  Feb.  1863,  lieutenant-colonel  on  11  June 
1868,  and  colonel  in  the  army  on  11  June 
1873.  He  was  appointed  a  sanitary  com- 
missioner for  Bengal  in  1866,  and  controller 
of  the  military  finance  department  in  1868. 
In  1869  he  was  chosen  by  Lord  Mayo  to  be 
the  guardian  of  the  young  Maharajah  of 
Mysore  ;  he  held  this  post  till  1  April  1877, 
when  he  retired  on  full  pay.  He  had  been 
made  C.S.I.  on  31  May  1872. 

He  had  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
'  Calcutta  Review  '  since  1857,  and  was  also 
a  correspondent  of  the  '  Times.'  After  his 
retirement  he  devoted  himself  to  literature, 
dealing  chiefly  with  military  history,  espe- 
cially Indian.  He  had  a  broad  grasp,  great 
industry,  a  vigorous  and  picturesque  style, 
but  was  apt  to  be  a  strong  partisan.  He  did 
much  to  draw  attention  to  Russian  progress 
in  Central  Asia,  and  its  dangers  to  British 
rule  in  India.  He  died  at  27  West  Crom- 
well Road,  London,  on  1  March  1898.  In 
1856  he  married  Marian  Charlotte,  only 
daughter  of  George  Wynyard  Battye  of  the 
Bengal  civil  service,  and  sister  of  three  dis- 
tinguished soldiers,  Quintin,  Wigram,  and 
Frederick  Battye,  all  of  the  Guides,  and  all 
killed  in  action.  She  survived  her  husband, 
and  on  14  June  1899  received  a  civil-list 
pension  of  100/.  in  recognition  of  his  emi- 
nence as  an  Indian  and  military  historian. 

He  was  author  of  the  following  works : 
1.  '  The  Mutiny  of  the  Bengal  Army,'  1857, 
2  pts.  8vo.  2.  '  History  of  the  French  in 
India,'  1868,  8vo.  3.  '  Recreations  of  an 
Indian  Official '  (biographical  articles  on 
Anglo-Indians,  &c.,  reprinted  from  periodi- 
cals), 1872,  8vo.  4.  '  Studies  from  Genoese 
History,'  1875,  8vo.  5.  '  Historical  Sketch 
of  the  Native  States  of  India,'  1875,  8vo. 
6.  '  Essays  and  Lectures  on  Indian  Histori- 
cal Subjects,'  1876,  8vo.  7.  '  Final  French 
Struggles  in  India  and  in  the  Indian  Seas,' 
1878,  8vo.  8.  '  History  of  the  Indian  Mu- 
tiny '  (in  continuation  of  vols.  i.  and  ii.  of 
Kaye's  <  Sepoy  Wrar'),  1878-80,  3  vols.  8vo. 
9.  'History  of  Afghanistan,'  1879,  8vo. 


Mangles 


136 


10.  '  Herat,  the  Garden  and  Granary  of 
Central  Asia/  1880,  8vo.  11. '  The  Founders 
of  the  Indian  Empire:  Lord  Olive,'  1882,  8vo. 
12.  « The  Decisive  Battles  of  India,'  1883, 
8vo.  13.  '  Captain  Musafir's  Rambles  in 
Alpine  Lands,'  1883, 8vo.  14.  '  The  Battle- 
fields of  Germany,'  1884,  8vo.  15.  'Lou- 
don'  (series  of  military  biographies),  1884, 
8vo.  16.  'Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy '  (same 
ser.),  1888,  8vo.  17.  'The  Ilusso-Afghan 
Question  and  the  Invasion  of  India,'  1885, 
8vo.  18.  'Ambushes  and  Surprises,'  1885, 
8vo.  19.  'Prince  Metternich'  (Statesmen 
ser.),  1888,  8vo.  20.  'Wellesley'  (same 
ser.),  1889,  8vo.  21-2.  'Akbar'  and'Du- 
pleix'  (Rulers  of  India  ser.),  1890,  8vo. 
23.  '  Refounding  of  the  German  Empire,' 
1893,  8vo.  24.  'Warren  Hastings,'  1894, 
8vo.  25.  '  The  Lakes  and  Rivers  of  Austria, 
Bavaria,  and  Hungary,'  1897,  8vo. 

[Times,  2  March  1898  ;  E.  I.  Kegisters  ;  Alli- 
bone's  Dictionary,  supplement;  private  infor- 
mation.] E.  M.  L. 

MANGLES,  ROSS  DONNELLY  (1801- 
1877),  chairman  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, born  in  1801,  was  the  son  of  James 
Mangles  (d.  September  1838)  of  Woodbridge, 
near  Guildford,  by  his  wife  Mary,  youngest 
daughter  of  John  Hughes  of  Guildford.  He 
was  named  after  Admiral  Sir  Ross  Donnelly 
[q.  v.  Suppl.],  on  whose  ship  his  relative, 
James  Mangles  [q.  v.],  first  served.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's College  at  Haileybury.  On  30  April 
1819  he  entered  the  Bengal  civil  service  as  a 
writer.  He  arrived  in  India  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  on  28  Sept.  1821  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  to  the  secretary  to  the 
board  of  commissioners  for  the  ceded  and 
conquered  provinces.  In  1822  he  was  acting 
collector  of  government  customs  and  town 
duties  at  Farukhabad,  and  on  12  June  1823 
he  was  nominated  assistant  to  the  secretary 
to  the  board  of  revenue  for  the  Lower  Pro- 
vinces and  acting  commissioner  of  the 
Sundarbans.  On  26  Aug.  1825,  during  the 
first  Burmese  war,  he  became  secretary  to 
the  commissioner  of  Pegu  and  Ava.  On 

21  April  1826  he  was   appointed  deputy- 
secretary  in  the  judicial  and  territorial  de- 
partments.    After  a  visit   to   England  ex- 
tending from  April  1828  to  November  1831, 
lie  became  on  6  Dec.  officiating  junior  secre- 
tary to  the    sadr  board  of  revenue.      On 
3  April   1832   he   was  nominated  deputy- 
secretary    in  the  general  department ;   on 

22  Feb.   1833  magistrate  and  collector  of 
Tipperah ;    on  1  July  magistrate  and  col- 
lector  of   customs   and    land    revenue    at 
Chittagong  ;  and  on  4  Nov.  magistrate  and 


collector  of  Agra.  On  13  May  1835  he  was- 
placed  in  the  important  post  of  secretary  to 
the  government  of  Bengal  in  the  judicial 
and  revenue  departments.  This  office  he 
continued  to  hold  until  his  final  return  to 
England  early  in  1839.  It  was  one  of  es- 
pecial authority,  because,  during  the  absence 
of  the  governor-general,  George  Eden,  earl 
of  Auckland  [q.  v.],  who  was  also,  in  ac- 
cordance with  custom,  lieutenant-governor 
of  Bengal,  the  administration  of  affairs- 
of  the  province  fell  almost  entirely  into  the 
hands  of  the  secretary.  So  great  was- 
Mangles's  influence,  that  the  natives  used  to- 
say  that  there  were  over  them  three  English 
lords — '  Lord  Colvin  [see  JOHN  RUSSELL 
COLVIN],  Lord  Auckland,  and  Lord  Mangles.7" 
On  28  May  1838  he  also  filled  the  position 
of  temporary  member  of  the  sadr  board  of 
revenue. 

On  his  return  to  England  he  turned  his 
attention  to  politics,  and  at  the  general  elec- 
tion of  1841  he  was  returned  to  parliament 
on  1  July  in  the  liberal  interest  for  Guild- 
ford,  a  borough  which  his  father  had  repre- 
sented from  1831  till  1837.  This  seat  he 
retained  until  1858.  He  gained  a  high  re- 
putation in  parliament  as  an  authority  on 
India  matters.  He  was  elected  a  director 
of  the  East  India  Company  on  14  April 
1847,  and  filled  the  post  of  chairman  in 
1857-8,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Fre- 
derick Currie  [q.  v.],  the  last  chairman  of 
the  company.  Mangles  retired  from  parlia- 
ment on  his  appointment,  on  21  Sept.  1858, 
as  a  member  of  the  council  of  India.  This 
office  he  held  until  1866,  when  he  resigned 
his  seat  on  account  of  advancing  age.  He 
died  in  London  at  23  Montagu  Street,, 
Montagu  Square,  on  16  Aug.  1877.  On. 
16  Feb.  1830  he  married  Harriet,  third 
daughter  of  George  Newcome  of  Upper 
Wimpole  Street.  By  her  he  had  issue.  His 
son,  Ross  Mangles,  obtained  the  Victoria* 
Cross  for  gallant  conduct  near  Arrah  in 
1857  during  the  Indian  mutiny. 

Mangles  was  the  author  of:  1.  '  A  Brief 
Vindication  of  the  East  India  Company's 
Government  of  Bengal  from  the  Attacks  of 
Messrs.  [Robert]  Rickards  and  [John]  Craw- 
furd '  [q.  v.],  London,  1830,  8vo.  2.  '  Chris- 
tian Reasons  of  a  Member  of  the  Church  of 
England  for  being  a  Reformer,'  London, 
1840, 8vo.  He  contributed  several  articles 
on  Indian  affairs  to  the  'Edinburgh  Re- 
view.' 

[Illustrated  London  News,  9  Oct.  1858  (with 
portrait);  Times,  21  Aug.  1877;  Ann.  Reg. 
1877,  ii.  156 ;  Dodwell  and  Miles's  Bengal  Civil 
Servants,  1839;  Temple's  Men  and  Events  of 
my  Time  in  India,  1882,  p.  412.]  E.  I.  C. 


Manning 


137 


Manning 


MANNING,  ANNE  (1807-1879),  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  eldest  child  of  William 
Oke  Manning  (1778-1859),  insurance  broker 
of  Lloyd's,  London,  and  granddaughter  of 
James  Manning,  Unitarian  minister  of  Exeter, 
was  born  in  London  on  17  Feb.  1807.  Her 
mother  was  Joan  Whatmore,  daughter  of 
Frederick  Gibson,  principal  surveyor  of  the 
London  Docks,  cousin,  ward,  and  heir-at-law 
of  Charles  Lamb's  'most  consistent  living 
model  of  modern  politeness,'  Joseph  Paice 
(Essays  of  Elia :  '  Modern  Gallantry ').  "Wil- 
liam Oke  Manning  [q.  v.]  was  her  brother ; 
James  Manning,  serjeant-at-law  [q.v.],  her 
uncle;  Sir  William  Montague  Manning 
(1811-1895),  attorney-general,  and  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  New  South  Wales,  joint 
author  of  Neville  and  Manning's  '  Reports  in 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench,'  3  vols.,  1834,  was 
her  first  cousin. 

Anne  was  educated  by  her  mother,  an 
accomplished  scholar.  The  associations  of 
Old  Chelsea,  whither  the  family  removed 
from  Brunswick  Square  when  she  was  eight, 
aroused  her  interest  in  history.  She  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  several  foreign  languages,  had 
a  taste  for  science,  and  obtained  a  gold  medal 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  for  a  copy 
of  Murillo's  '  Flower  Girl.'  The  Mannings 
moved  into  John  Gait's  house  when  he  left 
Chelsea. 

Her  first  book, '  A  Sister's  Gift :  Conver- 
sations on  Sacred  Subjects,'  London,  1826, 
12mo,  written  for  the  brothers  and  sisters 
whom  she  taught,  and  published  on  her  own 
account,  realised  a  profit  of  GQl.  The  next, 
'  Stories  from  the  History  of  Italy,'  London, 
3831,  8vo,  was  the  only  one  published  under 
her  own  name.  '  Village  Belles,'  her  first 
story  (3  vols.,  1838,  8vo ;  2nd  edit.  1859), 
was  written  at  Norbury  Priory,  near  Mickle- 
ham,  which  was  the  Mannings'  home  for 
seven  years. 

'  The  Maiden  and  Married  Life  of  Mis- 
tress Mary  Powell,  afterwards  Mistress  Mil- 
ton,' told  in  diary  form,  first  appeared  in 
'  Sharpe'a  Magazine '  in  1849,  and  brought 
Miss  Manning  considerable  notice.  She  was 
known  thenceforward  as '  the  author  of  Mary 
Powell.'  The  tale  was  reprinted  1849, 1855 
(3rd  edit,),  1866,  1874,  and  with  a  sequel, 
'Deborah's  Diary,'  1859  and  1860.  Even 
more  successful  was  '  The  Household  of  Sir 
Thomas  More,"  which  appeared  in  the  same 
magazine,  and  was  republished  1860,  1870, 
and  1887.  Of  both  these  stories  (of  which 
French  and  German  translations  also  ap- 
peared), and  of  '  Cherry  and  Violet,  a  Tale  of 
the  Plague,'  handsome  editions,  illustrated  by 
Messrs.  Jellicoe  and  Railton,  and  with  intro- 
ductions by  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Hutton,  were 


issued  1897,  1895,  and  1896  respectively. 
An  attack  was  made  ('  Eraser's  Magazine,' 
vol.  lii.,  July  1855,  p.  104)  upon  them  as- 
'  spurious  antiques,'  and  the  public  was 
seriously  warned  not  to  accept  them  as  au- 
thentic diaries.  They  were  of  course  in- 
tended as  fiction.  Both  Archbishop  Tait 
and  Cardinal  Manning  spoke  in  high  terms  of 
their  historical  accuracy. 

About  1850  Miss  Manning  settled  at  Rei- 
gate  Hill,  and  remained  there  until  near 
her  death  at  her  sisters'  house  at  Tunbridge 
Wells  on  14  Sept.  1879.  She  was  buried 
with  her  parents  in  Mickleham  churchyard, 
near  Dorking. 

A  most  prolific  writer,  Miss  Manning  was 
at  her  best  in  her  historical  tales  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  All  her  books  evince  ex- 
tensive reading,  and  some  of  them  perhaps  a 
gentle  pedantry.  Her  '  Family  Pictures ' 
and  '  Passages  in  an  Authoress's  Life '  con- 
tain interesting  autobiographical  reminis- 
cences. 

Other  works  by  her,  all  published  at  Lon- 
don, are :  1.  '  Queen  Philippa's  Golden  Rule,' 
1851,  8vo.  2.  'The  Drawing-room  Table 
Book,'  1852,  4to.  3.  'The  Colloquies  of 
Edward  Osborne,  Citizen  and  Clothworker,' 
1852, 1853, 1860 ;  4th  ed.  1900, 8vo.  4. '  The 
Provocations  of  Madame  Palissy,'  1853 ;  3rd 
ed.  1880,  8vo.  5.  'Cherry  and  Violet,  a 
Tale  of  the  Great  Plague,'  1853,  8vo;  2nd 
ed.  1870.  6.  'Jack  and  the  Tanner  of 
Wymondham,'  1854,  8vo.  7.  '  Chronicles 
of  Merry  England,'  1854,  8vo.  8.  '  Claude 
the  Colporteur,'  1854,  8vo.  9.  'The  Hill 
Side :  Illustrations  of  some  of  the  simplest 
Terms  used  in  Logic,'  1854,  8vo.  10. '  Some 
Account  of  Mrs.  Clarinda  Singlehart,'  1885, 
8vo.  11.  '  Stories  from  the  History  of  the 
Caliph  Haroun  Al  Raschid,'  1855,  8vo.  12. 
'  A  Sabbath  at  Home,'  1855, 8vo.  13.  '  The 
Old  Chelsea  Bun  House,'  1855,  8vo ;  2nd  ed. 
1860,  8vo;  3rd  ed.  1899,  8vo.  14.  'The 
Week  of  Darkness :  a  short  Manual  for  the 
Use  and  Comfort  of  Mourners,'  1856,  12mo. 
15.  '  Tasso  and  Leonora  :  the  Commentaries 
of  Ser  Pantaleone  degli  Gambacorti,'  1856, 
8vo.  16.  '  The  Good  Old  Times  :  a  Tale  of 
Auvergne,'  2nd  ed.  1857,  8vo.  17.  '  Lives 
of  Good  Servants,'  1857,  8vo.  18.  'Helen 
and  Olga  :  a  Russian  Story,'  1857, 8vo.  19. 
'  The  Year  Nine :  a  Tale  of  the  Tyrol,'  1858, 
8vo.  20.  'The  Ladies  of  Bever  Hollow,' 

1858,  8vo.     21.  'Poplar  House  Academy,' 

1859,  8vo,  2  vols.     22.  'Autobiography  of 
Valentine   Duval,'  translated,  1860,  12mo. 
23.   'The  Day  of  Small  Things,'  1860,  8vo. 
24. '  Town  and  Forest,'  1860,  8vo.    25. '  The 
Cottage  History  of  England,'  1861,  12mo. 
26. '  Family  Pictures,'  1861, 8vo.   27. '  Chro- 


Manuche 


138 


nicle  of  Ethelfled,'  1861, 8vo.  28.  « A  Noble 
Purpose  Nobly  Won '  (Joan  of  Arc),  1862, 
8vo ;  2nd  ed.  1862 ;  3rd  ed.  1870,  8vo.  29. 
' Meadowleigh,'  1 863, 8vo.  30. ' The  Duchess 
of  Trajetto,'  1863, 8vo.  31.  '  An  Interrupted 
Wedding,' 1864, 8vo.  32.  '  Belforest,'  1865, 
8vo.  33.  '  Selvaggio :  a  Tale  of  Italian 
Country  Life,'  Edinburgh,  1865,  8vo.  34. 
'Miss  Biddy  Frobisher,'  1866,  8vo.  35- 
'  The  Lincolnshire  Tragedy :  Passages  in  the 
Life  of  the  Faire  Gospeller,  Mistress  Anne 
Askewe,  recounted  by  Nicholas  Moldwarp,' 
1866, 8vo.  36.  «  The  Masque  at  Ludlow  and 
other  Romanesques,' 1866, 8vo.  37.  'Jacques 
Bonne val,'  1868,  16ino.  38.  '  The  Spanish 
Barber,'  1869,  8vo.  39.  '  One  Trip  More,' 
1870,  8vo.  40.  'Compton  Friars,'  1872, 
8vo.  41.  'The  Lady  of  Limited  Income,' 
1872,  8vo.  42.  '  Monk's  Norton,'  1874, 8vo. 
48.  '  Heroes  of  the  Desert :  the  Story  of  the 
Lives  of  Moffat  and  Livingstone,'  1875, 8vo ; 
2nd  ed.  1885,  8vo.  44.  '  An  IdyU  of  the 
Alps,'  1876,  8vo. 

From  1868  to  1876  Miss  Manning  con- 
tributed regularly  articles,  verse,  and  stories 
to  Dr.  Whittemore's  magazine,  '  Golden 
Hours,'  in  which  the  following  serials  by  her, 
apparently  never  republished,  appeared : 
'  Madame  Prosni  and  Madame  Bleay :  a  Story 
of  the  Siege  of  LaRochelle,'  1868; '  Rosita,' 
1869;  'On  the  Grand  Tour,'  1870;  'Octa via 
Solara,'  1871 ;  '  Illusions  Dispelled,'  1871. 

[Passages  in  an  Authoress's  Life  in  Golden 
Hours,  January  to  May  1872  ;  Women  Novelists 
of  Queen  Victoria's  Reign,  article  by  Charlotte 
Mary  Yonge;  Englishwoman's  Review,  February 
1880,  notes  by  Mrs.  Batty;  Notes  and  Queries, 
8th  ser.  viii.  16;  Athenaeum,  30  Nov.  1878; 
private  information.]  C.  F.  S. 

MANUCHE  or  MANUCCI,  COSMO 
(Jl.  1652),  dramatist,  of  Italian  origin,  pro- 
bably belonged  to  the  Florentine  family  of 
Mannucci,  some  members  of  which  were  in 
the  service  of  the  Medici  (cf.  CROLLAI.ANZA, 
Dizionario  Storico-Blasonico,  ii.  66 ;  ADE- 
MOLLO,  Marrietta  de'  Micci,  ed.  Passerini,  ii. 
632-3).  In  1587  one  Giacopo  Manucci  was 
among  the  agents  in  Italy  who  were  in  cor- 
respondence with  the  English  foreign  office 
(Hatfield  Papers,  iii.  262).  Cosmo  was 
doubtless  related  to  Francesco  Manucci,  who 
was  at  one  time  in  the  domestic  service  of 
Edward  Wotton,  first  baron  Wotton  [q.  v.], 
and  from  1624  in  that  of  Edward  Conway, 
first  viscount  Conway  (cf.  Cal.  State  Papers, 
Dom.  1623-5,  pp.  263, 288, 426,  434 ;  1628-9, 
p.  348).  He  seems  to  have  himself  joined 
the  household  of  James  Compton,  third  earl 
of  Northampton,  who  encouraged  his  lite- 
rary tastes  and  ambitions.  During  the  civil 
wars  he  joined  the  royalists  and  obtained 


commissions  in  the  king's  army  as  captain 
and  major  of  foot.  He  commonly  described 
himself  as  Major  Cosmo  Manuche.  He  served 
continuously  to  the  end  of  the  war  in  Eng- 
land, and  then  joined  the  royalists  in  Ire- 
land. Returning  to  England,  he  sought 
a  livelihood  by  '  boarding  scholars '  and 
writing  plays,  most  of  which  he  dedicated 
to  Lord  Northampton.  His  poverty  was 
great.  In  his  need  he  did  not  disdain  the 
service  of  the  Protector.  On  4  June  1656 
he  sent, through  Secretary  Thurloe,  a  petition 
to  Cromwell  begging  for  the  payment  of 
20/.,  which  he  claimed  to  be  the  balance  of 
an  account  due  to  him  for  'making  dis- 
coveries of  the  disturbers  of  our  present 
happy  government '  {Cal.  State  Papers,  Dom. 
1655-6,  p.  348).  At  the  time  of  the  Re- 
storation he  represented  to  adherents  of 
Charles  II  that  he  had  often  suffered  im- 
prisonment during  the  Protectorate  for  his 
loyalty  to  the  cause  of  the  king.  On  12  Dec. 
1661  Lord  Berkeley  of  Stratton,  Sir  Gilbert 
Talbot,  and  Sir  Lewis  Dyve  signed  a  certi- 
ficate attesting  Manuche's  military  achieve- 
ments in  Charles  I's  behalf,  and  the  present 
ill-health  and  destitution  not  only  of  him- 
self but  of  his  wife  and  two  children  (Eger- 
ton  MS.  2623,  f.  34). 

No  less  than  twelve  plays — three  in  print 
and  nine  in  manuscript — have  been  assigned 
to  Manuche.  The  two  by  which  he  is  best 
known  were  published  in  1652,  with  his 
name  on  the  title-page.  The  titles  run : 
'  The  Just  General :  a  Tragi :  Comedy,  written 
by  Major  Cosmo :  Manuche.  London,  Printed 
for  M.  M.  T.  C.  and  G.  Bedell,  and  are  to  be 
sold  at  their  Shop  at  the  Middle  Temple 
gate  in  Fleet  Street,  1652;'  and  '  The  Loyal 
Lovers :  a  Tragi  Comedy  Written  by  Major 
Cosmo  Manuche.  London,  Printed  for 
Thomas  Eglesneld  at  the  Brazen  Serpent  in 
St.  Paul's  Church-yard,  1652.'  Each  is  de- 
scribed as  a  tragi-comedy.  In  neither  does 
the  language  show  any  trace  of  its  author's 
foreign  origin.  According  to  his  own  ac- 
count '  The  Just  General '  was  his  first  lite- 
rary effort.  Neither  piece  was  acted.  '  The 
Just  General '  is  dedicated  to  the  Marquis  of 
Northampton  and  his  wife  Isabella,  and  has, 
by  way  of  prologue,  a  dialogue  between  cha- 
racters called  '  Prologue '  and  '  Critick.'  '  The 
Loyal  Lovers '  is  defaced  by  much  coarseness. 
Hugh  Peters  is  furiously  denounced  under 
the  name  of '  Sodome.'  Manuche's  metrical 
methods  are  curious.  In  the  '  Loyal  Lovers ' 
there  is  some  prose,  but  the  rest  of  that  play 
and  the  whole  of  the  '  Just  General '  are 
written  in  an  eccentrically  irregular  form  of 
;  blank  verse,  which  is  rhythmical  and  not 
!  metrical,  and  is  barely  distinguishable  from 


Margaret 


139 


Margaret 


prose.  A  third  printed  play,  a  tragedy,  called 
'  The  Bastard,'  which  was  published  anony- 
mously also  in  1652,  has  been  assigned  tra- 
ditionally to  Manuche,  and  that  theory  of 
authorship  is  accepted  by  Charles  Lamb,  who 
gives  a  quotation  from  it  in  his  '  Specimens 
of  English  Dramatic  Poets.'  Langbaine  traces 
its  plots  to  episodes  in  '  The  English  Lovers ' 
and  in  Cespedes's  '  Gerardo,  the  unfortunate 
Spaniard '  (Engl.  transl.  by  Leonard  Digges, 
1622).  In  the  prologue  the  author  describes 
his  work  as  translated  from  the  Spanish.  A 
small  part  of  '  The  Bastard '  is  in  prose,  the 
rest  is  in  blank  verse,  which  is  of  a  far  more 
regular  kind  than  is  to  be  met  with  in 
Manuche's  undoubted  work. 

Bishop  Percy  found,  about  1770,  nine 
manuscript  plays  other  than  those  already 
named  in  the  Marquis  of  Northampton's 
library  at  Castle  Ash  by,  the  greater  number 
of  which  he  attributed  on  reasonable  grounds 
to  Manuche's  pen.  Eight,  which  are  written 
on  folio  sheets,  are  all  in  the  same  hand- 
writing. Of  these,  two  in  blank  verse,  en- 
titled respectively  '  The  Banished  Shep- 
herdess '  and  '  The  Feast :  a  comedy,'  have 
dedications  to  the  Marquis  of  Northampton, 
which  are  signed '  Cos :  Manuche.'  The  third 
and  fourth,  '  The  Mandrake '  (a  comedy  in 
prose)  and  '  Agamemnon  :  a  tragedy,'  are 
unfinished.  The  fifth,  a  blank-verse  tragedy, 
is  named  by  Percy  '  Leontius,  King  of  Ci- 
prus ; '  the  sixth,  '  The  Captives,'  seems  to  be 
an  adaptation  in  prose  from  Plautus;  the 
seventh,  '  Mariamne,'  a  blank-verse  tragedy, 
is  '  very  much  torn ; '  and  the  eighth,  a  tra- 
gedy in  blank  verse  without  a  title,  opens 
with  a  scene  between  three  characters  named 
Macrinus,  Papinianus,  and  Ardentius.  A 
manuscript  of  a  prose  untitled  comedy  in 
quarto,  in  which  the  first  character  is  called 
Hermengildus,  is  also  at  Castle  Ashby,  and 
was  tentatively  ascribed  by  Bishop  Percy  to 
Manuche. 

[Authorities  cited  ;  Langbaine's  English  Dra- 
matic Poets  (with  Bishop  Percy's  manuscript 
notes  in  British  Museum  Library,  C  45,  d.  15) ; 
Phillips'sTheiitrumPoetarum ;  Fleay's  Chron.of 
the  English  Drama;  Lowndes's  Bibliographer's 
Manual.]  S.  L. 

MARGARET,  the  MAID  OF  NORWAY 
(1283-1290),  queen  of  Scotland,  born  in  1283, 
was  daughter  of  Eric  II  of  Norway.  Her 
mother,  who  died  at  or  soon  after  her  birth, 
was  Margaret,  daughter  of  Alexander  III  of 
Scotland  [q.  v.J,  by  his  queen  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Henry  III  [q.  v.]  Alexander, 
the  onlv  surviving  son  of  Alexander  III, 
having  clied  before  the  end  of  1283,  the  nobles 
of  Scotland  met  at  Scone  on  5  Feb.  1284  and 
bound  themselves  to  acknowledge  Margaret 


as  heir  of  the  kingdom,  reserving  the  rights 
of  any  children  who  might  thereafter  be  born 
to  the  king,  and  of  any  posthumous  child  who 
might  be  born  to  his  son  Alexander.  On 
19  March  1286  Alexander  III  was  killed, 
and  on  11  April  the  estates  appointed  six 
regents  to  govern  for  the  infant  queen. 
Edward  I  obtained  a  bill  of  dispensation 
from  Honorius  IV  in  May  1287,  that  his  sons 
and  daughters  might  marry  within  the  pro- 
hibited degrees,  and  in  May  1289  sent  am- 
bassadors to  Nicolas  IV  to  obtain  the  pope's 
consent  to  the  marriage  of  his  sonEdward  and 
Margaret.  Eric,  who  was  largely  indebted  to 
the  English  king,  sent  three  ambassadors  to 
England  in  September,  as  from  himself  and 
Margaret,  to  request  Edward  to  secure  the 
rights  of  the  queen.  At  Edward's  instance 
four  commissioners  were  sent  by  the  regents 
of  Scotland  to  meet  them  and  three  com- 
missioners appointed  by  himself  at  Salis- 
bury, where  on  6  Nov.  it  was  agreed  that 
before  1  Nov.  next  following  Eric  should 
send  Margaret  either  to  England  or  Scot- 
land free  from  any  matrimonial  engagement ; 
Edward  promised  that  if  Scotland  was  in  a 
settled  state  he  would  send  her  thither  unen- 
gaged, on  receiving  a  promise  from  the  Scots 
that  they  would  not  give  her  in  marriage 
except  as  he  should  ordain  and  with  her 
father's  consent.  The  bill  of  dispensation 
for  the  marriage  of  the  young  Edward  and 
Margaret  was  obtained  a  few  days  later. 

Tidings  of  the  proposed  marriage  having 
reached  Scotland,  the  estates  of  that  king- 
dom at  a  meeting  at  Brigham  in  March 
1290  wrote  to  Edward  warmly  approving 
his  design,  and  to  Eric  urging  him  to  send 
his  daughter  to  England  speedily.  By  the 
articles  of  Margaret's  marriage  treaty, 
arranged  on  11  July,  Edward  promised  that 
the  kingdom  of  Scotland  should  remain 
separate  and  independent,  saving  his  rights 
in  the  marches  and  elsewhere.  He  requisi- 
tioned a  ship  at  Yarmouth  to  fetch  Margaret, 
and  caused  it  to  be  fitted  out  and  victualled 
by  Matthew  de  Columbers,  his  butler.  The 
ship  was  manned  by  forty  seamen,  and  as  Eric 
seems  to  have  been  expected  to  accompany 
his  daughter  great  provision  was  made  for 
the  voyage,  thirty-one  hogsheads  and  one 
pipe  of  wine,  ten  barrels  of  beer,  fifteen  salted 
oxen,  four  hundred  dried  fish  and  two  hun- 
dred stock  fish,  five  hundred  walnuts,  and  two 
loaves  of  sugar  being  put  on  board.  The 
ship  arrived  at  Bergen,  and  took  Margaret 
on  board  without  her  father.  On  7  Oct. 
William  Fraser  (d.  1297)  [q.  v.],  bishop  of 
St.  Andrews,  wrote  to  Edward  saying  that 
be  and  the  English  proctors  appointed  for 
the  marriage  had  heard  that  Margaret  had  been 


Marks 


140 


Marks 


ill,  and  that  it  was  then  generally  believed 
that  she  had  died  on  her  voyage  at  one  of 
the  Orkneys.  The  report  was  true.  Nothing 
is  known  of  the  circumstances  of  her  death 
or  burial.  About  ten  years  later  a  young 
woman  came  to  Norway  from  Germany  de- 
claring herself  to  be  Margaret,  Eric's  daugh- 
ter. She  said  that  she  had  been  kidnapped  at 
the  Orkneys  by  a  woman  of  high  rank, 
Ingebiorg,  the  wife  of  Thore  Hakonsson, 
and  had  been  sold  by  her.  Many  believed 
her  story.  The  king,  Hakon  V,  who  had 
succeeded  his  brother  Eric,  caused  her  to  be 
tried,  and  she  was  burnt  alive  at  Bergen  in 
1301.  Her  cruel  death  excited  much  com- 
passion ;  she  was  believed  by  many  to  have 
been  Eric's  daughter,  and  was  for  a  time 
reverenced  at  Bergen  as  a  saint. 

[Docs,  illustr.  Scottish  Hist.  vol.  i.  ed.  Steven- 
eon  ;  Rymer'sFcedera,  vol.  ii.  (both  Kecordpubl.); 
Ann.  Dunst.  ap.  Ann.  Monast.  iii.  359  ;  Cotton 
an.  1290  (both  Bolls  Ser.);  Hemingburgh  an. 
1291 ;  Trivet  an.  1289  (both  Engl.  Hist.  Soc.) ; 
Torfaeus's  Hist.  Nor.  pt.  iv.  bk.  7,  cc.  1,  5,  bk, 
8,  c.  1  ;  Ann.  Island.  Keg.  ap.  SS.  Kerum  Dan. 
iii.  123,  ed.  Langebek  ;  Munch's  Det  Norske 
Folks  Hist.  iv.  192  sqq.,  344  sqq. ;  Burton's 
Hist,  of  Scotland,  ii.  42  sqq.,  112-13.] 

W.  H. 

MARKS,  HENRY  STACY  (1829-1898), 
artist,  the  youngest  of  four  children,  was 
born  on  13  Sept.  1829  in  Great  Portland 
Street,  "West,  and  baptised  in  All  Souls', 
Langham  Place.  His  father,  Isaac  Daniel 
Marks,  after  practising  for  a  time  as  a  solicitor 
in  Bloomsbury,  took  to  his  father's  business 
of  a  coach-builder  in  Langham  Place.  The 
artist's  father  was  a  devoted  student  of 
Shakespeare,  which  accounts  for  the  subjects 
of  some  of  his  earliest  paintings.  The  firm, 
Marks  &  Co.,  prospered  at  first,  and  it  was 
understood  that  Henry  should  carry  it  on. 
His  talent  for  drawing  was  shown  very 
early,  and  when  he  left  school  he  studied 
heraldry,  so  that  he  might  be  able  to  paint 
the  crests  and  coats  of  arms  on  carriage  doors 
and  panels.  Sufficient  employment  of  this 
kind  was  quickly  found  for  him  in  his  father's 
business,  but  at  the  same  time  he  attended 
evening  classes  at  the  well-known  art  school 
in  Newman  Street  of  James  Mathews  Leigh 
[q.  v.]  In  1851,  having  failed  in  the  previous 
year,  he  obtained  admission  to  the  Academy 
schools,  but  continued  his  studies  with 
Leigh.  A  picture  called  '  Hamlet,  Horatio, 
Osric,'  painted  in  1851,  was  hung  in  the 
Portland  Gallery  with  Rossetti's  'Annun- 
ciation.' (Hatherley,  Leigh's  successor,  sat 
for  the  Hamlet.)  The  possessor  of  much 
dry  humour,  and  a  good  comic  actor,  Marks 
was  deservedly  popular  and  never  wanted 


friends  among  artists.  The  closest  in  those 
early  days  were  Philip  Hermogenes  Calde- 
ron,  Mr.  Val  Prinsep,  Mr.  W.  W.  Ouless, 
Mr.  G.  A.  Storey,  and  Mr.  Alfred  Parsons. 

In  January  1852  he  stayed  for  five  months 
in  Paris  with  Calderon.  He  studied  first 
with  M.  Picot,  pupil  of  David,  and  after- 
wards in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts.  In  his 
absence  his  father's  firm  failed,  and  from 
that  time  forward  he  had  to  depend  solely 
on  his  own  exertions. 

In  1853  he  exhibited  for  the  first  time  at 
the  Royal  Academy.  His  work  was  a  half- 
length  of  '  Dogberry.'  '  With  many  other 
students,'  Marks  wrote,  '  I  was  much  influ- 
enced by  the  pre-Raphaelite  school,  and  that 
influence  was  very  evident  in  the  picture.' 
It  was  placed  next  to  Holman  Hunt's 
'  Strayed  Sheep,'  had  the  advantage  of  being 
very  well  hung,  and  found  a  purchaser. 
Henceforth  Marks  was  a  frequent  exhibitor 
at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  he  soon  found  a 
generous  admirer  in  Charles  Edward  Mudie 
q.  v.],  the  founder  of  Mudie's  Library. 

efore  1860  Mudie  bought  two  of  his  most 
important  paintings,  '  Toothache  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages'  (1856),  and  'Dogberry's  Charge 
to  the  Watch'  (1859).  To  the  same  period 
belonged  the  '  Gravedigger's  Riddle,'  which 
he  also  sold.  Next  in  point  of  interest 
came  the  '  Franciscan  Sculptor's  Model,'  a 
very  humorous  subject :  the  matter  in  hand 
a  gargoyle ;  the  model  a  country  bumpkin, 
with  features  burlesqued  to  convey  the  idea 
of  spouting.  In  1860  Mudie  invited  Marks 
to  accompany  him  to  Belgium,  and  in  1863 
he  repeated  the  visit  with  his  friends  Yeames 
and  Hodgson.  In  the  '  Jester's  Text/ 
painted  in  1862,  there  are  traces  of  Flemish 
influence. 

In  order  to  supplement  his  resources  Marks 
did  much  besides  painting  pictures.  He  prac- 
tised drawing  on  wood,  contributed  cuts  to  a 
paper  called  '  The  Home  Circle,'  and  illus- 
trated some  books.  He  also  taught  drawing 
for  a  short  time,  was  largely  employed  by 
the  firm  of  Clayton  &  Bell,  the  makers  of 
stained  glass,  and  did  decorative  work  of  all 
sorts.  He  designed  the  proscenium  both  for 
the  Gaiety  Theatre,  London,  and  the  Prince's 
Theatre,  Manchester.  The  merit  of  his 
varied  work  attracted  Ruskin's  attention, 
and  letters  from  Ruskin  show  how  sincere 
was  his  appreciation  of  Marks's  work.  The 
studies  in  natural  history,  in  which  Marks 
in  course  of  time  specialised,  particularly- 
appealed  to  Ruskin,  who  saw  in  Marks  s 
animals  characteristics  not  unlike  those 
which  he  discerned  in  Turner  and  Bewick. 
Marks  all  his  life  was  a  close  observer  of 
the  ways  of  birds,  and  his  excellent  draw- 


Marks 


141 


Marryat 


ings  of  them  came  to  be  very  popular. 
Though  not  altogether  in  sympathy  with 
Marks's  high  spirits  and  humour,  Ruskin 
would  not  have  him  repress  it.  '  Some  very 
considerable  part  of  the  higher  painter's 
gift  in  you,'  he  wrote  to  Marks,  '  is  handi- 
capped by  that  particular  faculty  (i.e.  humour), 
which  nevertheless,  being  manifestly  an 
essential  and  inherent  part  of  you,  cannot  it- 
self be  too  earnestly  developed.' 

In  1874  an  introduction  to  Hugh  Lupus 
Grosvenor,  first  duke  of  Westminster  [q.  v. 
Suppl.1,  resulted  in  commissions  for  the 
paintings  in  Eaton  Hall,  Cheshire.  His  first 
undertaking  was  a  frieze  representing  the 
Canterbury  Pilgrims,  which  occupies  two 
walls  of  a  large  saloon.  They  are  painted  on 
lengths  of  canvas  more  than  thirty-five  feet 
in  extent.  The  designs  for  the  work,  exe- 
cuted in  water-colours,  were  exhibited  at  the 
Eoyal  Academy  in  1875.  The  paintings, 
commenced  in  1876,  were  completed  in  1878. 
There  followed  a  further  commission  for 
paintings  of  birds  for  the  walls  of  a  smaller 
room. 

These  birds  (twelve  panels  in  all)  were 
exhibited  at  Agnew's  Gallery  in  May  1880. 
Ruskin  wrote  of  them :  '  I  must  say  how  en- 
tirely glad  I  am  to  see  the  strength  of  a 
good  painter  set  upon  Natural  History,  and 
this  intense  fact  and  abstract  of  animal 
character  used  as  a  principal  element  in 
Decoration.'  Marks  executed  similar  deco- 
rative work  for  Stewart  Hodgson's  houses  in 
South  Audley  Street,  London,  and  Lythe 
Hill,  Haslemere. 

In  1862  Marks  removed  from  Camden 
Town  to  Hamilton  Terrace,  St.  John's  Wood. 
With  Regent's  Park  close  at  hand,  he  pur- 
sued his  studies  of  birds,  and  he  and  some 
friends  who  lived  near  founded  the  artists' 
club  known  as  the  '  Clique.'  Among  his 
most  intimate  friends  were  Frederick  WTalker 
and  Charles  Keene.  He  had  first  met 
Walker  at  the  Langham  Society's  Sketching 
Club,  and  Walker's  twin-sister  married 
Marks's  younger  brother. 

In  January  1871  Marks  was  elected, 
together  with  Walker  and  Woolner,  to  the 
associateship  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He 
had  exhibited  there  in  the  previous  year '  St. 
Francis  preaching  to  the  Birds.'  He  was 
admitted  an  associate  of  the  Water-colour 
Society  in  the  following  March.  After  the 
appearance  of  '  Convocation '  in  the  summer 
of  1878  he  was  elected  a  full  member  of  the 
Academy.  His  diploma  work,  '  Science  is 
Measurement,'  is  one  of  his  finest  achieve- 
ments. In  1883  he  was  elected  a  full  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  "Water-colour  Society.  The 
chief  of  his  later  works  are  '  The  Ornitho- 


logist,' 1873;  « Jolly  Post  Boys,'  1875 ;  «  The 
Apothecary,'  1876 :'  The  Gentle  Craft,'  1883 : 
'  The  Professor,'  1883 ;  '  A  Good  Story,'  1885 ; 
'  The  Hermit  and  Pelicans,'  1888 ;  '  News  in 
the  Village,'  1889 ;  '  An  Odd  Volume,'  1894. 
In  1889  and  again  in  1890  he  delighted  the 
art-loving  world  with  exhibitions  of  birds  at 
the  rooms  of  the  Fine  Art  Society  in  Bond 
Street ;  but  it  is  not  only  on  these  that  his 
reputation  depends.  The  best  of  the  subject- 
pieces  are  equally  good  of  their  kind.  All 
his  oil  paintings  are  in  pure  colour,  and  their 
freshness  of  hue  shows  at  present  no  diminu- 
tion. His  land  and  sea  scapes  in  water- 
colours  also  have  notable  serenity  and  breadth. 
His  favoured  resort  was  the  Suffolk  coast, 
and  he  painted  many  scenes  round  South- 
wold  and  Walberswick. 

In  1896,  on  account  of  failing  health,  he 
joined  the  'retired'  Academicians.  He  died 
at  St.  Edmund's  Terrace,  Primrose  Hill,  on 
9  Jan.  1898,  and  was  buried  in  Hampstead 
cemetery.  He  was  twice  married :  first, 
in  1856,  to  Helen  Drysdale  ;  and  secondly, 
in  1893,  to  Mary  Harriet  Kempe. 

A  some  what  rambling  autobiography  which 
Marks  wrote  in  his  latest  years  appeared 
after  his  death,  under  the  title  'Pen  and 
Pencil  Sketches,'  2  vols.  1894.  His  portrait 
was  frequently  painted.  A  half-length  show- 
ing the  profile  painted  by  Mr.  Ouless  may 
be  considered  the  best.  Another  portrait 
was  by  Calderon.  A  water-colour  drawing 
by  Mr.  Herkomer,  done  at  one  sitting,  is 
exact  as  a  likeness  and  splendidly  drawn. 

[Marks's  Pen  and  Pencil  Sketches,  1894, 2  vols. ; 
Times,  11  and  14  Jan.  1898;  Life  and  Letters 
of  Frederick  Walker,  by  Marks's  nephew,  John 
George  Marks,  1896;  private  information.] 

"R    T? 

MARRYAT,  FLORENCE,  succes- 
sively MES.  CHURCH  and  MRS.  LEAN  (1838- 
1899),  novelist,  born  at  Brighton  on  9  July 
1838,  was  sixth  daughter  and  tenth  child  of 
Captain  Frederick  Marryat  [q.  v.]  and  his 
wife  Catherine,  daughter  or  Sir  Stephen 
Shairp  of  Houston,  Linlithgowshire.  She 
was  educated  at  home,  and  was  always  a 
great  reader.  On  13  June  1854,  at  the  age 
of  sixteen,  she  married  at  Penang  T.  Ross 
Church,  afterwards  colonel  in  the  Madras 
staff  corps,  with  whom  she  travelled  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  India.  She  had  by  him 
eight  children.  She  outlived  him,  and  in 
1890  married,  as  her  second  husband,  Colonel 
Francis  Lean  of  the  royal  marine  light  in- 
fantry. 

Her  first  novel,  '  Love's  Conflict,'  written 
to  distract  her  mind  in  the  intervals  of 
nursing  her  children  with  scarlet  fever,  ap- 
peared in  1865.  Between  that  date  and  the 


Marshall 


142 


Marshall 


year  of  her  death  she  published  some  ninety 
novels,  many  of  which,  notwithstanding 
their  mediocre  character,  were  translated 
into  German,  French,  Swedish,  Flemish,  and 
Russian,  and  became  popular  in  America. 
From  1872  to  1876  she  edited  the  monthly 
periodical  called  '  London  Society.' 

In  1872  she  published  in  two  volumes  the 
'  Life  and  Letters  of  Captain  Marryat ; '  it 
does  not  present  a  complete  portrait  of  her 
father  ;  the  scanty  material  is  supplemented 
by  too  many  trifling  details.  In  the  latter 
years  of  her  life  she  was  much  attracted 
to  spiritualism.  Although  a  Roman  ca- 
tholic, she  received  permission  from  her 
director,  Father  Dalgairn  of  the  Brompton 
oratory,  to  pursue  researches  of  the  kind  in  the 
cause  of  science.  '  There  is  no  Death,'  pub- 
lished in  1891,  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
the  various  media  with  whom  she  came  in 
contact,  and  of  the  stances  she  attended. 
Although  it  bears  evident  marks  of  the 
author's  sincerity,  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
that  a  large  element  of  fiction  does  not  enter 
into  the  volume.  Other  books  dealing  with 
the  subject  are  'The  Risen  Dead'  1893)  and 
« The  Spirit  World '  (1894).  '  Tom  Tiddler's 
Ground,'  a  book  of  travel  (1886),  is  an  irre- 
sponsible account  of  America. 

A  woman  of  varied  accomplishments,  she 
added  to  the  roles  of  author  and  novelist 
those  of  playwright,  comedy  actress,  operatic 
singer,  giver  of  lectures  and  entertainments, 
and  manager  of  a  school  of  journalism.  She 
acted  in  a  drama  of  her  own,  entitled  '  Her 
World,'  produced  in  London  in  1881.  She 
died  at  St.  John's  Wood,  London,  on  27  Oct. 
1899. 

[Men  and  Women  of  the  Time,  1899  ;  Alli- 
bone's  Diet.,  Suppl.  ii.  983  ;  Athenaeum,  4  .Nov. 
1899;  Times,  28  Oct.  1899.]  E.  L. 

MARSHALL,  ARTHUR  MILNES 
(1852-1893),  naturalist,  born  at  Birming- 
ham on  8  June  1852,  was  the  third  son  of 
William  P.  Marshall,  for  many  years  secre- 
tary of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers 
and  himself  an  enthusiastic  naturalist.  In 
1870,  while  still  at  school,  he  graduated  B.  A. 
in  the  London  University,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  entered  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, to  read  for  the  natural  science  tripos. 
At  that  time  the  school  of  biology  was  just 
arising.  Francis  Balfour  [q.  v.]  had  given  it 
a  great  impetus,  and  Marshall  was  one  of  the 
first  to  take  advantage  of  this  change.  In 
1874  he  came  out  senior  in  his  tripos,  and 
after  graduating  B.A.  was  appointed  in  the 
early  part  of  1875  by  the  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity to  their  table  at  the  new  zoological 
station  at  Naples.  In  the  summer  of  the 


same  year  Marshall  returned  to  Cambridge, 
and  during  the  October  term  he  joined  Bal- 
four in  giving  a  course  of  lectures  and  labo- 
ratory work  in  zoology. 

Marshall's  next  step  was  to  qualify  him- 
self for  a  medical  career.  In  1877  he  won 
an  open  science  scholarship  at  St.  Bartholo- 
mew s  hospital,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
passed  the  M.B.  examination  at  Cambridge, 
obtained  the  London  degree  of  D.Sc.,  and 
was  elected  to  a  fellowship  at  St.  John's  Col- 
lege. These  successes  were  followed  by  his 
appointment,  in  1879,  at  the  early-  age  of 
twenty-seven,  to  the  newly  established  pro- 
fessorship of  zoology  at  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  and  Marshall  soon  became' 
known  for  his  wonderful  skill  in  teaching 
and  his  talent  for  organisation.  His  insight 
into  what  had  to  be  done — whether  it  were 
a  research  on  some  zoological  problem  or 
the  reconstruction  of  a  department  of  study 
— was  only  equalled  by  the  rapid  and  skil- 
ful way  in  which  he  accomplished  the  end 
in  view. 

In  zoological  science.  Marshall's  name  is 
intimately  connected  with  important  dis- 
covery in  embryology.  At  the  time  of  his1 
appointment  to  the  chair  at  Owens  College 
he  was  already  known  as  the  author  of  im- 
portant memoirs  on  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  the  nervous  system  in  the  higher 
animals ;  and  after  his  election  Marshall 
continued,  both  by  his  own  contributions 
and  in  conjunction  with  his  pupils,  to  influ- 
ence the  work  and  views  of  fellow-natural- 
ists. Between  1878  and  1882  Marshall  pub- 
lished '  The  Development  of  the  Cranial  Nerves 
in  the  Chick,'  1878 ;  «  The  Morphology  of  the 
Vertebrate  Olfactory  Organ,'  1879  ;  '  Obser- 
vations on  the  Cranial  Nerves  of  Scy Ilium,' 

1881  (in    conjunction    with    W.   Baldwin 
Spencer) ;    '  On  the  Head-cavities  and  as- 
sociated Nerves  of  Elasmobranchs,'  1881. 
These  papers  appeared   in  the   'Quarterly 
Journal  of  Microscopical  Science,'  and   in 

1882  Marshall  published  a  memoir  on  '  The 
Segmental  Value  of  the  Cranial  Nerves '  in 
the  '  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology.' 
The  importance  and  originality  of  these  solid 
contributions  to  knowledge  were  widely  re- 
cognised, and,  together  with  his  later  re- 
searches upon  the  anatomy  of  Pennatulid 
corals,  they  form  Marshall's  most  important 
contributions  to  zoology. 

Marshall's  lasting  work,  however,  was  his 
development  of  zoological  teaching  and  his 
organisation  of  the  courses  of  biological  study 
at  the  Victoria  University.  As  a  teacher 
Marshall  excelled.  He  was  clear,  accurate, 
enthusiastic,  and  keenly  alive  to  the  diffi- 
culties of  those  who  approach  zoological 


Marshall 


143 


Marshall 


problems  for  the  first  time.  By  forcible  and 
often  picturesque  language  he  would  point 
out  where  the  trouble  lay  and  how  to  over- 
come it.  The  lucidity,  thoroughness,  and  ac- 
cuvacy  of  Marshall's  teaching  may  to  some 
extent  be  estimated  by  a  study  of  his  three 
text-books,  'The  Frog'  (1882.  7th  edit. 
1900),  '  Practical  Zoology '  (in  conjunction 
with' Dr.  C.  Herbert  Hurst)  (1887,  6th  edit. 
1899),  and  '  Vertebrate  Embryology '  (1893). 
Some  idea  of  his  clear  and  logical  style  of 
delivery  as  a  lecturer  may  be  gained  from  his 
'  Biological  Essays  and  Addresses '  (1894), 
and  '  The  Darwinian  Theory '  (1894).  The 
wav  in  which'  he  embodied  the  point  at 
issue  in  some  happy  phrase  made  an  inefface- 
able impression  upon  his  audience.  Thus 
the  theory  that  animals  recapitulate  in 
their  own  development  the  ancestry  of  the 
race  will  never  be  forgotten  by  those  who 
heard  it  compressed  into  the  pregnant 
phrase,  'They  climb  up  their  genealogical 
tree.' 

Perhaps  Marshall's  greatest  distinction 
was  his  capacity  for  organisation.  As  secre- 
tary, and  subsequently  as  chairman,  of  the 
board  of  studies,  Marshall  rendered  most 
valuable  services  in  the  founding  and  ad- 
ministration of  the  Victoria  University.  The 
correlation  of  the  different  sciences  in  the 
Faculty  of  Science  is  largely  due  to  his 
labours.  He  was  also  secretary  of  the  ex- 
tension movement  initiated  by  the  university, 
and  gained  for  it  the  success  which  invariably 
attended  any  organising  work  that  he  under- 
took. 

Marshall  was  a  man  of  great  and  tireless 
energy,  and  his  attractive  personality  ren- 
dered him  very  popular  with  his  friends,  col- 
leagues, and  students.  He  was  an  excellent 
gymnast,  and  kept  himself  in  training  by 
constant  practice.  His  chief  recreation  was 
mountain  climbing.  Though  he  was  dissuaded 
by  the  untimely  death  of  his  friend  Francis 
Balfour  from  beginning  to  cliinb  till  he  was 
thirty,  Marshall  subsequently  spent  part  of 
almost  each  long  vacation  in  climbing  in  the 
Tyrol,  Switzerland,  or  on  the  Mont  Blanc 
chain  ;  and  he  frequently  passed  the  Easter 
and  Christmas  vacations  on  the  mountains  of 
Wales  and  of  the  English  lake  district.  He 
was  always  a  careful  climber,  and  had  ac- 
quired considerable  experience  of  rock- work. 
( hi  31  Dec.  1893,  while  he  was  engaged  with 
a  party  of  friends  in  photographing  the  rocks 
of  Deep  Ghyll  on  Scafell,  a  rock  gave  way 
beneath  him,  and  falling  backwards  he  was 
killed  instantaneously.  His  death  could  not 
be  attributed  to  rashness ;  it  was  the  result 
of  one  of  those  accidents  which  cannot  be 
eliminated  from  the  sport  of  mountaineering. 


A  cross  cut  on  the  rocks  below  Lord's  Rake 
marks  the  spot  where  his  body  fell. 

Marshall  graduated  M.A.  in  1878  and 
M.D.  in  1882.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  Eoyal  Society  in  188o;  and  served  on  its 
council  1891-2.  He  was  president  of  section 
D  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
at  Leeds  in  1890,  and  gave  one  of  the  popular 
discourses  before  the  British  Association  at 
the  Edinburgh  meeting  in  1892.  He  was 
for  many  years  president  of  the  Manchester 
Microscopical  Society.  A  list  of  his  chief 
memoirs  is  given  in  'The  Owens  College, 
Manchester,'  1900,  pp.  210,  211. 

[Obituary  notices  in  Proceedings  of  the 
Royal  Society,  1894-5,  vol.  Ivii.  pp.  iii_v,  and 
Nature,  11  Jan.  1894,  p.  250  ;  information  kindly 
supplied  by  Prof.  H.  B.  Dixon,  F.R.S.,  and  per- 
sonal knowledge.]  F.  W.  G. 

MARSHALL,  BENJAMIN  (1767?- 
1835),  animal  painter,  born  about  1767,  ex- 
hibited thirteen  pictures,  chiefly  portraits  of 
racehorses  and  their  owners,  at  the  Eoyal 
Academy,  1801-12  and  1818-9.  His  por- 
traits of  sporting  characters  included  those 
of  J.  G.  Shaddick,  1806,  and  Daniel  Lambert, 
1807.  Two  pictures  of  fighting  cocks,  exhi- 
bited in  1812,  were  engraved  in  mezzotint  by 
Charles  Turner  in  the  same  year  with  the 
titles  of  'The  Cock  in  Feather'  and  'The 
Trimm'd  Cock.'  Other  engraved  pictures  are 
'  Hap-hazard '  and  '  Muly  Moloch,'  race* 
horses  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Darlington, 
engraved  as  a  pair  by  W.  and  G.  Coeke,  1805, 
from  pictures  at  Raby  Castle  ;  'The  Earl  of 
Darlington  and  his  Foxhounds,'  by  T.  Dean, 
1805,  and  the  companion  subject, '  Francis 
Dukinfield  Astley  and  his  Harriers,'  by  R, 
Woodman,  1809 ;  <  Sir  Teddy,'  mezzotint  by 
Charles  Turner,  1808;  '  Sancho,'  a  -  pointer 
belonging  to  Sir  John  Shelley,  etched  by 
Charles  Turner  in  1808  ;  and  '  Diamond,'  a 
racehorse,  engraved  in  mezzotint  by  W. 
Barnard  in  1811. 

Sixty  paintings  of  sportsmen,  horses,  and 
;  dogs  by  Marshall  were  -engraved  by  John 
Scott  for  Wheble's  '  Sporting  Magazine,' 
vols.  vii-lxxxi.,  and  eight  types  of  horses  by 
Marshall,  also  engraved  by  Scott,  appeared 
(  in  '  The  Sportsman's  Repository,'  1820. 
j  Marshall's  exhibited  and  engraved  works 
represent  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  com- 
missions which  he  carried  out  for  patrons  of 
the  turf  and  masters  of  hounds  throughout 
the  country.  A  number  of  his  pictures  of 
horses  are  in  the  collection  of  Sir  Walter 
Gilbey.  About  1800-10  Marshall  was  living 
at  23  Beaumont  Street,  Marylebone.  He 
had  various  later  addresses  in  London,  but 
was  often  described  as  '  Marshall  of  New- 
market,' where  he  chiefly  lived.  He  died  in 


Marshall 


144 


Marshall 


the  Hackney  Road,  at  the  age  of  sixty-eight, 
on  24  July  1835. 

[Royal  Academy  Catalogues;  Gent.  Mag. 
1835,  li.  331  ;  Banks's  Index  of  Engravings  in 
the  Sporting  Magazine,  pp.  17, 109  ;  Kedgrave's 
Diet,  of  Artists.]  C.  D. 

MARSHALL,  EMMA  (1830-1899),  no- 
velist, youngest  daughter  of  Simon  Martin, 
a  partner  in  Gurney's  Norwich  bank,  who 
married,  at  St.  Michael-at-Plea,  Norwich,  in 
1809,  Hannah  (Ransome),  a  quakeress,  was 
born  at  Northrepps  Hill  House,  near  Cromer, 
in  1830.  The  family  soon  removed  to  Nor- 
wich. Miss  Martin  has  depicted  her  early 
childhood  verv  faithfully  in  one  of  her  first 
stories, '  The  Dawn  of  Life'  (1867).  She  was 
educated  at  a  private  school  until  the  age  of 
sixteen.  The  proximity  of  Norwich  Cathedral 
and  its  precincts  strongly  influenced  her  sub- 
sequent line  of  thought.  When  as  a  girl  she 
read  Longfellow's  '  Evangeline,'  she  was  so 
much  impressed  with  it  that  she  wrote  to  the 
poet,  and  thus  began  a  correspondence  that 
fasted  until  her  death.  About  1849  she  left 
Norwich  with  her  mother  to  live  at  Clifton, 
Bristol,where  acquaintance  with  Dr.  Adding- 
ton  Symonds  gave  them  a  passport  to  the 
society  of  the  place.  In  1854  she  married  Hugh 
Graham  Marshall,  who  was  in  the  service  of 
the  West  of  England  bank.  The  early  years 
of  her  married  life  were  spent  at  Wells,  Exeter, 
and  Gloucester ;  and  Longfellow,  in  reference 
to  the  continual  flitting  from  one  cathedral 
town  to  another,  called  her  '  Queen  of 
Summer,  temple-haunting  Martlet.'  There 
were  three  sons  and  four  daughters  of  the 
marriage.  She  finally  settled  at  Clifton, 
and  began  to  write  from  a  desire  to  amuse 
and  instruct  young  people.  Her  first  story, 
*  Happy  Days  at  Fernbank,'  was  pub- 
lished in  1861.  Between  that  date  and  her 
death  she  wrote  over  two  hundred  stories. 
This  enormous  production  was  stimulated 
by  heavy  losses  in  1878,  when  the  failure  of 
the  West  of  England  bank  not  only  swept 
away  her  husband's  income  and  position,  but 
Involved  him  as  a  shareholder  in  certain 
liabilities.  These  Mrs.  Marshall  cleared  off 
with  indefatigable  courage.  Of  'Life's After- 
math '  (1876),  perhaps  the  most  popular  of 
her  novels,  thirteen  thousand  copies  have 
been  issued.  She  had  a  special  faculty  for 
turning  to  account  dim  legend  or  historical 
incident,  and  her  books  generally  have  some 
celebrated  historical  character  for  the  central 
figure  round  whom  the  story  is  woven;  in 
'  Under  Salisbury  Spire'  (1890)  it  is  George 
Herbert,  in '  Penshurst  Castle'  (1894)  it  is  Sir 
Philip  Sidney.  Her  last  book,  'The  Parson's 
Daughter,'  was  finished  by  her  daughter  Bea- 
trice after  her  mother's  death,  and  published 


in  1899.  All  her  tales  have  a  high  moral  and 
religious  tone.  Many  have  been  translated ; 
several  were  included  in  the  Tauchnitz 
Library.  John  Nichol  and  J.  A.  Symonds, 
among  others,  were  warm  in  their  praises  of 
them.  Canon  Ainger,  when  advocating  that 
a  memorial,  which  ultimately  took  the  form 
of  a  brass,  with  an  inscription  by  him,  should 
be  placed  in  Bristol  Cathedral,  spoke  of '  the 
high  and  pure  quality  of  her  literary  work,' 
and  declared  that  her  stories  '  have  been  the 
means  of  awakening  and  cultivating  a  taste 
for  history  and  literature  throughout  the 
English-speaking  world.' 

Mrs.  Marshall  died  on  4  May  1899  at 
Clifton,  and  was  buried  on  the  9th  in  the 
cemetery  of  Long  Ashton.  Two  portraits  are 
included  in  '  Emma  Marshall,  a  Biographical 
Sketch,'  by  her  daughter,  Beatrice  Marshall, 
1900. 

[Memoir  by  Beatrice  Marshall,  1900;  Alli- 
bone's  Diet.  Suppl.  ii.  1078-9;  Western  Daily 
Press,  5  and  10  May  1899;  Bristol  Times  and 
Mirror,  5  May  1899.]  E.  L. 

MARSHALL,    WTILLIAM    CALDER 

(1813-1894),  sculptor,  born  at  Gilmour 
Place,  Edinburgh,  on  18  March  1813,  was 
eldest  son  of  William  Marshall,  goldsmith, 
and  Annie  Calder,  his  wife.  Educated  at 
the  high  school  and  university,  he  com- 
menced his  art  studies  at  the  Trustees'  Aca- 
demy in  1830,  and  four  years  later  went  to 
London,  where  he  worked  under  Sir  Francis 
Legatt  Chantrey  [q.  v.]  and  Edward  Hodges 
Baily  [q.  v.],  and  in  the  schools  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  where  he  gained  a  silver  medal  in 
1835.  He  then  spent  two  years  (1836-8)  in 
Rome,  and  in  1839  he  settled  permanently 
in  London.  In  1835,  two  years  after  he  had 
exhibited  first  in  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy, 
he  exhibited  in  London,  and  in  1844  he  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  in  1852  an  academician.  He  had  been 
elected  A.R.S.  A.  in  1840,  but  resigning  when 
he  received  the  London  honour,  he  was  made 
an  honorary  member  at  a  later  date.  In 
recognition  of  his  services  as  a  British  com- 
missioner at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878  he 
was  appointed  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour.  He  retired  from  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy in  1890,  exhibited  there  for  the  last 
time  in  the  following  year,  and,  having  com- 
pleted his  last  work  in  1893,  died  in  London 
on  16  June  1894. 

He  was  a  hard  worker,  and  during  his 
long  career  produced  a  great  number  of 
works.  These  were  principally  poetic  and 
ideal  in  intention,  and  were  very  popular. 
He  executed  a  number  of  commissions  for 
the  Art  Union  of  London,  and  engravings 
of  many  of  his  sculptures  are  to  be  found  in 


Martin 


145 


Martin 


the  '  Art  Journal.'  Classic  and  mythological 
subjects,  such  as  '  Thetis  and  Achilles,'  or 
'  Ajax  praying  for  Light,'  and  '  Zephyr  and 
Aurora '  or  '  Hebe,'  and  motives  derived 
from  the  Bible  or  Shakespeare,  were 
favourites  with  him.  These  often  took  the 
form  of  groups,  and  one  of  his  best-known 
pieces  is  the  group  symbolic  of '  Agriculture ' 
on  the  Albert  Memorial  in  Hyde  Park.  In 
1857  he  was  awarded  the  first  premium 
(700/.)  in  the  competition  for  the  Wellington 
Memorial,  but  fortunately  the  design  of 
Alfred  Stevens  [q.v.]  was  afterwards  adopted. 
He  also  produced  a  number  of  memorial 
statues,  of  which  the  marbles  of  Lords  Cla- 
rendon and  Somers,  in  the  houses  of  parlia- 
ment at  Westminster,  and  of  Sir  George 
Grey,  in  Cape  Town,  and  the  bronze  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  in  Manchester,  may  be  named. 

His  style  was  of  its  time,  and  pseudo- 
classicism  in  his  hands  was  informed  by  no 
richness  of  fancy  or  real  power  of  technique. 
A  certain  elegance  of  design  and  type  and 
conscientiousness  of  execution  are  the  greatest 
merits  his  art  possesses.  An  exhibition  of 
his  works  was  held  in  his  studio  in  Ebury 
Street,  London,  after  his  death ;  and  his 
executors  presented  the  original  models  of 
his  more  important  pieces  to  museums  and 
galleries  throughout  the  kingdom. 

He  was  twice  married :  first,  in  1842,  to 
Marianne,  daughter  of  Dr.  Lawrie,  Edin- 
burgh, who  died  the  same  year;  and  secondly, 
in  1845,  to  Margaret,  daughter  of  Joseph 
Calder  of  Burnhouse,  Mid-Calder,  by  whom 
he  had  four  sons  and  two  daughters. 

[Private  information  ;  Times  and  Scotsman, 
19  June  1894;  Reports  of  the  R.S.A.  1894; 
Catalogues  of  exhibitions  and  galleries.] 

J.  L.  C. 

MARTIN,  LADY  (1810-1898),  actress. 
[See  FATJCIT,  HELEN.] 

MARTIN,  SIR  WILLIAM  FAN- 
SHAWE,  fourth  baronet  (1801-1895),  ad- 
miral, son  of  Sir  Thomas  Byam  Martin  [q.v.], 
was  born  on  5  Dec.  1801.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  June  1813,  served  under  his  father's 
flag  oiF  the  Scheldt,  and  in  January  1816 
was  appointed  to  the  Alceste,  then  going  to 
China  with  Lord  Amherst  [see  MAXWELL, 
SIR  MURRAY;  MACLEOD,  JOHN].  After  his 
return  he  was  in  the  Prince  Regent  yacht 
•with  Sir  Edward  Hamilton  [q.v.],  and  in  the 
Glasgow  frigate  in  the  Mediterranean  with 
Captain  Anthony  Maitland.  On  15  Dec.  1820 
he  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant  of  the 
Forte,  and  a  few  months  later  was  moved  into 
the  Aurora,  going  out  to  the  South  American 
station,  where,  on  8  Feb.  1823,  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  commander  of  the  Fly  sloop. 

TOL.  III. — SUP. 


In  her  he  rendered  valuable  assistance  to  the 
British  merchants  at  Callao  in  a  time  of  civil 
war,  and  was  ever  afterwards  best  known  in 
the  navy  as  '  Fly  '  Martin.  He  attained  post 
rank  on  5  June  1824 ;  from  1826  to  1831  he 
commanded  the  Samarang,  a  28-gun  frigate, 
in  the  Mediterranean;  in  1844  and  1845  he 
was  flag-captain  at  Sheerness,  and  from  1849 
to  1852  was  commodore  in  command  of  the 
Lisbon  squadron.  On  28  May  1853  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  From 
1853  till  his  promotion  to  be  vice-admiral 
on  13  Feb.  1858,  he  was  superintendent  of 
Portsmouth  dockyard,  and  in  1859  he  was 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  admiralty.  In  1860 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Mediterranean  station,  with  his  flag  in  the 
Marlborough.  He  held  this  for  three  years, 
and  in  that  time  effected  a  reform  almost 
amounting  to  a  revolution  in  the  methods 
of  naval  discipline.  Many  of  the  ships  were 
manned  by  '  bounty '  men  and  were  in  a 
state  bordering  on  mutiny.  Even  the  flag- 
ship's crew  was  far  from  being  a  good  one. 
But  by  tact,  by  care,  by  unremitting  atten- 
tion, and  by  judicious  severity  he  brought 
the  fleet  into  that  admirable  order  which  is 
still  referred  to  in  the  navy  as  one  of  the 
glories  of  the  past.  When  the  commander- 
in-chief  gave  an  order,  he  not  only  meant  it 
to  be  obeyed  but  saw  that  it  was  obeyed, 
and  the  insistence  was  not  always  agreeable 
to  the  respective  captains  and  commanders. 
He  was  thus  by  no  means  generally  loved 
by  officers  of  the  higher  ranks ;  but  if  not 
loved,  he  was  feared,  and  the  work  was 
done.  On  14  Nov.  1863  Martin  was  made 
an  admiral ;  on  the  death  of  his  cousin, 
Sir  Henry  Martin,  third  baronet,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  baronetcy  on  4  Dec.  1863; 
and  from  1866  to  1869  was  commander-in- 
chief  at  Plymouth.  In  April  1870  he  was 
put  on  the  retired  list  in  accordance  with 
the  scheme  brought  out  by  Hugh  Culling 
Eardley  Chiiders  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  On  24  May 
1873  he  was  made  a  G.C.B.,and  in  September 
1878  he  was  appointed  rear-admiral  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  During  his  later  years  he 
resided  principally  at  Upton  Grey,  near 
Winchfield,  and  there  he  died  on  24  March 
1895. 

Martin  was  twice  married  :  first,  in  1826, 
to  Anne  Best,  daughter  of  the  first  Lord 
Wynford ;  she  died  in  1836,  having  had  two 
sons  who  died  young,  and  two  daughters. 
Secondly,  to  Sophia  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
Robert  Hurt  of  Wirksworth,  by  whom  he 
had  issue,  besides  five  daughters,  one  son, 
Richard  Byam  Martin,  who  succeeded  to  the 
baronetcy.  In  1879  Martin  published  a  small 
pamphlet,  '  Cyprus  as  a  Naval  Station  and 

fc 


Martineau 


146 


Martineau 


&  Place  of  Arms,'  which,  as  an  exposition  of 
Mediterranean  strategy  from  one  of  the  great 
masters  of  the  art,  is  deserving  of  very  close 
attention. 

[O'Byrne's  Nav.  Biogr.  Diet. ;  Army  and 
Navy  Gazette,  30  March  1895  ;  Burke's  Baro- 
netage ;  Navy  Lists;  private  information.] 

MARTINEAU,  JAMES  (1805-1900), 
Unitarian  divine,  youngest  son  and  seventh 
child  of  Thomas  Martineau  (d.  21  June 
1826),  camlet  and  bombazine  manufacturer, 
by  his  wife  Elizabeth  (d.  26  Aug.  1848, 
aged  78),  eldest  daughter  of  Robert  Rankin, 
sugar  refiner,  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  was 
born  in  Magdalen  Street,  Norwich,  on 
21  April  1805.  His  father,  of  Huguenot 
lineage,  had  a  maternal  descent  from  John 
Meadows  or  Meadowe  [q.  v.],  the  ejected 
puritan,  which  connected  him  with  the 
family  of  John  Taylor  (1694-1761)  [q.  v.], 
the  hebraist  (TAYLOR,  Suffolk  Bartholo- 
means,  1840).  His  mother  was  a  woman  of 
great  force  of  character  and  '  quickness  of 
feeling '  (Martineau's  letter  in  Daily  News, 
30  Dec.  1884).  His  eldest  brother,  Thomas 
Martineau,  M.D.  (d.  3  June  1824,  aged  29), 
was  at  the  time  of  his  early  death  reckoned 
the  ablest  of  the  family ;  but  the  personal 
charm  of  James  was  marked  in  boyhood.  In 
1815  he  entered  the  Norwich  grammar 
school,  of  which  Edward  Valpy  [q.  v.]  be- 
came high  master  in  that  year.  Among  his 
schoolfellows  were  (Sir)  James  Brooke  [q.  v.], 
raja  of  Sarawak,  and  George  (Henry)  Bor- 
row [q.  v.]  In  after  life  Borrow  would  not 
meet  Martineau,  having  been  hoisted  on  his 
back  to  receive  a  well-earned  birching  (Life 
ofF.  P.  Cobbe,  1894,  ii.  117).  Martineau, 
whose  taste  was  for  mathematics,  did  not 
proceed  to  the  highest  form,  but  was  well 
grounded  in  classics,  and  on  his  eightieth 
birthday  wrote  some  very  good  Latin  verses 
in  reply  to  his  old  friend  Thomas  Horn- 
blower  Gill,  the  hymn-writer  (Inquirer, 
20  Jan.  1900,  p.  12).  He  was  not  '  physi- 
cally robust,'  and  '  the  tyranny  of  a  large 
public  school '  did  not  suit  him  (letter  in 
Daily  News,  ut  sup.)  At  the  suggestion  of 
his  sister,  Harriet  Martineau  [q.  v.],  he  was 
sent  (1819)  to  the  boarding-school  of  Lant 
Carpenter  [q.  v.]  at  Bristol;  to  Carpenter's 
influence  in  the  discipline  of  character  he 
pays  the  highest  tributes  (Memoirs  of  Lant 
Carpenter,  1842,  p.  342 ;  Life  of  Mary  Car- 
penter, 1879,  p.  9 ;  cf.  Unitarian  Magazine, 
1834,  p.  185).  Leaving  school  in  1821,  he 
was  apprenticed  to  Samuel  Fox  at  Derby, 
with  a  view  to  becoming  a  civil  engineer ; 
he  boarded  with  Edward  Higginson  [see 
under  HIGGINSON,  EDWARD],  Unitarian  mini- 


ster at  Derby,  whose  eldest  daughter  he 
afterwards  married.  The  purely  mechanical 
work  of  the  machine-room  did  not  satisfy 
him.  The  premature  death  (31  Jan.  1822, 
aged  29)  of  Henry  Turner,  Unitarian  mini- 
ster at  Nottingham  [son  of  William  Turner, 
1761-1859 ;  see  under  TURNER,  WILLIAM, 
1714-1794],  who  had  married  (1819)  Mar- 
tineau's cousin,  Catharine  Rankin  (d.  1  May 
1894,  aged  97),  produced  his  '  conversion ' 
(Proceedings  in  connection  with  his  retire- 
ment, 1885,  p.  28),  and  decided  him  for  the 
ministry. 

In  September  1822  he  entered  Manchester 
College,  York,  as  a  divinity  student  under 
Charles  Wellbeloved  [q.  v.]  Classics  and 
history  were  taught  by  John  Kenrick  [q.  v.], 
a  scholar  of  distinction.  Philosophy  fell  to 
William  Turner  (1788-1853)  [see  under 
TURNER,  WILLIAM,  17 14-1794],  who  taught 
the  Hartleyan  determinism,  then  in  vogue 
with  Unitarians,  but.  felt  its  difficulties 
(Christian  Reformer,  1854,  p.  136).  The 
first  York  student  to  adopt  the  libertarian 
view  was  William  Mountford  (1816-1885), 
author  of  '  Euthanasy '  (1850),  who  broke 
with  the  Hartleyan  philosophy  while  at 
York  (1833-8).  Martineau  gained  at  York 
the  highest  honours  ( Christian  Life,  23  June 
1900,  p.  302);  his  successful  oration  in  1825 
bore  the  characteristic  title  '  The  Necessity 
of  cultivating  the  Imagination  as  a  Regu- 
lator of  the  Devotional  Feelings.'  His 
father's  death  (1826)  left  on  the  family  a 
burden  of  undischarged  liabilities,  all  of 
which  were  paid  in  full.  His  mother's 
anxiety  for  his  health,  injured  by  '  intempe- 
rate study'  (KENRICK),  led  her  to  propose 
his  removal  to  Gottingen ;  Kenrick  thought 
the  Gottingen  system  of  lecturing  for  a  ses- 
sion on  '  one  evangelist,  one  prophet,'  inferior 
to  Wellbeloved's  plan  of  going  through  the 
Old  or  New  Testament  in  a  year  (unpub- 
lished letter  of  Kenrick,  16  April  1826). 
Leaving  York  in  1827  he  preached  (4  July) 
one  of  the  annual  sermons  of  the  Eastern 
Unitarian  Association  at  Halesworth,  Suf- 
folk, the  other  preacher  being  Michael 
Maurice,  father  of  (John)  Frederick  Denison 
Maurice  [q.  v.] 

In  1827  he  became,  for  a  year,  assistant 
and  virtually  locum  tenens  in  Lant  Carpen- 
ter's school  at  Bristol.  Next  year  he  was 
called  to  Dublin  as  co-pastor  (assistant  and 
successor)  to  his  aged  kinsman,  Philip  Tay- 
lor [see  under  TAYLOR,  JOHN,  1694-1761], 
and  colleague  with  Joseph  Hutton  (d.  1  Feb. 
1856,  aged  90),  grandfather  of  Richard  Holt 
Hutton  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  in  the  congregation 
of  Eustace  Street,  founded  by  Samuel  Win- 
ter, D.D.  [q.  v.],  on  independent  principles, 


Martineau 


147 


Martineau 


but  latterly  known  as  presbyterian.  It  was 
connected  with  the  '  southern  association,' 
known  (from  1809)  as  the  '  synod  of 
Munster'  (Facts  in  Reply  to  .  .  .  George 
Mathews,  1842,  p.  4).  By  ministers  of  this 
body  Martineau  was  ordained  on  26  Oct. 
1828 ;  the  ordination  service,  first  used  at 
Waterford  on  2  Aug.  1826 (Christian Mode- 
rator, September  1826,  p.  184)  at  the  ordi- 
nation of  William  M'Cance  (d.  26  June 
1882),  was  published  (1829)  with  a  valuable 
historical  appendix  [see  ARMSTRONG,  JAMES, 
D.D.]  Martineau's  confession  of  faith  re- 
flects the  theology  of  Carpenter  rather  than 
that  of  Wellbeloved,  and  on  the  person  of 
Christ  carefully  selects  what  was  common 
ground  with  Arianism,  but  is  remarkable  at 
that  date  for  its  silence  on  the  inerrancy  and 
inspiration  of  scripture  and  the  wholequestion 
of  miracles.  He  bought  a  house,  married, 
and  took  pupils.  He  was  a  chief  promoter 
and  the  first  secretary  of  the  '  Irish  Uni- 
tarian Christian  Society,'  founded  17  March 
1830,  and  still  in  being.  For  his  congrega- 
tion he  compiled  a  hymn-book  (Dublin, 
1831, 12mo) ;  it  was  only  in  local  and  tem- 
porary use. 

His  Dublin  ministry  was  highly  appre- 
ciated, though  '  an  expression  implying  the 
simple  humanity  of  Christ '  lost  him  '  the 
most  attached  friend '  among  his  hearers 
(memorial  preface  to  THOM'S  A  Spiritual 
Faith,  1895,  p.  viii).  By  the  death  of 
Philip  Taylor  (27  Sept.  1831)  he  succeeded 
to  a  share  of  regium  donum,  but  resigned 
(October  1831)  rather  than  benefit  by  a  '  re- 
ligious monopoly,'  though  willing  to  retain 
office  without  this  increase  of  income. 
Among  his  reasons  (letter  in  Monthly  Re- 
pository, 1831,  p.  832)  he  specifies  the 
opinion  that  the  donum,  by  endowing  pres- 
byterianism,  '  stifles  our  predilection  for 
Avhat  many  of  us  believe  to  be  the  better 
system,  that  of  the  independents.'  His 
congregation  accepted  the  resignation 
(13  Nov.)  by  a  majority  of  one,  and  made 
him  a  handsome  presentation.  He  was  in- 
vited to  be  colleague  with  John  Grundy 
[q.  v.]  at  Paradise  Street  chapel,  Liverpool, 
and  entered  on  his  duties  there  on  1  July 
His  salary  was  2001.,  and  he  con- 
tinued to  take  pupils.  One  of  them,  his 
colleague's  son,  describes  him  at  that  period 
as  '  benevolently  ugly,  if  ugly  at  all,  with 
his  rough-cast  features,  wild  upstanding 
black  hair,  low  broad  forehead,  and  swarthy 
complexion'  (F.  H.  GRTTNDY,  Pictures  of  the 
I'tr-'f.  1*7'.>.  p.  45).  In  addition  to  private 
pupils,  he  had  public  classes  on  scientific 
s'il>j«>ots,  e.g.  a  course  of  ten  lectures 
\pril-18  June  1833)  on  chemistry  at 


the  Mechanics'  Institution,  Slater  Street. 
By  Grundy's  resignation  (1835)  he  became 
sole  pastor.  He  never  administered  bap* 
tism,  substituting  a  service  of  dedication. 
In  1836  he  took  a  leading  part  in  founding 
the  Liverpool  domestic  mission.  An  indi- 
cation of  his  local  influence  is  afforded  bv 
the  circumstance  that  in  1837  the  Wesleyan 
conference  was  urged  to  make  special  ap- 
pointments at  Liverpool,  a  reason  assigned 
being  the  presence  there  of  'the  brilliant 
Martineau'  (GREGORY,  Side  Lights  on  the 
Conflicts  of  Methodism,  1899,  p.  247). 

His  'Rationale  of  Religious  Enquiry' 
(1836,  12mo)  had  made  him  widely  known 
as  a  writer  of  exceptional  power;  in  this 
volume  of  lectures  he  denied  the  Christian 
name  to  unbelievers  in  the  recorded  mira- 
cles of  Christ,  a  judgment  defended  in  the 
second  edition  (same  year),  and  recalled  in 
the  third  (1845),  under  the  influence  of 
Joseph  Blanco  White  [q.  v.]  The  impres- 
sion of  his  force  and  originality  was  deepened 
by  the  part  he  took  (1839)  in  the  Liverpool 
Unitarian  controversy,  and  not  least  by  the 
preliminary  correspondence  with  thirteen 
local  Anglican  divines,  headed  by  Fielding 
Ould  ( Unitarianism  Defended,  1839,  8vo  ; 
Theological  Review,  January  1877,  p.  85). 
Channing  wrote  of  his  lectures  as  '  among 
the  noblest  efforts  of  our  times '  (letter  of 
22  June  1840  in  Memoir,  .1848,  ii.  399). 
Martineau's  own  reference  (Memorial  Pre- 
face, ut  sup.  p.  xiii)  to  his  attitude  in  this 
controversy  as  contrasted  with  that  of  John 
Hamilton  Thorn  [q.  v.]  seems  due  to  defec- 
tive memory.  In  1840  he  published  a 
hymn-book  ('Hymns  for  the  Christian 
Church  and  Home  ')  which  rapidly  took  the 
place  of  that  associated  with  the  name  of 
Andrew  Kippis,  D.D.  [q.  v.]  It  is  still  in 
use,  being  but  partially  superseded  by  Mar- 
tineau's later  collection,  '  Hymns  of  Praise 
and  Prayer '  (1873). 

Retaining  his  congregational  charge,  ho 
became  (October  1840)  professor  of  mental 
and  moral  philosophy  and  political  economy 
in  his  alma  mater,  removed  back  from  York 
to  Manchester,  and  known  as  Manchester 
New  College  (M.N.  C.  Introductory  Lectures, 
1841 ;  Essays,  Reviews,  and  Addresses,  1891, 
iv.  3).  In  the  syllabus  of  his  lectures  John 
Stuart  Mill  [q.  v.]  '  noticed  the  change ' 
which  was  beginning  to  affect  his  philo- 
sophical views  (Types  of  Ethical  Theory, 
1889,  p.  xii).  Channing  had  noted  it  earlier 
(letter  of  29  Nov.  1839,  in  Memoir,  ut  sup. 
p.  433). 

The  fruit  of  his  Paradise  Street  ministry 
was  published  in  two  volumes  of  sermons, 
'Endeavours  after  the  Christian  Life' 

L2 


Martineau 


148 


Martineau 


(1st  ser.  1843, 12mo;  2nd  ser.  1847,  12mo; 
often  reprinted),  unsurpassed  for  beauty  and 
charin  by  his  later  writings,  and  realising 
his  ideal  that  a  sermon  should  be  a  '  lyric ' 
utterance.  In  a  remarkable  sermon,  'The 
Bible  and  the  Child  '  (July  1845,  reprinted, 
Essays,  ut  sup.  iv.  389),  he  first  distinctly 
broke  with  the  biblical  conservatism  of  his 
denomination.  Pending  the  removal  of  his 
congregation  to  a  more  modern  structure, 
he  was  set  free  from  16  July  1848  till  the 
opening  (18  Oct.  1849)  of  the  new  church  in 
Hope  Street,  his  pastoral  duties  being  un- 
dertaken by  Joseph'  Henry  Hutton  (1822- 
1899),  elder  brother  of  R.  H.  Hutton;  one 
of  the  few  occasions  on  which  the  latter 
occupied  a  pulpit  was  at  Paradise  Street 
during  this  interval. 

Martineau  spent  the  fifteen  months  with 
his  family  in  Germany,  taking  a  winter's 
study  at  Berlin.  11.  H.  Hutton,  who  had 
been  his  pupil  in  Manchester,  read  Plato 
and  Hegel  with  him  (Proceedings,  ut  snp. 
p.  38).  His  studies  were  mainly  directed 
by  Trendelenburg.  He  regarded  this  break 
as  a  '  second  education,'  and  '  a  new  intel- 
lectual birth,'  involving  the  complete  '  sur- 
render of  determinism '  ( Types,  ut  sup. 
p.  xiii).  His  earlier  standpoint  had  been 
determinist  and  utilitarian  (cf.  his  five  arti- 
cles on  Bentham's  '  Deontology,'  Christian 
Reformer,  March-December,  1835,  p.  185 
sq.)  He  wrote  for  the  'London  Review' 
(1835)  and  for  the  '  London  and  Westmin- 
ster Review '  from  the  amalgamation  (1836) 
till  January  1851.  From  1838  he  wrote  for 
the  '  Christian  Teacher,'  then  edited  by  J.  H. 
Thorn,  whom  he  joined,  with  John  James 
Tayler  [q.v.]  and  Charles  Wicksteed  (1810- 
1885),  in  editing  the  '  Prospective  Review  ' 
(1845-54),  of  which  John  Kentish  [q.  v.]  said 
that  its  title  must  have  been  suggested  by 
'  the  Irish  member  of  the  firm,'  while  John 
Gooch  Robberds  [q.  v.],  alluding  to  its  motto 
'Respice,  Aspice,  Prospice,'  described  it  as 
*  a  magazine  of  allspice.'  To  this  quarterly, 
and  to  its  successor  the  '  National  Review ' 
(1855-1864),  edited  by  Martineau,  R,  H. 
llutton,  and  Walter  Bagehot,  he  contri- 
buted some  of  his  best  critical  work;  later 
he  wrote  occasionally  for  the  'Theological 
Review,' edited  by  Charles  Beard  [q.v.  SuppL] 
His  drastic  treatment  ('  Mesmeric  Atheism ' 
in  Prospective,  March  1851)  of  '  Letters  on 
the  Laws  of  Man's  Nature  and  Develop- 
ment' (January  1851),  by  Henry  George 
Atkinson  and  Harriet  Martineau  (who  edited 
the  volume),  was  never  forgiven  by  the  latter. 
This  masterpiece  of  satire,  coming  after  a 
coolness  of  some  years'  standing,  due  to  a 
refusal  to  destroy  his  sister's  letters  to  him- 


self, produced  an  alienation  which  Marti- 
neau made  fruitless  efforts  to  remove  (cf.  his 
letters  in  Daily  News,  30  Dec.  1884,  2  and' 
6  Jan.  1886). 

For  five  years  after  the  removal  (1853)  of 
Manchester  New  College  to  University  Hall, 
Gordon  Square,  London,  Martineau  tra- 
velled up  to  town  every  week  in  the  session 
to  deliver  his  lectures,  till  in  1857  he  left 
Liverpool  to  share  with  Tayler  the  theolo- 
gical teaching  of  the  college,  as  professor  of 
mental,  moral,  and  religious  philosophy. 
This  arrangement  was  not  effected  without 
strenuous  protest  (led  by  Robert  Brook 
Aspland  [q.  v.],  who  resigned  the  secretary- 
ship, and  joined  by  Martineau's  brothers-in- 
law,  Samuel  Bache  [q.  v.]  and  Edward 
Higginson  [q.  v.])  against  confining  the 
teaching  to  one  school  of  thought.  He  re- 
turned to  the  pulpit  in  1859,  becoming  col- 
league (20  Feb.)  with  Tayler  in  the  charge 
of  Little  Portland  Street  chapel,  left  vacant 
by  the  death  of  Edward  Tagart  [q  v.] ;  from 
1860  he  was  in  sole  charge.  Of  his  London 
ministry  there  are  sketches  by  Frances 
Power  Cobbe  (Life,  1894,  ii.  145  ;  Inquirer, 
20  Jan.  1900,  p.  11).  From  1858  to  1868  he 
was  a  trustee  of  Dr.  Williams's  founda- 
tions. In  his  letter  (6  Aug.  1859)  to  Simon 
Frederick  Macdonald  (1822-1862)  on  'the 
Unitarian  position,'  followed  by  a  second 
letter  '  Church-Life  ?  or  Sect-Life  ? '  (14  Oct. 
1859),  '  in  reply  to  the  critics  of  the  first T 
(both  reprinted  in  Essays,  ut  sup.  ii.  371),  he 
pleaded  for  restricting  Unitarian  profession 
to  individuals  and  societies,  leaving  congre- 
gations unpledged  to  distinctive  doctrine. 

At  midsummer  1866  John  Hoppus  [q.  v.] 
vacated  the  chair  of  mental  philosophy  and 
logic  in  University  College,  London.  Mar- 
tineau's candidature  was  unsuccessful,, 
mainly  through  the  opposition  of  George 
Grote  [q.  v.],  who  raised  the  anti-clerical 
cry.  In  protest  against  this  limitation, 
Augustus  de  Morgan  [q.  v.]  resigned  the 
mathematical  chair,  and  William  Ballantyne 
Hodgson  [q.  v.]  resigned  his  seat  on  the 
college  council.  Meanwhile  Martineau  was- 
busy  with  denominational  controversies,, 
issuing  in  the  formation  of  a  'Free  Christian 
union,'  which  celebrated  its  first  anniversary 
(1  June  1869)  with  sermons  by  Athanase 
Coquerel  fils  and  Charles  Kegan  Paul,  and 
lasted  a  couple  of  years.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  '  Metaphysical  Society  '  (2  June  1869- 
12  May  1880),  which  owed  its  inception  to 
Tennyson.  In  1869  he  became  principal  of 
Manchester  New  College,  and  in  1872,  under 
medical  advice,  he  gave  up  preaching ;  his 
friends  presented  him  with  inscribed  plate 
and  5,800/.  In  the  same  year  he  received 


Martineau 


149 


Martineau 


the  LL.D.  diploma  from  Harvard.  The 
most  striking  sermons  of  his  London  minis- 
try were  published  in  '  Hours  of  Thought 
on  Sacred  Things'  (1st  ser.  1876,  8vo  ;  2nd 
«er.  1879,  8vo). 

His  college  address  (6  Oct.  1874),  criti- 
cising the  address  (19  Aug.)  of  John  Tyn- 
dall  [q.  v.]  to  the  British  Association  at 
Belfast,  led  to  a  controversy  (1875-6)  with 
Tyndall,  who  wrote  in  the  '  Fortnightly  Re- 
view,' Martineau  replying  in  the  '  Contem- 
porary.' The  brilliance  of  his  papers  (re- 
printed, Essays,  ut  sup.  iv.  163)  culminating 
in  his 'Ideal  Substitutes  for  God'  (1879), 
won  him  wide  repute  as  a  champion  of 
theism.  He  received  the  diplomas  of  S.Th.D. 
Leydeu  (1875),  D.D.  Edinburgh  (1884), 
D.C.L.  Oxon.  (20  June  1888),  Litt.D.  Dub- 
lin (1892).  In  1882  appeared  his  '  Study  of 
Spinoza' (2nd  ed.  1883,  8vo),  in  which  he 
maintained  that  Spinoza's  philosophy  does 
not  reach  the  point  of  theism.  His  college 
work  had  been  lightened  by  the  appointment 
(1875)  of  Charles  Barnes  Upton  as  joint 
professor  of  philosophy ;  at  Michaelmas  1885 
he  resigned  the  principalship,  having  passed 
the  age  of  eighty.  In  1 886-7  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  college.  On  his  eighty-third 
birthday  an  address  was  presented  to  him 
bearing  names  of  the  stamp  of  Tennyson, 
Browning,  Kenan,  Kuenen,  Jowett,  and 
Sanday  (the  text,  with  649  signatures,  is  in 
Knight's  '  Inter  Amicos,'  1901,  pp.  89  sq.) 

Much  of  Martineau's  college  work  was  in- 
corporated in  his  later  publications,  on  which 
his  reputation  as  a  philosophic  thinker  will 
mainly  rest.  His  '  Types  of  Ethical  Theory ' 
(Oxford,  1885,  2  vols.  8vo;  3rd  ed.  1889, 8vo) 
has  been  used  as  a  text-book  at  Oxford  and 
Calcutta  ;  portions  of  an  analysis,  based  on 
lectures  by  Henry  Stephens,  were  published 
at  Calcutta  in  1890  (see  also  The  Law  of 
Duty :  a  Suggested  Moral  Text-book,  based 
on  the  Ethical  and  Religious  Writings  of 
Dr.  J.  Martineau,  Madras,  1889,  8vo,  by 
T.  E.  SLATOR).  His  '  Way  out  of  the  Trini- 
tarian Controversy '  (a  sermon  of  earlier  date, 
first  printed,  Christian  Reformer,  1886  ;  re- 
printed, Essays,  ut  sup.  ii.  525)  is  based  on 
the  theory  that  the  real  object  of  worship, 
in  both  creeds,  is  the  '  Second  Person '  under 
different  names.  Of  his  '  Study  of  Religion ' 
(Oxford,  1888,  2  vols.  8vo;  1889,  8vo)  there 
is  an  'Analysis'  (1900)  by  Richard  Acland 
Armstrong.  The  brilliant  elaboration  of  the 
*  design  argument' marks  the  recurrence  of 
his  thought  to  a  position  which  he  had  long 
disparaged,  if  not  discarded  ;  it  was  resumed 
with  modifications  made  necessary  by  the 
Darwinian  doctrine  of  evolution.  To  save 
free-will,  Martineau  (after  Socinus)  excludes 


the  divine  foreknowledge  of  contingencies ; 
but  as  in  his  view  all  the  lines  of  action, 
between  which  choice  lies,  lead  to  the  same 
goal,  free-will  '  only  varying  the  track '  (ii. 
279),  the  result  seems  indistinguishable  from 
fatalism.  In  1888  he  introduced  at  Leeds  a 
comprehensive  plan  of  organisation  and  sus- 
tentation  for  the  Unitarian  body,  under  the 
character  of  '  English  presbyterians.'  The 
scheme,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  James 
Yates  (1789-1871)  [q.v.],  was  not  adopted, 
though  certain  of  its  suggestions  have  borne 
fruit.  On  the  formation  (14  May  1889)  of 
a  '  provincial  assembly '  by  London  uni- 
tarians,  Martineau  resisted  the  proposal  of 
Robert  Spears  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  to  make  the 
term  '  Christian '  a  part  of  its  title.  The 
latest  phases  of  his  theological  teaching 
must  be  sought  in  '  The  Seat  of  Authority 
in  Religion '  ( 1890, 8vo  ;  1892,  8vo),  in  which, 
more  space  is  given  to  the  polemic  than  to 
the  reconstructive  side  of  his  subject ;  hence 
it  has  been  described  as  '  the  unseating  of 
authorities.'  Of  his  New  Testament  criti- 
cism it  has  been  remarked  as  '  strange,  that 
whenever  our  Lord's  language  is  at  issue 
with  Dr.  Martineau's  philosophy,  the  evan- 
gelists have  been  bad  reporters.'  He  lec- 
tured at  University  Hall,  Gordon  Square 
(January-March  1891),  on  the  '  Gospel  of 
Luke; '  and  (1893)  on  the  newly  discovered 
'  Gospel  according  to  Peter.'  He  had  op- 
posed the  removal  (1889)  of  Manchester  New 
College  to  Oxford,  but  took  part  in  the 
opening  of  the  new  buildings,  conducting 
the  communion  service  (19  Oct.  1893)  in  the 
chapel  of  Manchester  College. 

Till  a  few  months  before  the  close  of  his 
long  life  he  showed  no  symptom  of  failing 
faculty,  unless  a  slight  deafness  be  reckoned 
and  some  defects  of  memory.  Within  a 
year  of  his  death  an  old  friend  calling  to  see 
him  found  that  '  the  venerable  youth  had 
gone  to  a  popular  concert.'  Always  abs- 
temious and  never  using  tobacco,  he  disused 
alcohol  in  the  period  1842-9,  and  gave  it  up 
in  the  sixties  (READE,  Study  and  Stimulants^ 
1883,  p.  97) ;  he  had  previously  been  troubled 
with  hereditary  gout,  Till  1898  he  spent 
the  summer  and  autumn  at  his  highland 
residence,  The  Polchar,  Aviemore,  Inver- 
ness-shire, where  he  proved  himself  an  ex- 
perienced mountaineer.  His  strenuous  cha- 
racter and  aesthetic  sense  marked  every  de- 
tail of  his  work  ;  he  was  an  excellent  man 
of  business,  and  his  most  ordinary  correspon- 
dence had  distinction  and  a  high  finish.  Old 
age  gave  grandeur  to  his  countenance,  and 
a  refined  gentleness  to  his  demeanour.  In 
his  conversation  as  in  his  letters  there  was 
a  rare  combination  of  dignified  modesty  and 


Martineau 


150 


Martineau 


courtly  grace.  His  spoken  addresses  were 
simpler  in  style  than  most  of  his  literary 
works,  which,  when  richly  wrought,  re- 
minded his  critics  of  a  kaleidoscope  (It.  B. 
Aspland's  phrase ;  see  also  Life  of  F.  P.  Cobbe, 
ut  sup.  p.  146).  The  delivery  of  his  sermons 
was  vivid  and  even  dramatic,  though  with- 
out action ;  his  lectures  were  mechanically 
dictated.  Both  sermons  and  lectures  were 
written  in  Doddridge's  shorthand.  His  poli- 
tics were  of  the  old  whig  school ;  he  was 
against  disestablishment,  desiring  a  compre- 
hensive national  church;  he  took  the  side 
of  the  southern  states  in  the  American  war ; 
in  Irish  politics  he  was  strongly  averse  to 
home  rule ;  he  was  opposed  to  free  educa- 
tion and  advocated  a  common  religious  teach- 
ing in  board  schools.  An  outside  estimate 
of  his  services  to  speculative  theology,  by 
P.  T.  Forsyth,  D.D.,  is  in  the  '  London  Quar- 
terly,' April  1900,  p.  214  (cf.  R.  H.  HUTTON 
in  Proceedings,  ut  sup.  pp.  36-40).  To  fix 
the  ultimate  value  of  his  contributions  to 
philosophy  no  attempt  can  be  made  here ;  as 
an  intellectual  and  moral  force,  he  impressed 
himself  on  his  generation  both  by  his 
writings  and  by  his  personality. 

He  died  at  35  Gordon  Square  on  11  Jan. 
1900  in  his  ninety-fifth  year,  and  was  buried 
at  Highgate  cemetery  on  16  Jan.  He  mar- 
ried (18  Dec.  1828)  Helen  (d.  9  Nov.  1877, 
aged  73),  eldest  daughter  of  Edward  Higgin- 
son,  and  had  issue  three  sons  and  five 
daughters,  of  whom  one  son  and  three 
daughters  survived  him.  His  portrait  was 
painted  by  C.  Agar  (1846,  engraved  1847) ; 
by  Mr.  G.  F.  Watts  (1874,  engraved  1874), 
not  a  very  successful  likeness  (cf.  Life  of 
F.  P.  Cobbe,  1894,  ii.  94);  by  Mr.  Alfred 
Emslie  (1888,  reproduced  in  photogravure). 
A  seated  statue  by  Mr.  H.  R.  Hope  Pinker 
(1898)  is  in  the  library  of  Manchester  College, 
Oxford ;  and  there  are  at  least  two  earlier 
busts  executed  during  his  Liverpool  minis- 
try, and  a  terra-cotta  bust  (1877)  by  James 
Mullins. 

His  chief  publications  are  enumerated 
above.  To  these  may  be  added,  besides 
many  single  sermons  and  addresses : 
1.  '  Home  Prayers,  with  Two  Services  for 
Public  Worship,'  1891,  12mo  (the  services 
first  published  1862).  2.  « Faith  .  .  .  Self- 
Surrender,'  1897,  12mo  (four  sermons). 
Three  collections  of  his  papers  were  pub- 
lished in  America  :  '  Miscellanies,'  Boston, 
U.S.A.,  1852,  8vo  (edited  by  Thomas  Starr 
King) ;  '  Studies  of  Christianity,'  1858, 12mo 
(edited  by  William  Rounseville  Alger  ;  in- 
cludes his  first  printed  sermon,  1830) ;  '  Es- 
says, Philosophical  and  Theological,'  Boston, 
Mass.,  1866  (includes,  in  error,  an  article  on 


Revelation'  by  R.  H.  Hutton,  New  York, 
1879,  8vo.)  His  own  selection  was  published 
as  '  Essays,  Reviews,  and  Addresses,'  1890-1, 
4  vols.  8vo.  He  prefixed  a  valuable  intro- 
duction to  E.  P.  Hall's  translation  of  Bonet- 
Maury's  '  Early  Sources  of  Unitarian  Chris- 
tianity,' 1884,  and  edited,  with  introduction, 
second  editions  of  works  by  J.  J.  Tayler,  and 
posthumous  sermons  by  J.  H.  Thorn.  Two 
original  hymns  are  in  his  collection  of  1840, 
another  is  in  his  collection  of  1873.  His 
'  Religion  as  affected  by  modern  Materialism ' 
(1874)  was  translated  into  German  by  Dr. 
Adolf  Sydow  in  1878  ;  four  of  his  sermons 
were  translated  into  Dutch,  '  Gedachten,' 
Leyden,  1893,  8vo. 

RCSSELL  MARTINEATT  (1831-1898),  orien- 
talist, eldest  son  of  the  above,  was  born  in 
Dublin  on  18  Jan.  1831.  Educated  at  Heidel- 
berg, University  College,  London,  and  Ber- 
lin, he  graduated  B.A.  London,  1850,  M.A. 
(classics)  London,  1854.  Having  acted  as 
domestic  tutor,  he  was  appointed  (1857)  on 
the  staff  of  the  British  Museum  library,  and 
rose  by  successive  promotions  to  the  post  of 
assistant-keeper  (1884),  which  he  held  till 
superannuated  in  1896.  His  department 
(though  oriental  studies  were  his  forte)  was 
early  printing ;  he  improved  the  collection 
of  Luther's  works  (first  editions),  catalogued 
that  section,  and  also  the  article  'Bible.' 
In  1857  he  also  became,  on  Ewald's  recom- 
mendation, lecturer  on  Hebrew  language 
and  literature  in  Manchester  New  College, 
London,  was  promoted  to  be  professor  in 
1866,  and  resigned  in  1874.  His  all-round 
scholarship  was  of  exceptional  thoroughness, 
and  he  excelled  as  a  painstaking  teacher.  He 
was  a  Hibbert  trustee,  and  a  trustee  of  Dr. 
Williams's  foundations.  His  health  suffered 
from  an  epileptic  tendency.  He  died  at 
5  Eldon  Road,  Hampstead,  on  14  Dec.  1898. 
He  married  (1861)  Frances  Bailey,  but  had 
no  issue.  He  published:  1.  'A  Short  Dis- 
sertation on  the  True  Pronunciation  of  the 
Divine  Name,'  1869,  8vo.  2.  '  The  Roots  of 
Christianity  in  Mosaism,'  1869, 8vo  (address 
at  Manchester  New  College).  3.  '  Notes  on 
the  Pronunciation  of  English  Vowels  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century,'  1892, 8vo  (Philological 
Society).  4.  'The  Song  of  Songs,'  1892, 
8vo  ;  '  The  Song  of  Songs  again,'  1896, 
8vo  (reprinted  from  'American  Journal  of 
Philology  ').  He  translated  Gregorovius's 
'  Corsica,'  1855,  8vo,  and  Goldziher's 
'  Mythology  among  the  Hebrews,'  1877, 8vo; 
and  edited  the  translation  of  a  section  of 
Ewald's  '  History  of  Israel,'  1867,2  vols.  8vo; 
last  edition,  1883,  8vo.  With  his  brother, 
Basil  Martineau,  and  James  Thornely 
Whitehead  (1834-1898)  he  edited  the  mu-. 


Massie 


Max  Miiller 


sical  edition  (1876)  of  his  father's  '  Hymns 
of  Praise  and  Prayer ; '  he  published  also 
some  tunes  and  an  anthem  separately.  He 
wrote  for  the  '  Theological  Review '  and  the 
'  Spectator,'  and  contributed  to  '  Biblio- 
graphica '  (1895)  and  to  Murray's  '  Oxford 
Dictionary '  {Inquirer,  24  Dec.  1898  ;  Chris- 
tian Life,  24  Dec.  1898). 

[A  biography  of  Martineau  by  Principal 
Drummond  and  Professor  Upton  is  expected 
shortly.  Dublin  University  Magazine,  April 
1877,  p.  43-t  (with  an  excellent  portrait)  ;  Gas- 
sell's  National  Portrait  Gallery,  No.  78  (7  Nov. 
1877,  with  memoir  by  Rev.  Charles  Wicksteed, 
on  the  basis  of  Martineau's  autobiographical  me- 
moranda) ;  Julian's  Dictionary  of  Hymnology, 
1892,  p.  715;  Inquirer,  20  Jan.  1900  (special 
number ;  portrait) ;  The  Bookman,  February 
1900  (excellent  portrait);  Jackson's  James  Mar- 
tineau, 1900  (two  portraits);  authorities  cited 
above  ;  personal  recollection.]  A.  G. 

MASSIE,  THOMAS  LEEKE  (1802- 
1898),  admiral,  was  horn  at  Coddington 
Hall,  Cheshire,  on  20  Oct.  1802.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  October  1818  on  board  the 
Rochefort,  flagship  in  the  Mediterranean  of 
Sir  Thomas  Francis  Fremantle  [q.  v.l  and 
later  on  of  Sir  Graham  Moore  [q.  v.J  In 
different  ships  he  continued  serving  in  the 
Mediterranean :  was  wrecked  in  the  Colum- 
bine brig  on  the  coast  of  the  Morea,  25  Jan. 
1824  ;  was  in  the  Martin  at  the  demonstra- 
tion against  Algiers  [see  NEALE,  SIB  HAEEY 
BUEEAED]  ;  was  frequently  engaged  in  boat 
affairs  with  Greek  pirates,  and  was  in  the 
Asia  at  Navarino  on  20  Oct.  1827.  For  this 
he  was  rewarded  with  promotion  to  lieu- 
tenant on  a  death  vacancy,  11  Nov.  1827. 
As  a  lieutenant  he  served  mostly  in  the 
Channel,  North  Sea,  and  Lisbon  station; 
was  for  three  vears  on  the  South  American 
station  with  Captain  Robert  Smart  in  the 
Satellite,  and  for  two  years  in  the  Medi- 
terranean as  first  lieutenant  of  the  Carysfort 
with  Henry  Byam  Martin.  On  28  June 
1838 — the  queen's  coronation — he  was  made 
commander ;  and  in  1839  was,  with  some 
others,  sent  out  to  Constantinople  to  assist  in 
organising  the  Turkish  navy.  They  were, 
however,  recalled  after  about  six  months ; 
and  in  March  1840  Massie  was  appointed 
(as  second  captain)  to  the  Thunderer  with 
Maurice  Frederick  Fitzhardinge  Berkeley, 
afterwards  Lord  Fitzhardinge  [q.  v.]  In  the 
Thunderer  he  took  part  in  the  operations  on 
the  coast  of  Syria  in  the  summer  and  autumn 
of  1840,  culminating  in  the  capture  of  Acre, 
for  which  he  was  promoted  to  be  captain  on 
17  March  1841.  In  April  1849  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Cleopatra,  which  he  com- 
manded in  the  East  Indies  and  China  and 


during  the  Burmese  war.  In  September 
1854  he  commissioned  the  Powerful,  which 
during  the  latter  part  of  1855  and  1856  was 
on  the  North  American  station.  He  had  no 
further  service,  but  became  rear-admiral  on 
7  Nov.  1860,  vice-admiral  on  2  April  1866, 
and  admiral  on  20  Oct.  1872.  He  died  at 
Chester  on  20  July  1898. 

[O'Byrne's  Naval  Biogr.  Diet. ;  Times,  21  July 
1898 ;  Navy  Lists.]  J.  K.  L. 

MAX  MULLER,  FRIEDRICH  (1823- 
1900),  orientalist  and  philologist,  was  the( 
only  son  of  the  distinguished  poet  Wilhelm 
Miiller  (1794-1827),  and  of  Adelheid, 
eldest  daughter  of  President  von  Basedow, 
prime  minister  of  the  small  duchy  of  Anhalt- 
Dessau.  Born  at  Dessau  on  6  Dec.  1823, 
and  losing  his  father  when  scarcely  four 
years  old,  he  lived  with  his  mother  and  at- 
tended the  grammar  school  of  his  native 
town  till  1836.  He  early  showed  a  talent 
for  music  and  came  into  contact  with 
several  distinguished  composers,  such  as 
Felix  Mendelssohn  and  Carl  Maria  von 
Weber.  He  was  the  godson  of  the  latter, 
and  received  his  name  Max  from  the  leading 
character  in  the  '  Freischiitz,'  which  had 
been  finished  just  before  his  birth.  For  a 
time  he  seriously  contemplated  taking  up 
music  as  a  profession,  but  was  dissuaded 
!  from  doing  so  by  Mendelssohn.  The  last 
I  five  years  of  his  school  life  he  spent  at 
!  Leipzig,  living  in  the  family  of  Dr.  Carus, 
!  an  old  friend  of  his  father,  and  continuing 
his  education  at  the  'Nicolai-Schule'  tbere. 
He  had  decided  to  adhere  to  the  study  of 
!  the  classical  languages ;  but  in  order  to 
qualify  for  a  small  bursary  from  Anhalt- 
Dessau  he  found  he  would  have  to  pass  his 
examination  of  maturity  ('  Abiturienten- 
examen '),  not  at  Leipzig,  but  at  Zerbst,  a 
small  town  in  that  state.  For  this  purpose 
he  was  obliged  to  acquire  a  considerable 
knowledge  of  mathematics  and  other  non- 
classical  subjects  in  an  incredibly  short 
time;  nevertheless  he  succeeded  in  passing  his 
examination  with  distinction.  He  accor- 
dingly entered  the  university  of  Leipzig  in 
the  spring  of  1841.  There  he  attended  no 
fewer  than  ten  courses  of  lectures,  on  the 
average,  during  each  term  on  the  most  varied 
subjects,  including  the  classical  lectures  of 
Professors  Haupt,  Hermann,  Becker,  besides 
others  on  old  German,  Hebrew,  Arabic, 
psychology,  and  anthropology.  He  was, 
however,  soon  persuaded  by  Professor  Her- 
mann Brockhaus,  the  first  occupant  of  the 
chair  of  Sanskrit,  founded  in  1841,  to  devote 
himself  chiefly  to  learning  the  classical 
language  of  ancient  India.  The  first  result 


Max  Miiller 


152 


Max  Muller 


of  these  studies  was  his  translation  of  the 
now  well-known  collection  of  Sanskrit 
fables,  the  '  Hitopadesa,' which  he  published 
when  only  twenty  years  of  age  (Leipzig,  1844) . 

He  graduated  Ph.D.  on  1  Sept.  1843, 
when  not  yet  twenty,  but  continued  his 
studies  at  Leipzig  for  another  term.  Then, 
in  the  spring  of  1844,  he  went  to  Berlin. 
Here  he  attended,  among  others,  the  lectures 
of  Franz  Bopp,  the  celebrated  founder  of  the 
science  of  comparative  philology,  and  those 
of  Schelling,  the  eminent  philosopher.  To 
the  early  influence  of  the  former  may  be 
traced  his  studies  in  the  subject  which  he 
represented  in  the  university  of  Oxford  for 
thirty-two  years  ;  to  the  teachings  of  the 
latter  was  doubtless  largely  due  that  interest 
in  philosophy  which  he  maintained  to  the 
end  of  his  life. 

In  March  1845  he  migrated  to  Paris,  where 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Eugene  Bur- 
nouf,  eminent  not  only  as  a  Sanskritist,  but 
also  as  the  first  Zend  scholar  of  his  day.  One 
of  his  fellow-students  at  Paris  was  the  great 
German  orientalist,  Rudolf  Eoth,  the  founder 
of  Vedic  philology ;  another  was  the  distin- 
guished classical  Sanskrit  scholar,  Dr.  Theo- 
dore Goldstiicker.  At  Burnouf  s  suggestion 
young  Max  Miiller  set  about  collecting  mate- 
rials for  an  editio  princeps  of  the '  Rigveda,' 
the  most  important  of  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Brahmans,  and  the  oldest  literary  monument 
of  the  Aryan  race.  He  accordingly  began 
copying  and  collating  manuscripts  of  the  text 
of  that  work,  as  well  as  the  commentary  of 
Sayana,  the  great  fourteenth-century  Vedic 
scholar.  All  this  time  he  was  entirely  de- 
pendent on  his  own  exertions  for  a  living, 
having  a  hard  struggle  to  maintain  himself 
by  copying  manuscripts  and  assisting  scho- 
lars in  other  ways. 

In  pursuance  of  his  enterprise  he  came 
over  to  England  in  June  1846,  provided 
with  an  introduction  to  the  Prussian 
minister  in  London,  Baron  Bunsen,  who 
subsequently  became  his  intimate  friend. 
Receiving  a  recommendation  to  the  East 
India  Company  from  him  and  from  Horace 
Hayman  Wilson  [q.  v.],he  was  commissioned 
by  the  board  of  directors  to  bring  out  at  their 
expense  a  complete  edition  of  the  '  Rigveda ' 
with  Sayana's  commentary.  Having,  in 
company  with  Bunsen,  visited  Oxford  in 
June  1847  for  the  meeting  of  the  British 
Association,  at  which  he  delivered  an  ad- 
dress on  Bengali  and  its  relation  to  the 
Aryan  languages,  he  returned  to  London. 
Early  in  1848  he  went  back  to  Paris  for  the 
purpose  of  collating  manuscripts.  Suddenly 
the  revolution  broke  out,  when  the  young 
orientalist,  fearing  for  the  safety  of  the 


precious  manuscripts  in  his  keeping,  hur- 
riedly returned  to  London,  where  he,  ac- 
companied by  Bunsen,  was  the  first  to  re- 
port to  Lord  Palmerston  the  news  that 
Louis  Philippe  had  fled  from  the  French 
capital. 

As  the  first  volume  (published  in  1849) 
of  his  edition  of  the  '  Rigveda  '  was  being 
printed  at  the  university  press,  he  found  it 
necessary  to  migrate  to  Oxford.  There  he 
settled  in  May  1848  and  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  deputy  Tay- 
lorian  professor  of  modern  European  lan- 
guages, and  in  the  following  year  was,  at  the 
s  uggestion  of  Dean  G  ais  ford ,  made  an  honorary 
M.A.  and  a  member  of  Christ  Church.  On 
succeeding  to  the  full  professorship  in  1854 
he  received  the  full  degree  of  M.A.  by  decree 
of  convocation.  As  Taylorian  professor  he 
lectured  chiefly  on  German  and  French,  in- 
cluding courses  on  middle  high  German  and 
on  the  structure  of  the  Romance  languages. 
He  was  made  a  curator  of  the  Bodleian 
library  in  1856,  holding  that  office  till  1863 ; 
re-elected  in  1881,  he  retired  in  1894.  In 
1858  he  was  elected  to  a  life  fellowship  at 
All  Souls'  College. 

In  1859  he  married  Georgiana  Adelaide, 
daughter  of  Mr.  Riversdale  Grenfell,  who 
already  included  among  his  brothers-in-law 
J.  A.  Froude,  Charles  Kingsley,  and  Lord 
Wolverton.  In  the  same  year  he  published 
his  important  '  History  of  Ancient  Sanskrit 
Literature,'  which,  dealing  with  the  Vedic 
period  only,  contained  much  valuable  re- 
search in  literary  chronology,  based  on  an 
extensive  knowledge  of  works  at  that  time 
accessible  in  manuscript  only. 

In  May  1860  Horace  Hayman  Wilson, 
professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Oxford,  died.  Max 
Muller,  whose  claims  were  very  strong  on 
the  score  of  both  ability  and  achievement, 
became  a  candidate  for  the  vacant  chair. 
He  was  opposed  by  (Sir)  Monier  Monier- 
Williams  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  an  old  member  of 
Balliol  and  University  colleges,  who  had 
been  professor  of  Sanskrit  at  the  East  India 
College  at  Haileybury  till  it  was  closed  in 
1858.  The  election  being  in  the  hands  of 
convocation — a  body  consisting  of  all  masters 
of  arts  who  keep  their  names  on  the  books 
of  the  university — came  to  turn  on  the  po- 
litical and  religious  opinions  of  the  candi- 
dates rather  than  on  their  merits  as  Sanskrit 
scholars.  Party  feeling  ran  high.  His  broad 
theological  views,  as  well  as  the  fact  of  his 
being  a  foreigner,  told  against  Max  Muller, 
especially  in  the  eyes  of  the  country  clergy, 
who  came  up  to  Oxford  in  large  numbers  to 
record  their  votes.  The  election  took  place 
on  7  Dec.  1860,  when  Monier- Williams  won 


Max  Muller 


153 


Max  Muller 


the  day  with  a  majority  of  223,  the  votes  in 
his  favour  being  833  against  610  for  Max 
Muller. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  defeat 
was  a  bitter  disappointment  to  Max  Muller, 
and  exercised  a  very  decided  influence  on 
his  subsequent  career  as  a  scholar.  Sanskrit 
studies  had  formed  the  main  interest  of  his 
intellectual  life  for  almost  twenty  years.  Had 
he  been  successful  in  the  contest,  his  acti- 
vity would  probably  have  been  almost  en- 
tirely limited  to  his  favourite  subject,  and, 
though  he  would  in  that  case  have  been  less 
famous,  he  would  doubtless  have  produced, 
during  the  latter  half  of  his  life,  works  of 
more  permanent  value  in  the  domain  of 
research. 

His  marvellous  industry  was  now  largely 
deflected  into  other  channels.  He  began  to 
pay  considerable  attention  to  comparative 
philology,  delivering  two  series  of  lectures 
on  the  science  of  language  at  the  Royal  In- 
stitution in  1861  and  1863.  These  lectures 
soon  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  the  standard 
authority  on  philology  in  the  estimation  of 
the  English  public.  Though  much  of  what 
is  contained  in  them  is  now  out  of  date, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  not  only 
for  the  first  time  aroused  general  interest  in 
the  subject  of  comparative  philology  in  Eng- 
land, but  also  exercised  in  their  day  a 
valuable  stimulating  influence  on  the  work  of 
scholars.  Here  he  first  displayed  that  power 
of  lucid  popular  exposition  and  of  investing 
a  dry  subject  with  abundant  interest,  which 
has  more  than  anything  else  contributed  to 
make  his  name  at  least  as  famous  as  that  of 
any  other  scholar  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Another  of  his  works,  in  spite  of  its  title, 
« The  Science  of  Thought '  (1887),  is  largely 
concerned  with  the  subject  of  language,  its 
main  thesis  being  the  inseparability  of 
thought  and  language.  In  1865  he  was  ap- 
pointed oriental  sub-librarian  at  the  Bod- 
leian, but,  finding  the  work  uncongenial, 
resigned  the  post  after  holding  it  for  two 
years.  In  1868  Max  Muller,  vacating  the 
Taylorian  chair,  was  nominated  to  the  new 
professorship  of  comparative  philology, 
founded  on  his  behalf.  This  chair  he  held 
down  to  the  time  of  his  death,  retiring,  how- 
ever, from  its  active  duties  in  1875.  Four 
years  after  his  election  he  was  invited  to  ac- 
cept, a  professorship  of  Sanskrit  in  the  newly 
founded  university  of  Strasburg.  Though 
he  declined  this  appointment,  he  consented 
to  deliver  a  course  of  lectures  at  Strasburg 
during  the  summer  term  of  1872.  The 
honorarium  which  he  received  for  the  work 
he  handed  over  to  the  university  authorities, 
who  founded  with  it  a  triennial  prize,  called 


the  '  Max  Muller  Stipendium,'  for  the  en- 
couragement of  Sanskrit  scholarship. 

Max  Muller  was  not  only  the  introducer 
of  comparative  philology  into  England ;  he 
also  became  a  pioneer  in  this  country  of  the 
science  of  comparative  mythology  founded 
by  Adalbert  Kuhn  with  his  epoch-making 
work,  '  Die  Herabkunft  des  Feuers,'  pub- 
lished in  1849.  Beginning  with  his  essay 
on  '  Comparative  Mythology,'  which  ap- 
peared in  1856,  he  wrote  a  number  of  other 
papers  on  mythological  subjects,  concluding 
his  labours  in  this  domain  with  a  large 
work  in  1897.  His  mythological  method, 
based  on  linguistic  equations,  has  hardly 
any  adherents  at  the  present  day.  For  most 
of  his  identifications,  as  of  the  Greek  Erinyus 
with  the  Sanskrit  Saranyus,  have  been  re- 
jected owing  to  the  more  stringent  applica- 
tion of  phonetic  laws  which  now  prevails  in 
comparative  philology.  Nor  does  his  theory 
of  mythology  being  a  '  disease  of  lan- 
guage '  any  longer  find  support  among 
scholars.  Nevertheless  his  writings  have 
proved  valuable  in  this  field  also  by  stimu- 
lating mythological  investigations  even  be- 
yond the  range  of  the  Aryan  family  of  lan- 
guages. 

Allied  to  his  mythological  researches  was 
his  work  on  the  comparative  study  of  reli- 
gions, which  was  far  more  important  and 
enduring.  Here,  too,  he  was  a  pioneer ; 
and  the  literary  activity  of  the  last  thirty 
years  of  his  life  was  largely  devoted  to  this 
subject.  He  began  with  four  lectures  on  the 
'  Science  of  Religion  '  at  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion in  1870.  These  were  followed  by  a 
lecture  on  '  Missions,'  which  dealt  with  the 
religions  of  the  world,  and  was  delivered 
in  Westminster  Abbey  at  the  invitation 
of  Dean  Stanley  in  December  1873.  He 
further  led  off  the  annual  series  of  Hibbert 
lectures  with  a  course  on  '  The  Origin  and 
Growth  of  Religion,'  delivered  in  the  chapter- 
house of  Westminster  Abbey  in  1878.  Sub- 
sequently he  discussed  four  different  aspects 
of  religion  as  Gifford  lecturer  before  the 
university  of  Glasgow  during  the  years  1888 
to  1892. 

Of  even  more  far-reaching  influence  than 
all  these  lectures  on  religion  was  the  great 
enterprise  which  Max  Muller  initiated  in 
1875,  when  he  relinquished  the  active  duties 
of  the  chair  of  comparative  philology.  This 
was  the  publication  by  the  Oxford  Univer- 
sity Press,  under  his  editorship,  of  the 
'  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,'  a  series  of  Eng- 
lish translations,  by  leading  scholars,  of  im- 
portant non-Christian  oriental  works  of  a 
religious  character.  This  undertaking  has 
done  more  than  anything  else  to  place  the 


Max  Muller 


154 


Max  Muller 


historical  and  comparative  study  of  religions 
on  a  sound  basis.  Among  the  '  Sacred  Books ' 
are  several  of  the  earliest  Indian  legal  works 
and  texts  on  domestic  ritual.  The  series  is 
thus  also  a  valuable  source  for  the  compara- 
tive study  of  law  and  custom.  By  its  pub- 
lication Max  Muller  therefore  rendered  an 
inestimable  service  to  the  science  of  an- 
thropology. Of  the  fifty-one  volumes  of  the 
series,  all  but  one  and  the  two  concluding 
index- volumes  had  appeared  before  the  death 
of  the  editor.  Over  thirty  volumes  represent 
the  Indian  religions  of  Brahmanism,  Bud- 
dhism, and  Jainism,  being  translations  from 
Sanskrit,  Pali,  and  Prakrit ;  but  the  series 
also  includes  versions  of  Chinese,  Arabic, 
Zend,  and  Pahlavi  works.  Max  Muller  him- 
self contributed  three  complete  volumes  and 
part  of  two  others  to  the  series. 

Though  debarred  by  his  defeat  in  1860 
from  officially  representing  Sanskrit  in  the 
university,  Max  Muller  continued  to  promote 
Sanskrit  studies  in  many  ways.  In  the  first 
place  he  finished  in  1873  his  'Rigveda,'  a 
second  revised  edition  of  which  was  com- 
pleted in  1892.  This  was  his  magnum  opus, 
which  will  secure  him  a  lasting  name  in  the 
history  of  Sanskrit  scholarship.  He  also 
published  several  important  Sanskrit  texts. 
Thus  he  initiated  the  Aryan  series  in  the 
'Anecdota  Oxoniensia'  with  four  publica- 
tions of  his  own,  partly  in  collaboration  with 
pupils ;  and  the  three  other  contributions 
which  had  appeared  down  to  the  end  of 
1900  were  all  undertaken  at  his  instigation. 
He  also  brought  out  some  Sanskrit  books  of 
an  educational  character,  besides  publishing 
several  translations  -of  Sanskrit  works.  In 
1883  he  further  printed  a  series  of  lectures 
on  the  value  of  Sanskrit  literature,  which  he 
had  delivered  at  Cambridge,  under  the  title 
of  '  India,  what  can  it  teach  us  ?  '  The  main 
importance  of  this  book  lies  in  the  '  Renais- 
sance theory '  which  it  propounds.  He  en- 
deavours to  prove  that  for  several  hundred 
years  there  was  a  cessation  of  literary  acti- 
vity in  India,  owing  to  the  incursions  of 
foreigners,  but  that  there  was  a  great  revival 
in  the  sixth  century  A.D.  This  theory,  though 
now  disproved  by  the  evidence  of  inscrip- 
tions, exercised  a  decidedly  stimulating  in- 
fluence on  Indian  chronological  research. 

Max  Muller  was,  moreover,  always  ready, 
in  spite  of  his  dislike  of  regular  teaching,  to 
help  students  of  Sanskrit  informally.  Thus 
he  gave  up  much  of  his  valuable  time  to 
directing  the  studies  of  three  young  Japanese 
who  came  to  Oxford  on  purpose  to  learn 
Sanskrit,  and  all  of  whom  published  valuable 
work  connected  with  ancient  India  under 
his  guidance.  One  of  them,  Bunyiu  Nanjio, 


translated,  at  his  instance,  in  1882,  the 
Chinese  catalogue  of  the  many  hundreds  of 
Buddhist  Sanskrit  books  which  were  rendered 
into  Chinese  from  the  first  century  A.D.  on- 
wards. Another,  Kenyiu  Kasawara,  com- 
piled a  list  of  Sanskrit  Buddhistic  technical 
terms,  which  was  edited  by  him  in  the 
'  Anecdota  Oxoniensia '  series ;  while  the 
third,  Takakusu,  at  his  instigation,  translated 
from  the  Chinese,  ir  1896,  the  travels  of  the 
pilgrim  I-tsing,  who  visited  India  during  the 
years  671-690  A.D.  Again,  the  first  three 
Sanskrit  books  published  by  Monier-Wil- 
liams's  successor  in  the  Boden  chair  were 
undertaken  under  Max  Miiller's  influence. 
It  was  through  him  also  that  most  of  the 
European  Sanskrit  scholars  who  went  out  to 
India  in  the  sixties  and  seventies  received 
their  appointments.  As  one  of  the  delegates 
of  the  Clarendon  Press  he  acted  as  literary 
adviser  to  the  university  on  Indian  subjects 
for  more  than  twenty  years  (1877-98).  He 
constantly  stirred  up  scholars  to  search  for 
rare  and  important  Sanskrit  manuscripts. 
This  insistence  led,  for  example,  to  the  dis- 
covery in  Japan  of  a  Sanskrit  manuscript 
dating  from  the  sixth  century,  the  oldest 
known  at  that  time  (1880).  He  himself 
acquired,  in  connection  with  his  edition  of 
the  '  Rigveda,'  a  valuable  collection  of  Vedic 
manuscripts  from  India,  to  the  number  of 
nearly  eighty. 

Max  Muller  had  a  great  literary  gift, 
doubtless  inherited  from  his  father.  A 
foreigner  by  birth  and  education,  he  attained 
command  of  an  English  style  excelled  by  few 
native  writers.  This  he  displayed  in  nume- 
rous contributions  to  English  journals,  espe- 
cially the  '  Edinburgh '  and  '  Contemporary ' 
reviews,  in  the  '  Fortnightly '  and  the  '  Nine- 
teenth Century.'  Most  of  these  were  subse- 
quently republished  in  a  collected  form  in  his 
'  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop '  (4  vols.) 
Some  of  the  most  attractive  of  his  articles, 
consisting  of  reminiscences,  appeared  only  a 
year  or  two  before  his  death  in  book  form, 
under  the  title  of  '  Auld  Lang  Syne '  (vol.  i. 
1898,  vol.  ii.  1899).  The  poetical  colouring 
of  his  temperament  was  perhaps  most  clearly 
exhibited  in  '  Deutsche  Liebe '  (1857),  one 
of  his  early  works,  which,  in  its  original 
German,  has  passed  through  thirteen  editions, 
and  has  been  translated  into  French,  Italian, 
and  Russian,  as  well  as  English.  This  ro- 
mance describes,  in  the  form  of  recollections, 
the  love  of  a  young  student  for  an  invalid 
princess ;  and  though  the  scene  is  laid  in 
the  old  castle  of  Dessau,  the  story  is  purely 
imaginary. 

Max  Muller  also  now  and  then  discussed 
important  public  questions,  such  as  the 


Max  Muller 


155 


Max  Muller 


linguistic  training  of  British  officers  at  the 
time  of  the  Crimean  war,  and  the  necessity 
of  founding  an  oriental  institute  for  the 
practical  teaching  of  eastern  languages  in 
the  interests  of  British  trade.  He  also 
championed  the  German  cause  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  in  letters  to  the 
'  Times.' 

It  was  only  by  a  remarkably  methodical 
arrangement  of  his  work  and  disposition  of 
his  time  that  he  managed  not  only  to  get 
through  an  enormous  amount  of  literary 
work,  but  to  deal  punctually  with  a  vast 
correspondence.  Though  he  fell  dangerously 
ill  during  a  visit  to  Germany  in  June  1899, 
and  after  a  remarkable  recovery  had  a  relapse 
a  year  later,  his  literary  activity  continued 
to  within  ten  days  of  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  Oxford  on  28  Oct.  1900;  he  was 
buried  in  Holywell  cemetery,  Oxford,  on 
1  Nov.  In  the  last  year  of  his  life  he  de- 
fended the  justice  of  the  British  cause  in  the 
Transvaal  war  against  Professor  Mommsen 
in  German  journals,  and  contributed  three 
articles  on  the  religions  of  China  to  the 
'  Nineteenth  Century'  in  September,  October, 
and  November.  1900.  On  his  deathbed  he 
dictated  to  his  son  alterations  and  correc- 
tions in  his  autobiography,  which  unfortu- 
nately brings  the  story  of  his  life  only  down 
to  his  early  days  at  Oxford. 

Max  Muller's  family  consisted  of  three 
daughters  and  a  son.  His  eldest  daughter 
died  at  Dresden  in  1876 ;  the  second,  mar- 
ried to  Mr.  F.  C.  Conybeare,  fellow  of  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford,  died  in  1886 ;  the 
third  married,  in  1890,  Mr.  Colyer  Fergus- 
son,  eldest  son  of  Sir  James  Ranken  Fer- 
gusson,  Bart.  His  son  entered  the  diplomatic 
service,  and  in  1900  was  second  secretary 
to  the  British  embassy  at  Washington. 

Max  Muller's  world-wide  fame  was  largely 
due  to  his  literary  gifts  and  the  extensive 
range  of  his  writings,  as  well  as  to  his  great 
ability,  industry,  and  ambition.  But  it  was 
undoubtedly  enhanced  by  a  combination  of 
opportunities  such  as  can  rarely  fall  to  the 
lot  of  any  scholar.  When  he  began  his 
career  Vedic  studies  were  in  their  infancy, 
and  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  become  the 
first  editor  of  the  '  Rigveda,'  the  most  im- 
portant product  of  ancient  Indian  literature. 
Again,  nothing  was  known  about  compara- 
tive philology  in  England  when  he  came 
over  to  this  country  ;  being  the  first  in  the 
field,  he  introduced  and  popularised  the  new 
science,  and  was  soon  regarded  as  its  chief 
exponent.  He  was,  moreover,  the  first  to 
inaugurate  the  study  of  comparative  mytho- 
logy in  this  country.  Lastly,  it  was  not  till 
the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 


that  the  necessary  conditions  were  at  hand 
for  founding  a  science  of  religion.  At  this 
precise  period  Max  Muller  was  there  to 
supply  the  needful  stimulus  by  means  of  his 
Hibbert  lectures,  and  to  collect  the  requisite 
materials  in  the  '  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.' 
Thus  there  was  a  great  opening  in  four 
highly  important  branches  of  learning ;  but 
no  one  could  have  taken  adequate  advantage 
of  them  all  unless  he  had  been,  like  Max 
Muller,  one  of  the  most  talented  and  versa- 
tile scholars  of  -  the  nineteenth  century. 
Though  much  in  his  works  and  methods 
may  already  be  superseded,  the  great  stimu- 
lating influence  his  writings  have  exercised 
in  many  fields  will  give  him  a  strong  claim 
to  the  gratitude  of  posterity. 

Scholar  and  voluminous  writer  though  he 
was,  Max  Muller  was  at  the  same  time  quite 
a  man  of  the  world.  Familiar  from  his 
earliest  days  with  court  life  on  a  small  scale 
at  Dessau,  he  was,  when  quite  a  young  man, 
a  frequent  visitor  at  the  Prussian  embassy  in 
London.  By  Baron  Bunsen  he  was  intro- 
duced to  the  late  prince  consort,  and  so 
came  to  be  well  known  to  Queen  Victoria 
and  the  royal  family.  He  was  also  personally 
acquainted  with  several  of  the  crowned 
heads  of  Europe,  such  as  the  Emperor  Fre- 
derick, the  present  German  Emperor,  the 
King  of  Sweden,  the  King  of  Roumania,  and 
the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  He  knew  most  of 
the  leading  men  of  the  day,  foreigners  as 
well  as  Englishmen,  and  entertained  many 
of  them  at  Oxford.  His  house  was  a  place 
of  pilgrimage  to  all  Indians  visiting  Eng- 
land ;  for,  owing  to  his  '  Rigveda  '  and  his 
writings  on  Indian  philosophy  and  religion, 
he  was  far  better  known  in  India,  though  he 
never  visited  that  country,  than  any  other 
European  scholar  has  ever  been. 

On  account  of  his  social  qualities  Max 
Muller  was  much  in  request  as  president  of 
societies  and  congresses.  Thus  he  was  the 
first  president  of  the  English  Goethe  Society, 
and  in  that  capacity  delivered  his  inaugural 
address  on  '  Carlyle  and  Goethe '  in  1886. 
He  was  also  president  of  the  International 
Congress  of  Orientalists,  held  in  London  in 
189^,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  most  of 
the  series  of  oriental  congresses  which  began 
in  1874. 

Probably  no  other  scholar  ever  obtained 
more  of  the  honours  which  are  bestowed  on 
learning.  He  was  one  of  the  knights  of  the 
Prussian  order  '  Pour  le  merite,'  a  knight  of 
the  Corona  d'  Italia,  and  a  privy  councillor 
in  this  country.  He  received  the  Northern 
Star  (first  class)  from  the  King  of  Sweden, 
and  subsequently  the  grand  cordon,  and 
was  decorated  with  the  orders  of  the  French . 


Max  Miiller 


156 


Max  Miiller 


legion  of  honour,  the  Bavarian  Maximilian, 
the  German  Albert  the  Bear,  and  the  Tur- 
kish Medjidieh.  He  was  an  honorary  doc- 
tor of  Berlin,  Bologna,  Buda-Pesth,  Cam- 
bridge, Dublin,  Edinburgh,  and  Princeton. 
He  was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Institute  of 
France,  of  the  Reale  Accademia  dei  Lincei 
at  Rome,  of  the  Royal  Berlin,  Sardinian, 
Bavarian,  Hungarian,  and  Irish  academies, 
of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Vienna,  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Upsala,  and  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society ;  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Lisbon, 
and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Gb'ttingen  ;  an 
honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  of  the 
German  Oriental  Society,  and  of  more  than 
twenty  other  important  learned  societies. 

A  portrait  of  Max  Miiller,  by  Mr.  G.  F. 
Watts,  R.A.,  has  been  presented  by  the 
painter  to  the  National  Portrait  Gallery, 
London ;  there  is  another  by  Herkomer, 
and  a  bust  by  Mr.  Bruce-Joy,  both  in  the 
possession  of  his  widow. 

After  Max  Miiller's  death  a  fund  was 
opened  at  Oxford  to  commemorate  his  ser- 
vices to  learning  and  letters.  Among  the 
contributors  have  been  King  Edward  VII 
and  several  Indian  princes,  while  the  German 
emperor  gave  the  munificent  donation  of 
500/.  It  is  intended,  after  supplying  some 
personal  memorial  at  Oxford,  to  turn  the 
sum  collected  into  a  '  Max  Miiller  Memorial 
Fund,'  to  be  held  by  the  university  in  trust 
'  for  the  promotion  of  learning  and  research 
in  all  matters  relating  to  the  history  and 
archaeology,  the  languages,  literatures,  and 
religions  of  ancient  India.'  A  Japanese 
'  Society  for  Oriental  Research '  has  also 
been  founded  at  Tokyo  in  commemoration  of 
Max  Miiller.  His  library  was  acquired  by 
the  university  of  Tokyo  in  July  1901. 

As  Max  Miiller's  writings  were  so  nume- 
rous and  ranged  over  so  many  fields,  a  classi- 
fication of  them  under  different  heads  will 
afford  the  best  survey  of  his  works. 

SANSKKTT. — '  Hitopadesa,'  translated  into 
German,  Leipzig,  1844 ;  '  Meghaduta,'  trans- 
lated into  German,  Konigsberg,  1847.  l  Rig 
Veda  Sanhita,  the  Sacred  Hymns  of  the 
Brahmans  translated  and  explained '  (twelve 
hymns  to  the  Maruts),  London,  Triibner, 
1869 ;  the  same,  with  thirty-six  additional 
hymns,  under  the  title  of '  Vedic  Hymns,'  in 
'  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,'  vol.  xxxii.  1891. 
'  Rigveda,'  with  Sayana's  '  Commentary,' 
6  vols.  London,  1849-73 ;  2nd  edit.  4  vols. 
London,  1890-2;  text  only,  2  vols.  1873; 
2nd  edit.  1877.  '  Hitopadeia,'  text,  with  in- 
terlinear translation,  2  parts,  London,  1864- 
1865.  '  Rigveda-Pratisakhya,'  text,  with 


German  translation,  Leipzig,  1856-69. 
'  Vajrachhedika '  ('  Anecdota  Oxoniensia/ 
Aryan  Series,  pt.  i.),  1881 ;  '  Sukhava- 
tivyuha,'  in  collaboration  with  Nanjio,  ib. 
1883  ;  '  Prajna-paramita-hrdaya-sutra,'  in 
collaboration  with  Nanjio,  ib.  1884;  Dharma- 
samgraha,'  prepared  by  K.  Kasawara,  and 
edited  by  Max  Miiller  and  H.  Wenzel,  ib. 
1885.  '  The  Upanishads,'  pt.  i.,  '  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East,'  vol.  i.  1879,  pt.  ii.  vol.  xv. 
'  The  Larger  and  Smaller  Prajna-paramita- 
hrdaya-Sutra,'  ib.  vol.  xlix.  1894.  '  A  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,  as  far 
as  it  illustrates  the  Primitive  Religion  of  the 
Brahmans,'  London,  1859 ;  2nd  edit.  1860. 
'  A  Sanskrit  Grammar,'  London,  1866  ;  2nd 
edit.  1870 ;  new  and  abridged  edition  by  A.  A. 
Macdonell,  1886.  '  India,  what  can  it  teach 
us?'  London,  1883;  new  edit.  1892;  re- 
printed 1895;  in  collected  edition,  1899.  In- 
troduction to  Takakusu's  Translation  of 
I-tsing,  Oxford,  1896. 

PALI. — '  The  Dhammapada,'  translated 
from  Pali,  in  Rogers's  Burmese  translation, 
London,  1870 ;  reprinted  in  the  '  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East,'  vol.  x. ;  2nd  edit,  1898. 

SCIENCE  OF  RELIGION. — '  On  Missions ' 
(lecture  delivered  in  Westminster  Abbey), 
London,  1873.  '  Introduction  to  the  Science 
of  Religion/  London,  1873;  new  edit.  1882; 
reissue,  1899.  'The  Origin  and  Growth  of 
Religion,  as  illustrated  by  the  Religions  of 
India,'  London,  1878 ;  2nd  edit.  1878 ;  new 
edit.  1882,  1891 ;  re-issue,  1898.  '  Natural 
Religion,'  London,  1889;  2nd  edit.  1892. 
'Physical  Religion,'  London,  1891;  new 
edit.  1 898.  '  Anthropological  Religion,'  Lon- 
don, 1892  ;  new  issue,  1898.  '  Theosophy, 
or  Psychological  Religion,'  London,  1893; 
new  edit.  1895  ;  new  impression,  1899. 

COMPARATIVE  MYTHOLOGY. — '  Essay  on 
Comparative  Mythology,'  part  i.  of  Oxford 
Essays,  1856.  '  Essays  on  Mythology  and 
Folklore '  ('  Chips,' vol.  iv.)  ;  new  impression, 
1900.  '  Contributions  to  the  Science  of 
Mythology,'  2  vols.  London,  1897. 

COMPARATIVE  PHILOLOGY. — '  On  the 
Stratification  of  Language'  (Rede Lecture), 
London,  1868.  '  The  Science  of  Language,' 
2  vols.  London,  1861  and  1863;  14th  edit. 
1885;  new  edit.  1890;  last  edition,  1899. 
'  On  the  Results  of  the  Science  of  Language ' 
(inaugural  lecture  in  German),  Strasburg, 
1872.  '  Essays  on  Language  and  Literature' 
('  Chips,'  vol.  iii.)  ;  last  edit.  1899.  '  Bio- 
graphies of  Words  and  the  Home  of  the 
Aryas,'  London,  1888 ;  new  edit.  1898. 

PHILOSOPHY. — 'Kant's  Critique  of  Pure 
Reason,'  translated,  London,  1881 ;  new 
edit.  1896.  'The  Science  of  Thought,' 
London,  1887.  '  Three  Lectures  on  the 


Maxse 


157 


Maxse 


Vedanta  Philosophy,'  London,  1894.  « The 
Six  Systems  of  Indian  Philosophy,'  London, 
1899. 

BIOGRAPHY.  —  '  Biographical       Essays ' 
('  Chips,'  vol.  ii.),  London,  1884 ;  new  im-  I 
pression,  1898.     '  Ramakrsna,  his  Life  and  | 
Sayings,'   London,  1898 ;    twice   reprinted,  j 
1899;  in   collected  edition,   1900.      '  Auld 
Lang  Syne,'  vol.  i.  London,  1898  (3  editions), 
vol.  ii., '  My  Indian  Friends,'  London,  1899 ; 
'  My  Autobiography.    A  Fragment,'  London, 
1901. 

GERMAN. — 'The  German  Classics  from 
the  Fourth  to  the  Nineteenth  Century,'  Lon- 
don, 1858 :  new  and  enlarged  edit.  2  vols. 
London,  1886.  'Deutsche  Liebe,'  1st  edit. 
Leipzig,  1857 ;  13th  edit.  1898  (altogether 
18,000  copies) ;  a  pirated  translation,  under 
the  title  of  '  Memories,'  has  had  an  enor- 
mous sale  in  America ;  French  transl.  1873 ; 
a  new  transl.  1900;  English  transl.  (by 
Mrs.  Max  Miiller)  London,  1873;  4th  edit, 
1898.  '  Wilhelm  Miiller's  Poems,'  edited 
with  introduction  and  notes,  Leipzig,  1868.  I 
'  Schiller's  Correspondence  with  Duke  Fried- 
rich  Christian  of  Schleswig  Holstein,'  edited 
with  introduction  and  notes,  Leipzig,  1875 ; 
'  Scherer's  History  of  German  Literature,' 
translated  by  Mrs.  Conybeare  and  edited  by 
F.  Max  Miiller,  Oxford,  1885;  new  edit. 
1891. 

A  collected  edition  of  Max  Miiller's  essays, 
entitled  '  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,' 
was  published  in  four  volumes  between  1867 
and  1875;  a  new  edition  came  out  in  1880. 
A  full  collected  edition  of  his  works  began 
to  appear  in  1898,  and  fifteen  volumes  had 
been  published  in  it  down  to  the  end  of  1900. 

[This  memoir  is  based  on  Max  Miiller's  Leip- 
zig Lecture-book  (Collegienbuch) ;  on  Oxford 
University  Notices  from  1850  onwards;  on 'Auld 
Lang  Syne,'  vol.  i. ;  on  '  My  Autobiography ; ' 
on  bibliographical  notes  furnished  by  Messrs. 
Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. ;  on  details  supplied 
by  Mrs.  Max  Miiller ;  and  largely  on  personal 
knowledge  (1876-1900).]  A.  A.  M. 

MAXSE,  FREDERICK  AUGUSTUS 
(1833-1900),  admiral  and  political  writer, 
second  son  of  James  Maxse  (d.  1864)  of 
Arnos  Vale,  Bristol,  by  Lady  Caroline  Fitz- 
hardinge  (1803-1886),  daughter  of  Frederick 
Augustus,  fifth  earl  of  Berkeley,  was  born 
in  1833.  Sir  Henry  Berkeley  Fitzhardinge 
Maxse  [q.  v.]  was  his  elder  brother.  He  en- 
tered the  navy,  obtained  his  lieutenancy  in 
1852,  and  as  naval  aide-de-camp  to  Lord 
Raglan  after  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  dis- 
played a  conspicuous  gallantry  in  carrying 
despatches,  which  caused  his  promotion  to 
the  rank  of  commander  in  December  1855. 
He  retired  from  the  service  with  the  rank 


of  admiral  in  1867,  and  unsuccessfully  con- 
tested the  borough  of  Southampton  in  the 
radical  interest  at  the  general  election  of 
November  1868.  He  was  also  beaten  in  a 
subsequent  contest  for  Middlesex  in  Fe- 
bruary 1874;  nor  did  he  ever  succeed  in 
entering  parliament.  Indeed  the  curious 
idiosyncrasies  which  made  his  character  an 
interesting  study  to  his  friend  Mr.  George 
Meredith  (see  Beauchamp's  Career}  unfitted 
him  for  modern  political  life.  His  liberalism 
was  of  no  school,  and  on  certain  questions, 
e.g.  woman's  suffrage  and  home  rule,  he  was 
as  tenaciously  conservative  as  the  highest  of 
tories.  He  was  an  occasional  contributor  to 
periodical  literature,  and  his  articles  on  the 
conduct  of  certain  of  the  operations  in  the 
Crimea,  which  appeared  in  the '  National  Re- 
view '  under  the  titles  '  Admiral  Lord  Lyons/ 
'  My  Two  Chiefs  in  the  Crimea,' '  Lord  Rag- 
lan's Traducers,'  and  'The  War  Corre- 
spondent at  Bay,'  during  the  first  quarter 
of  1899,  constitute  a  valuable  accession  to 
the  materials  at  the  disposal  of  the  future 
historian. 

Maxse  died  on  25  June  1900.  He  married, 
in  1862,  Cecilia,  daughter  of  Colonel  Steele, 
by  whom  he  left  issue  two  sons — Major 
Frederick  Ivor  Maxse  of  the  Coldstream 
guards,  and  Mr.  L.  J.  Maxse,  editor  of  the 
'  National  Review  ' — and  two  daughters,  the 
younger  of  whom,  Violet,  is  married  to  Lord 
Edward  Cecil. 

His  separate  publications  are  the  follow- 
ing :  1.  '  The  Education  of  the  Agricultural 
Poor,  being  an  Address  at  a  Meeting  of  the 
Botley  and  South  Hants  Farmers'  Club/ 
London,  1868, 8vo.  2.  '  Our  Political  Duty : 
a  Lecture/  London,  1870,  8vo.  3.  '  A  Plea 
for  Intervention/  London,  1871, 8vo.  4.  'The 
Causes  of  Social  Revolt :  a  Lecture/  Lon- 
don, 1872,  8vo.  5.  'Objections  to  Woman 
Suffrage :  a  Speech  ...  at  the  Electoral 
Reform  Conference  held  at  the  Freemasons' 
Tavern,  17  Nov.  1874.'  6.  'Whether  the 
Minority  of  Electors  should  be  represented 
by  a  Majority  in  the  House  of  Commons  ?  A 
Lecture  upon  Electoral  Reform/  London,. 
1875, 8vo.  7.  '  Woman  Suffrage :  the  Coun- 
terfeit and  the  True.  Reasons  for  opposing 
both/  London,  1877,  8vo ;  new  edit.  1884. 
8.  '  National  Education  and  its  Opponents  : 
a  Lecture/  London,  1877,  8vo.  9.  'The 
French  Press  and  Ireland:  two  Letters  on 
the  Irish  Question  addressed  to  "La  Jus- 
tice," '  London,  1888,  8vo.  10.  '  Home  Rule  : 
an  Expostulation/  London,  1889,  8vo.  11. 
'  Judas !  a  Political  Tract,  dedicated  to  the 
Intelligent  Parliamentary  Elector/  London, 
1894,  8vo.  For  uncollected  articles  see 
'  National  Review/  August  1895,  Septem- 


Maxwell 


158 


ber  1896,   May  1897,  January,  February, 
March,  April,  July  1899,  June  1900. 

[Walford's  County  Families ;  Gent.  Mag. 
1854  ii.  497,  1869  i.  671  ;  Ann.  Reg.  1855,  ii. 
356;  Times,  27  June  1900;  Brit.  Mus.  Cat.; 
Kinglake's  Invasion  of  the  Crimea,  6th  edit.  iv. 
23.]  J.  M.  R. 

MAXWELL,  SIB  WILLIAM  ED- 
WARD (1846-1897),  governor  of  the  Gold 
Coast,  was  born  in  1846. 

His  father,  Sir  PETER  BENSON  MAXWELL 
(1817-1893),  chief  justice  of  the  Straits 
Settlements,  born  at  Cheltenham  in  January 
1817,  was  the  fourth  son  of  Peter  Benson 
Maxwell  of  Birdstown,  co.  Donegal.  He 
was  educated  at  Paris  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  where  he  graduated  B. A.  in  1 839. 
He  entered  the  Inner  Temple  on  14  Nov. 
1838,  removed  to  the  Middle  Temple  on 
16  Nov.  1840,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  on 
19  Nov.  1841.  He  was  recorder  of  Penang 
from  February  1856  to  1866,  and  recorder 
of  Singapore  from  27  July  1866  to  1871. 
From  1867  to  1871  he  was  chief  justice  of 
the  Straits  Settlements,  and  in  1883  and 
1884  he  was  employed  in  reorganising  the 
judicial  tribunals  of  Egypt.  He  was 
knighted  at  Buckingham  Palace  on  30  Jan. 
1856,  and  died  in  France  at  Grasse,  in  the 
department  of  Alpes-Maritimes,  on  14  Jan. 
1893.  He  married,  in  July  1842,  Frances 
Dorothea,  only  daughter  of  Francis  Synge 
of  Glanmore  Castle,  co.  Wicklow.  He 
was  the  author  of  two  legal  works  of  some 
importance :  1.  '  An  Introduction  to  the 
Duties  of  Police  Magistrates  in  the  Settle- 
ment of  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  Singapore, 
and  Malacca,'  Penang,  1866,  8vo.  2.  « On 
the  Interpretation  of  Statutes/  London, 
1875,  8vo ;  2nd  edit.  1883  ( Times,  18  Jan. 
1893  ;  BOASE,  Modern  Biogr.  1897  ;  FOSTER, 
Men  at  the  Bar,  1885  ;  FOSTER,  Baronetage 
and  Knightage). 

His  younger  son,  William  Edward,  en- 
tered Repton  in  1860,  and  was  employed 
from  1865  to  1869  in  the  supreme  court  at 
Penang  and  Singapore.  In  1867  he  quali- 
fied as  an  advocate  at  the  local  bar,  and  in 
September  1869  he  was  appointed  a  police 
magistrate  and  commissioner  of  the  court 
of  requests  at  Penang.  In  February  1870 
he  was  placed  in  the  same  offices  in  Malacca, 
in  August  1871  at  Singapore,  and  in  1872 
in  Province  Wellesley.  In  May  1874  he 
was  nominated  a  temporary  judge  of  the 
supremB  court  of  Penang.  In  September 
he  was  appointed  assistant  government 
agent  for  Province  Wellesley,  and  in  No- 
vember 1875  he  accompanied,  as  deputy 
commissioner^  the  Larut  field  force,  which 
punished, the  murderers  of  James  Wheeler 


Woodford  Birch,  the  British  resident  at 
Perak.  For  his  services  he  was  mentioned 
in  the  despatches  and  received  a  medal. 
In  February  1878  he  became  assistant 
resident  in  Perak  and  a  member  of  the 
state  council.  In  1881  he  was  called  to  the 
bar  by  the  Society  of  the  Inner  Temple,  and 
in  the  following  year  he  was  commissioned  to 
visit  the  Australian  colonies  and  report  on 
the  Torrens  land  registration  system  [see 
TORRENS,  SIR  ROBERT  RICHARD].  On  re- 
turning to  the  Straits  Settlements  he  became 
commissioner  of  land  titles,  and  in  1883 
was  gazetted  a  member  of  the  executive  and 
legislative  councils.  In  1884  he  was  em- 
ployed by  the  foreign  office  on  a  mission  to 
the  west  coast  of  Atchin  to  obtain  the 
release  of  the  survivors  of  the  British  ship 
Nisero,  who  had  been  in  captivity  for  ten 
months.  He  was  successful  in  his  task, 
received  the  thanks  of  government,  and  was 
created  C.M.G.  From  1884  to  1889  he  was 
acting  resident  councillor  at  Penang,  and  in 
1889  British  resident  at  Selangor.  In  1892 
he  was  nominated  colonial  secretary  of  the 
Straits  Settlements,  and  from  September 
1893  till  January  1895  he  was  acting 
governor.  In  March  1895  he  was  nominated 
governor  of  the  Gold  Coast.  He  found  the 
colony  on  the  brink  of  a  war  with  the 
Ashantis,  who  made  frequent  slave  raids, 
and  refused  to  pay  the  balance  of  the  war 
indemnity  due  to  the  British  government. 
On  17  Jan.  1898  an  expedition  under  Sir 
Francis  Scott  entered  Kumassi  without 
resistance,  and  made  prisoner  the  Ashanti 
king,  Prempeh.  Maxwell,  who  was  nomi- 
nated K.C.M.G.  in  1896,  visited  England  in 
the  summer,  and  addressed  large  meetings 
at  Liverpool  and  Manchester  on  the  future 
of  the  Gold  Coast  and  Ashanti,  returning 
to  the  Gold  Coast  in  October.  He  died  at 
sea  off  Grand  Canary  on  10  Dec.  1897.  In 
1870  he  married  Lilias,  daughter  of  James 
Aberigh-Mackay,  chaplain  in  the  Indian 
service. 

[Times,  16  Dec.  1896;  Pall  Mall  Gazette, 
8  Jan.  1901 ;  Colonial  Office  Lists ;  Burke's 
Peerage  ;  Baden-Powell's  Downfall  of  Prempeh, 
1896.]  E.  I.  C. 

MAYNARD,  WALTER,  pseudonym. 
[See  BEALE,  THOMAS  WILLERT,  1828-1894.] 

MEADE,  SIR  ROBERT  HENRY  (1835- 
1898),  civil  servant,  second  son  of  Richard 
Meade,  third  earl  of  Clanwilliam,  and  of  his 
wife,  Lady  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  George 
Herbert,  eleventh  earl  of  Pembroke,  was 
born  on  16  Dec.  1835,  and  educated  at  Eton 
and  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  where  he  matri- 
culated on  7  Dec.  1854  and  graduated  B.. 


Meade 


159 


Mends 


in  1859  and  M.A.  in  1860.  On  1  June  1859 
he  entered  the  foreign  office.  He  was  des- 
patched to  Syria  with  Lord  Dufferin's 
special  mission  on  31  July  1860,  and  re- 
turning in  September  1861  was  selected  to 
accompany  the  prince  of  Wales  in  his  tour 
through  Palestine  and  Eastern  Europe  in 
1861-2.  In  the  autumn  of  1862  he  accom- 
panied Earl  Russell  to  Germany  in  atten- 
dance upon  the  queen.  On  27  Nov.  1862 
he  was  appointed  a  groom  of  the  bedchamber 
to  the  prince  of  Wales.  In  1863  he  accom- 
panied Earl  Granville  abroad  with  the  queen. 
In  June  1864  Meade  became  private 
secretary  to  Earl  Granville  as  president  of 
the  council,  and  was  with  him  till  July 
1866;  he  then  resumed  his  work  in  the 
foreign  office.  When  Lord  Granville  became, 
on  10  Dec.  1868,  secretary  of  state  for  the 
colonies,  Meade  accompanied  him  as  private 
secretary  to  the  colonial  office.  On  21  May 
1871  Meade  was  appointed  to  an  assistant 
under-secretaryship  of  state  in  the  colonial 
office  ;  thenceforward  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  ordinary  and  responsible  duties  of  that 
post.  He  was  appointed  a  royal  commis- 
sioner for  the  Paris  exhibition  on  22  Jan. 
1877,  and  a  British  delegate  to  the  con- 
ference on  African  questions  at  Berlin  on 
24  Oct.  1884  (see  Par/.  Papers,  C.  4290, 
of  1885,  for  his  conversations  with  Prince 
Bismarck).  In  February  1892  he  became 
permanent  under-secretary  for  the  colonies 
under  Lord  Knutsford,  and  subsequently 
served  under  Lord  Ripon  and  Mr.  Cham- 
berlain. Latterly  his  health  became  indif- 
ferent ;  he  was  anxious  to  retire  in  1895,  but 
stayed  on  at  the  request  of  the  secretary  of 
state  for  a  year  longer.  However,  to- 
wards the  end  of  1896  he  fell  and  broke  his 
leg  one  evening  in  entering  an  omnibus  upon 
leaving  the  office.  He  never  returned  to 
his  work.  Ill-health  and  the  sudden  death 
of  his  daughter  broke  him  down  completely, 
:incl  he  died  on  8  Jan.  1898  at  an  hotel  in 
fast.  He  was  buried  at  Taplow,  near 
Maidenhead.  He  became  C.B.  on  21  March 
1886,  K.C.B.  in  1894,  and  G.C.B.  in  1897. 

Meade  had  considerable  practical  common 
sense  and  much  tact,  and  he  was  be- 
sides a  man  of  peculiar  charm,  greatly  liked 
by  all  who  knew  him.  He  was  one  of  a 
knot  of  official  liberals  who  formed  a  little 
coterie  in  the  service  of  the  crown  from 
about  1870  to  1890. 

Meade  married,  first,  on  19  April  1865, 
Lady  Mary  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry 
Lascelles,  third  earl  of  Harewood  ;  she  died 
on  7  Feb.  1866,  leaving  one  daughter,  who 
predeceased  her  father  in  1897.  Meade 
married,  secondly,  on  13  April  1880,  Caro- 


line Georgiana,  daughter  of  Charles  William 
Grenfell  of  Taplow  Court,  Maidenhead ;  she 
died  on  6  March  1881,  leaving  a  son,  Charles 
Francis,  who  survived  him. 

[Foreign  Office  List,  1895;  Colonial  Office 
List,  1895;  Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886; 
Times,  10  Jan.  1898 ;  Burke's  Peerage,  s.v. 
'  Clanwilliam ; '  personal  knowledge.]  C.  A.  H. 

MELVILL,  SIK  JAMES  COSMO  (1792- 
1861),  last  secretary  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, born  at  Guernsey  in  1792,  was  the 
third  son  of  Philip  Melvill  (1762-1811), 
afterwards  lieutenant-governor  of  Pendennis 
Castle  in  Cornwall,  by  his  wife,  Elizabeth 
Carey  (d.  1844),  youngest  daughter  of  Peter 
Dobree  of  Beauregarde,  Guernsey.  Henry 
Melvill  [q.  v.]  was  his  elder  brother.  James 
entered  the  home  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  February  1808.  He  soon  dis- 
played unusual  abilities,  and  rose  by  rapid 
steps  to  the  highest  permanent  position  at 
the  East  India  House.  In  1824  he  was 
appointed  auditor  of  Indian  accounts. 
While  in  this  position  he  gave  important 
evidence  in  1830  before  a  parliamentary 
committee  vindicating  the  company's  con- 
duct of  its  China  trade  from  the  attack 
of  William  Huskisson  [q.  v.],  and  again  in 
1832  before  another  committee  on  Indian 
affairs  in  regard  to  the  accounts  of  the 
company  (THOENTON,  Hist,  of  British  Em- 
pire in  India,  1858,  pp.  501,  503).  In 
1834  he  became  financial  secretary,  and  in 
1836  chief  secretary,  an  office  which  he  held 
until  the  termination  of  the  company's 
existence  as  a  governing  body  in  1858. 
After  his  retirement  from  the  service  of  the 
company  he  was  appointed  government 
director  of  Indian  railways,  and  it  is  said 
that  he  was  offered  appointments  of  high 
rank  in  the  Indian  government,  but  declined 
them.  Melvill  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  on  14  Jan.  1841,  and  was 
created  K.C.B.  on  5  Sept.  1853.  He  died 
at  Tandridge  Court,  near  Godstone  in  Sur- 
rey, on  23  July  1861.  In  March  1815  he 
married  Hester  Jean  Frances  (d.  10  April 
1864),  youngest  daughter  of  William  Mar- 
maduke  Sellon  of  Harlesden  in  Middlesex. 
By  her  he  had  numerous  issue. 

[Memoirs  of  Philip  Melvill,  1812  ;  Ann.  Reg. 
1861,  ii.  469  ;  Gent.  Mag.  1861,  ii.  334;  Boase's 
Collect.  t)ornub.  1890;  London  Review,  27  July 
1861 ;  Bell's  British  Folks  and  British  India 
Fifty  Years  Ago,  1891.]  E.  I.  C. 

MENDS,  SIR  WILLIAM  ROBERT 
(1812-1897),  admiral,  eldest  son  of  Admiral 
William  Bowen  Mends  (1781-1864),  and 
nephew  of  Sir  Robert  Mends  [q.  vj,  was 
born  at  Plymouth  on  27  Feb.  1812.  In  May 


Mends 


160 


Mends 


1825  he  entered  the  Royal  Naval  College  at 
Portsmouth,  and  on  passing  out  in  Decem- 
ber 1826  was  shortly  afterwards  appointed 
to  the  Thetis,  a  46-gun  frigate,  going  out  to 
the  South  American  station.  He  was  still  in 
the  Thetis  when  she  was  wrecked  on  Cape 
Frio  on  5  Dec.  1830.  It  was  Mends's  watch 
at  the  time  the  ship  struck,  but  as  the  night 
was  dark  and  thick  and  it  was  raining 
heavily,  he  was  held  guiltless,  the  blame 
falling  entirely  on  the  captain  and  master. 
Mends  wad  considered  to  have  behaved  very 
well  in  a  position  extremely  difficult  for  one 
so  young  and  inexperienced,  and  several  of 
the"  members  of  the  court  offered  to  take 
him  with  them.  After  passing  his  exami- 
nation he  joined  the  Actaeon  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, which  in  1832  was  at  Constanti- 
nople when  a  Russian  army  of  upwards  of 
twenty  thousand  men  was  there,  consequent 
on  the  terrible  defeat  of  the  Turks  by  Ibrahim 
Pasha  at  Konieh.  The  intervention  of  the 
•western  powers  demanded  the  withdrawal  ot 
this  force,  and  Mends  was  deeply  interested 
in  watching  its  embarkation,  making  careful 
notes  of  their  manner  and  methods  of  em- 
barking the  cavalry  and  guns.  Men,  horses, 
and  guns,  with  all  their  stores  and  baggage, 
were  got  on  board  within  twelve  hours,  and 
Mends  treasured  up  the  experience  for  future 
use.  In  the  summer  of  1834  the  Actaeon 
returned  to  England  and  was  paid  off;  and 
in  January  1835  Mends  was  appointed  to  the 
Pique  with  Captain  Henry  John  Rous  [q.  v.] 
In  July  the  ship  was  sent  out  to  Canada, 
and  on  the  homeward  voyage,  on  22  Sept., 
struck  heavily  on  a  reef  off  the  coast  of 
Labrador.  After  several  anxious  hours  she 
was  got  off,  and,  though  she  was  much 
damaged  and  was  leaking  badly,  and  her 
main  and  mizen  masts  were  badly  sprung, 
Rous  determined  to  proceed.  Five  days 
later  her  rudder,  which  had  also  been  in- 
jured, was  carried  away,  and  the  ship  left 
helpless  in  a  heavy  westerly  gale.  With 
admirable  seamanship  she  was  steered  for 
several  days  by  means  of  a  weighted  hemp 
cable  towed  astern  and  controlled  by  a  spar 
lashed  across  the  ship's  stern:  it  was  not  till 
6  Oct.  that  they  were  able  to  ship  a  jury 
rudder ;  and  on  the  13th  they  anchored  at 
St.  Helen's  after  a  voyage  that  has  no  parallel 
in  the  annals  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Mends  then  learnt  that  he  had  been  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  on  11  Aug. 
In  December  he  was  sent  out  to  join  the 
Vernon  at  Malta.  A  year  later  he  was 
moved  into  the  Caledonia  and  then  to  the 
Rodney,  from  which,  in  July  1838,  he  went 
to  be  flag-lieutenant  of  Sir  John  Louis,  the 
second  in  command  on  the  station  and  super- 


intendent of  Malta  dockyard.  He  continued 
with  Louis,  sometimes  afloat,  but  mostly  at 
Malta,  till  July  1843  ;  afterwards,  from  No- 
vember 1843  he  was  in  the  Fox  frigate  with 
Sir  Henry  Blackwood  on  the  coast  of  Ire- 
land and  in  the  East  Indies  till,  on  2  Jan. 
1847,  he  received  the  news  of  his  promotion, 
on  9  Nov.  1846,  to  be  commander.  In  January 
1848  he  was  appointed  to  the  Vanguard, 
in  which,  a  couple  of  months  later,  he  had 
the  misfortune  to  lose  some  of  the  fingers  of 
his  left  hand,  which  was  carried  into  a  block 
and  badly  crushed.  It  was  this,  more  than 
the  loss  of  the  fingers,  which  caused  trouble; 
and  for  years  afterwards  he  suffered  from 
severe  attacks  of  neuralgia.  The  Vanguard 
went  home  and  was  paid  off  in  March  1849 ; 
and  in  July  1850  Mends  was  appointed  to 
the  Vengeance,  again  with  Black  wood,  who, 
however,  died  after  a  short  illness  at  Ports- 
mouth on  7  Jan.  1851,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lord  Edward  Russell  [q.  v.]  Towards 
the  end  of  the  summer  the  Vengeance  went 
to  the  Mediterranean,  but  came  home  in 
December  1862,  when,  on  10  Dec.,  Mends 
was  advanced  to  post  rank  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  excellent  order  the  ship  was  in. 
In  October  1853  he  was  selected  by  Sir 
Edmund  (afterwards  Lord)  Lyons  [q.  v.]  to 
be  his  flag-captain  in  the.  Mediterranean,  if 
Captain  Symonds,  then  in  the  Arethusa,, 
should  prefer  to  remain  in  the  frigate.  If 
Symonds  should  prefer  to  join  Lyons,  it 
was  understood  that  Mends  should  have  the 
Arethusa  [see  SYMONDS,  SIR  THOMAS  MAT- 
THEW CHARLES],  Mends  accordingly  took  the 
Agamemnon  out  and  joined  the  fleet  in  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  on  Christmas  Eve,  when,  as- 
previously  arranged,  he  took  command  of  the 
Arethusa.  In  her  he  took  a  particularly 
brilliant  part  in  the  bombardment  of  Odessa 
on  22  April  1854 ;  '  we  stood  in  twice,'  Mends, 
wrote, '  tacked  close  off  the  Mole  and  en- 
gaged the  works  on  it  in  reverse  .  .  .  pouring 
in  a  destructive  fire  as  we  went  about.'  He 
was  promptly  recalled  by  the  commander-in- 
chief,  who  seems  to  have  considered  that  he- 
was  needlessly  risking  the  ship.  '  I  expected 
a  reprimand  when  I  went  on  board  the  ad- 
miral to  report,  but  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
fleet  and  the  cheers  given  to  us  as  we  passed 
along  the  lines  mollified  the  chief,  and  I  was 
simply  told  not  to  go  in  again.'  The  French 
officers  who  had  witnessed  the  manoeuvre 
called  on  Mends  to  compliment  him  on  it ; 
and  many  years  afterwards  a  French  writer 
in  the  'Revue  des  Deux  Mondes'  referred 
to  it  as  a  brilliant  tour  de  force.  In  June 
Lyons  and  Symonds  had  found  that  they  did 
not  get  on  well  together,  and  it  was  proposed 
to  Mends  to  re-exchange  into  the  Agamem- 


Mends 


161 


Mercier 


non,  which  he  did.  From  that  time  his 
individuality  is  lost  in  that  of  the  admiral, 
except  that,  as  chief  of  Lyons's  staff,  he  had 
the  direction  of  many  points  of  detail  on 
which  much  depended.  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  were  the  embarkation  of  the 
troops  at  Varna  and  the  subsequent  landing 
of  them  in  the  Crimea  on  14  Sept.  The 
whole  thing  was  admirably  done  without  a 
hitch  and  without  loss  ;  and  though,  to  the 
world  at  large,  it  appeared  to  be  done  by 
Lyons,  Lyons  himself  and  the  navy  fully  re- 
cognised that  the  credit  belonged  to  Mends. 

In  February  1855  Lyons  moved  his  flag  j 
to  the  Royal  Albert,  Mends  accompanying 
him.  In  all  the  operations  of  the  year  he  | 
had  his  full  share;  he  was  nominated  a  C.B. 
on  5  July  ;  and  in  December  was  ordered  to 
take  the  ship  to  Malta,  the  admiral  remain- 
ing in  the  Black  Sea  with  his  flag  in  the 
Caradoc.  While  crossing  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora the  stern-gland — the  metal  bearing  of 
the  screw-shaft  as  it  passes  through  the 
stern-post — gave  way,  and  an  alarming  rush 
of  water  followed.  During  the  next  day  the 
ship  pursued  her  voyage,  the  engines  pump- 
ing the  water  out ;  but  on  28  Dec.  Mends 
decided  that  it  was  necessary  to  beach  the 
ship,  which  was  cleverly  done  in  Port 
Nicolo,  in  the  island  of  Zea.  There  a  coffer- 
dam was builtj inside  round  the  hole,  and,  the 
ship's  safety  being  thus  secured,  she  pro- 
ceeded to  Malta  under  sail,  and  arrived 
there  on  7  Jan.  1856.  Mends  continued  in 
command  of  the  Royal  Albert  till  March 
1857,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  Hast- 
ings, guardship  in  the  Mersey,  from  which, 
four  years  later,  he  was  appointed  deputy- 
controller-general  of  the  coast-guard  at  the 
admiralty.  He  held  this  office  for  about  a 
year,  and  in  May  1862  was  appointed  director 
of  transports,  with  the  duty  of  organising 
and  administering  the  transport  department 
of  the  admiralty.  Here  he  remained  for 
more  than  twenty  years,  during  which  period 
there  were  several  exceptional  calls  on  his 
office,  which  were  answered  in  a  manner  that 
testified  to  the  thorough  working  order  in 
which  things  were  kept.  On  1  Jan.  1869  he 
became  a  rear-admiral,  on  20  May  1871  a 
K.C.B.,  vice-admiral  on  1  Jan.  1874,  admiral 
on  15  June  1879,  and  on  24  Nov.  1882  was 
nominated  a  G.C.B.,  with  especial  reference 
to  his  work  in  connection  with  the  expedi- 
tion to  Egypt. 

In  February  1883  he  retired  and  settled 
down  at  Alverstoke,  within  easy  distance  of 
his  many  old  friends  at  Portsmouth.  Here 
he  lived  peacefully  for  the  next  twelve  years. 
In  July  1894  his  wife  died  after  an  illness  of 
days,  and  the  blow  '  practically  killed  him,' 

TOL.  III. — SUP. 


though  he  survived  for  three  years.  He  died 
on  26  June  1897,  the  day  of  the  great  naval 
review  in  commemoration  of  the  queen's 
diamond  jubilee.  Mends  married,  at  Malta 
in  December  1837,  Melita,  daughter  of  Dr. 
Stilon,  a  Neapolitan  by  birth,  who  had  served 
as  a  medical  officer  in  the  French  army  at 
Maida,  and  been  sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  married,  entered  the  navy, 
and  some  years  later  settled  in  private 
practice  at  Malta.  The  '  Life '  of  Mends 
(1899)  which  was  written  by  his  son,  Bowen 
Stilon  Mends,  formerly  a  surgeon  in  the 
navy,  is  largely  made  up  of  extracts  from 
Mends's  letters  and  journals.  It  has  thus  a 
considerable  historical  value,  especially  as 
to  the  Russian  war,  being  the  strictly  syn- 
chronous opinions  of  a  man  who,  from  his 
official  position  and  his  personal  relations 
with  Sir  Edmund  (afterwards  Lord)  Lyons, 
had  very  good  opportunities  of  knowing  what 
was  being  done  or  not  done ;  at  the  same 
time  the  factor  of  Lyons's  personality  is  to 
be  allowed  for. 

[The  Life  by  his  son,  just  mentioned  (with 
portraits);  Eardley  Wilmot's  Life  of  Lord 
Lyons.]  J.  K.  L. 

MERCIER,  IIOXORE  (1840-1894), 
premier  of  Quebec,  was  born  on  15  Oct. 
1840  at  Ste.-Athanase  in  Lower  Canada, 
where  his  father  had  been  an  early  settler. 
Educated  at  the  Jesuit  College,  Montreal, 
he  entered  the  office  of  Messrs.  Laframboise 
&  Papineau  and  began  the  study  of  law  in 
1860.  In  1862  he  abandoned  law  for  a  time 
and  undertook  the  editorship  of  '  Le  Courier' 
to  support  the  Macdonald-Sicotte  ministry. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  founding  the  parti 
national  of  that  time,  and  vigorously  op- 
posed confederation.  When  it  seemed  in- 
evitable he  finished  his  course  in  law  and 
was  called  to  the  Montreal  bar  in  1867. 
Practising  first  at  Ste.-Hyacinthe,  and  later 
in  Montreal,  he  attained  a  fair  standing  in 
his  profession. 

Mercier  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1872  as  opposition  member  for 
Rouville  in  the  province  of  Quebec.  He 
was  not  a  candidate  at  the  following  elec- 
tions, and,  being  unsuccessful  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1878,  retired  from  dominion  politics. 
Thereupon  (Sir)  Henry  Gustave  Joly, premier 
of  Quebec,  offered  the  post  of  solicitor-gene- 
ral to  Mercier,  who  accepted  the  office  and 
held  it  till  the  cabinet  resigned  in  October 
1879.  Mr.  Joly  retired  from  the  leadership 
in  1883,  whereupon  Mercier  became  liberal 
leader  in  the  local  house,  his  constituency 
being  Ste.-Hyacinthe.  Seeing  that  his  party 
could  not  make  head  against  the  ecclesiastical 

M 


Mercier 


162 


Mercier 


and  conservative  power,  he  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  the  ultramontanes  who  were  then 
rising  into  power.  He  recurred  also  to  his 

S  reject  of  a  so-called  parti  national,  a  party 
Yench-Canadian  in  race  and  catholic  in  reli- 
gion, but  open  equally  to  liberals  and  con- 
servatives. The  year  1885  gave  him  his  op- 
portunity, because  the  north-west  rebellion 
then  broke  out  and  the  execution  of  Louis 
Riel  [q.  v.]  followed.  Mercier  turned  to 
political  account  the  French-Canadian  racial 
sympathies  for  the  half-breed  leader  and, 
forming  a  combination  with  (Sir)  Charles 
Alphonse  Pelletier,  a  well-known  conserva- 
tive, swept  the  constituencies  in  the  elections 
of  1886,  and  became  premier  of  the  province 
on  29  Jan.  1887.  He  continued  in  that  office 
for  five  years.  Among  his  useful  measures 
may  be  ranked  the  consolidation  of  the  local 
statutes  and  the  establishment  of  an  agri- 
cultural department. 

On  21  Oct.  1887  he  called  a  conference  of 
the  premiers  of  the  several  provinces  at 
Quebec  to  discuss  amendments  to  the  con- 
stitution. His  endeavours  to  extend  the 
boundaries  of  the  province  to  Hudson's  Bay 
were  carried  to  a  successful  issue  after  his 
death— in  1896. 

His  financial  measures  took  a  wide  range. 
He  failed  to  convert  part  of  the  local  debt, 
which  then  amounted  to  the  gross  sum  of 
£19,500,000,  by  substituting  four  in  the 
place  of  the  subscription  rate  of  five  per 
cent,  interest.  He  laid  increased  taxation 
on  commercial  transactions,  persons,  and 
corporations,  and  his  measures  for  the  purpose 
were  confirmed.  In  1888  he  launched  in 
Paris  a  loan  for  $3,500,000  at  four  per  cent., 
and  another  in  1891  for  £4,000,000  at  the 
same  rate.  He  was  enthusiastically  received 
in  France  in  April  1891,  and  was  decorated 
with  the  legion  of  honour.  Passing  thence 
to  Rome,  the  grand  cross  of  Gregory  the 
Great  was  bestowed  on  him  for  his  services 
to  the  church.  The  king  of  the  Belgians 
made  him  commander  of  the  order  of  Leo- 
pold I. 

While  he  increased  taxation  and  accumu- 
lated debt,  his  distributions  to  railways, 
colonisation  purposes,  public  buildings,  and 
improvements  were  liberal.  But  after  the 
elections  of  1890,  when  Mercier  was  again 
returned  to  power  by  a  large  majority,  a 
spending  fever  seems  to  have  taken  hold  of 
Mercier  and  many  of  his  party.  Then  began 
what  is  called  '  la  danse  des  millions.'  It 
proceeded  apace  till  the  crash  came  at  the 
end  of  1891. 

Mercier  never  enjoyed  the  confidence 
of  the  episcopate  and  secular  clergy.  But, 
overbearing  all  opposition  in  the  provincial 


contest,  he  resolved  to  attack  the  conserva- 
tive party  of  the  dominion,  and,  entering 
warmly  into  the  election  to  the  dominion 
parliament  of  1891,  made  a  serious  change 
in  the  Quebec  delegation  to  Ottawa.  In 
this  he  necessarily  alienated  many  of  his 
conservative  allies.  Further,  investigations 
begun  in  the  senate  resulted  in  tracing  to 
Mercier  or  his  agents  the  sum  of  $100,000, 
part  of  £260,000  which  the  local  house  had 
voted  to  the  Baie  des  Chaleurs  railway. 
The  money,  it  was  alleged,  was  spent  in  the 
late  elections.  Thereupon  the  lieutenant- 
governor  issued  a  royal  commission  to  in- 
quire into  the  matter  (21  Sept.  1891),  and 
evidence  was  taken  which  was  confirmatory. 
Mercier  sought  to  ignore  the  commission 
and  its  proceedings,  taking  his  stand  on  con- 
stitutional grounds :  that  the  proper  body  to 
investigate  the  charges  was  the  legislature, 
not  the  commission,  and  that  while  he  pos- 
sessed the  confidence  of  the  house  he  was 
entitled  to  the  confidence  of  the  lieutenant- 
governor.  His  opponents  had  used  a  simi- 
lar argument,  when  the  lieutenant-gover- 
nor, Letellier  de  St.  Just,  dismissed  the  con- 
servative administration  in  1878.  In  this 
instance  it  was  of  no  avail.  The  ministry 
was  dismissed,  the  De  Boucherville  cabinet 
was  gazetted  (December  1891),  the  house  dis- 
solved, and  on  appeal  to  the  electors  Mercier 
and  his  following  were  hopelessly  defeated. 

In  1892  an  indictment  was  laid  against 
him  for  conspiring  to  defraud  the  province, 
but  the  prosecution  failed.  The  result  was 
on  the  whole  beneficial  to  Mercier,  and  the 
trial  helped  to  re-establish  him  in  public 
credit.  He  began  to  take  an  active  part  in 
politics  once  more,  and  on  3  April  1893 
delivered  what  is  considered  to  be  his  best 
speech,  before  an  immense  audience  at 
Sohmer  Park,  Montreal.  It  is  published 
under  the  title  of  '  L'Avenir  du  Canada.' 
Mercier  died  on  30  Oct.  1894.  On  29  May 
1866  he  married  Leopoldine  Boivin  of  Ste.- 
Hyacinthe,  and,  after  her  death,  Virginie 
St.-Denis  of  the  same  place  on  9  May  1871. 

[David's  Mes  Contemporains,  1878,  p.  269  ; 
Voyer's  Biographies,  pp.  3-13;  Gemmill's 
Parlt.  Companion,  1883,  pp.  241-2;  Bibaud's 
Le  Pantheon  Canadien,  pp.  192-3 ;  Annual  Reg. 
for  1894,  ii.  201  ;  Lareau's  Hist,  du  Droit  Can. 
ii.  346-51;  Hodgins's  Corr.  of  Min.  of  Justice, 
p.  376 ;  Le  Gouvt.  Mercier,  Les  Elect.  Prov. 
1890,  pp.  12-20;  Todd's  Parl.  Govt.  in  the  Brit. 
Col.  pp.  666-79  ;  Tarte's  Le  Proces  Mercier,  pp. 
3-28,  180-94;  McCord's  Handbook  of  Can. 
Dates,  p.  50 ;  N.  0.  Cote's  Political  Appoint- 
ments, p.  198  ;  La  Prov.  de  Quebec,  1900,  p.  36  ; 
L'Hon.  Honore  Mercier,  sa  vie,  ses  reuvres,  sa  fin, 
1895 ;  Pellaud's  Biographic,  Discours,  &c. ; 
Times,  3  April  1891.]  T.  B.  B. 


Merivale 


163 


Merivale 


MERIVALE,  CHARLES  (1808-1893), 
historian  and  dean  of  Ely,  second  son  of 
John  Herman  Merivale  [q.  v.]  by  Louisa 
Heath,  daughter  of  Henry  Joseph  Thomas 
Drury  [q.  v.J,  was  born  at  No.  14  East 
Street,  Red  Lion  Square,  London,  on  8  March 
1808.  His  father  being  a  Unitarian  and  his 
mother  a  churchwoman,  he  was  brought  up 
without  any  very  definite  dogmatic  instruc- 
tion, but  in  an  atmosphere  of  sober  practical 
piety.  He  was  carefully  taught  by  his 
mother,  and  took  kindly  to  learning,  espe- 
cially to  Roman  history,  which,  with  his 
brother  Herman,  he  converted  into  a  sort 
of  game  which  they  played  with  their  hoops 
in  Queen  Square.  He  also  attended  for  a 
short  time  a  private  day  school  kept  by  one 
Dr.  Lloyd,  at  No.  1  Keppel  Street,  Blooms- 
bury,  and  was  afterwards  grounded  in  Greek 
by  his  father.  In  January  1818  he  was 
entered  at  Harrow,  where  he  was  contempo- 
rary with  Charles  Wordsworth  [q.  v.]  (after- 
wards Bishop  of  St.  Andrews),  Richard 
Chenevix  Trench  [q.  v.]  (afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin),  and  Henry  Edward 
(afterwards  Cardinal)  Manning  [q.  v.]  There 
he  wrote  an  immense  quantity  of  Latin 
verse,  committed  to  memory  the  Eclogues 
and  Georgics  of  Virgil,  the  whole  of  Ca- 
tullus and  Juvenal,  and  the  greater  part  of 
Lucan.  For  relaxation  he  read  Southey's 
'  History  of  Brazil,'  an  achievement  which 
gave  him  courage  to  attack  Mill's  '  History 
of  British  India,'  when  it  afterwards  became 
his  duty  to  do  so.  He  also  passed  muster 
in  the  cricket  field,  and  in  1824  played  in 
the  match  against  Eton.  An  Indian  writer- 
ship  being  offered,  he  was  removed  in  that 
year  to  Haileybury  College,  where  he  took 
prixes  in  classics  and  Persian,  and  was  first 
in  the  class  list  when  a  casual  perusal  of 
Gibbon's  '  Autobiography  '  awakened  con- 
flicting interests.  His  bent  was  at  once 
fixed  for  the  life  of  a  student,  the  prospect 
of  an  Indian  career  became  manifestly  odious 
to  him,  and  his  father  consented  to  transfer 
him  to  Cambridge.  The  writership  which 
be  should  have  taken  was  given  to  John 
Laird  Muir  Lawrence  [q.  v.] 

At  Cambridge,  accordingly,  in  the  autumn 
of  1826,  Merivale  matriculated,  being  entered 
at  St.  John's  College.  He  graduated  B.A. 
(senior  optime  and  fourth  classic)  in  1830, 
having  in  the  preceding  year  gained  the 
Browne  medals  for  Latin  verse,  and  pro- 
ceeded M.A.  in  1833  and  B.D.  in  1840.  He 
also  rowed  for  the  university  in  the  first 
contest  with  Oxford  at  Henley  in  1829,  and 
in  the  following  summer  accomplished  the 
feat  of  walking  from  Cambridge  to  London 
in  one  day.  In  his  early  graduate  days  he 


belonged  to  the  coterie  of  so-called  'Apostles,' 
whose  symposia  are  celebrated  by  Tennyson 
in  'In  Memoriam'  (Ixxxvi),  and  to  a 
smaller  society  called  the  '  HermathenEe.' 
Among  his  especial  friends  were  Henry 
Alford  [q.  v.]  (afterwards  Dean  of  Canter- 
bury), William  Hepworth  Thompson  [q.  v.] 
(afterwards  Master  of  Trinity),  Joseph  Wil- 
liams Blakesley  [q.  v.]  (afterwards  Dean  of 
Lincoln),  James  Spedding  [q.  v.],  and  John 
Mitchell  Kemble  [q.  v.],  the  son  of  the  actor. 
He  was  at  this  time  a  liberal  in  politics,  and 
interest  in  the  impending  Belgian  revolution 
drew  him  to  the  Netherlands  in  the  summer 
of  1831.  On  his  return  to  England  he  tri- 
fled with  Anglo-Saxon,  Saint-Simonianism, 
and  Freemasonry,  but  on  his  election  to  a 
fellowship  in  1833  took  holy  orders  and 
settled  down  to  historical  work.  In  the 
reaction  which  followed  the  Parliamentary 
Reform  Act  of  1832  he  went  over  to  the 
conservative  party,  to  which  he  thereafter 
steadfastly  adhered ;  but  the  high  toryism 
of  St.  John's  College  proved  uncongenial, 
and  he  was  reconciled  to  continued  resi- 
dence there  only  by  his  failure  in  1835  to 
obtain  the  chair  of  classics  at  King's  College, 
London,  and  subsequent  disappointments. 
Meanwhile  he  studied  German,  travelled  in 
Bavaria  and  Austria  (1836),  and  felt  a 
growing  interest  in  Roman  history.  Though 
by  no  means  an  enthusiastic,  he  was  a  con- 
scientious and  efficient,  tutor,  and  in  1836 
and  the  following  year  was  one  of  the 
examiners  for  the  classical  tripos.  His 
ecclesiastical  views  were  of  the  moderate 
type,  and  the  four  sermons  which  he  de- 
livered as  select  preacher  to  the  university 
in  November  1838  were  warmly  commended 
by  Whewell,  and  led  to  his  appointment  in 
the  following  year  as  select  preacher  at 
Whitehall.  As  a  scholar  he  was  more  of  a 
Latinist  than  a  Grecian,  and  little  short  of 
a  devotee  to  Latin  verse  composition.  He 
had  no  speculative  interests,  and  though  he 
had  studied  political  economy  under  Malthus 
at  Haileybury,  he  entertained  no  respect 
for  that  science,  and  remained  throughout 
life  a  convinced  protectionist.  Nevertheless, 
in  matters  academic  he  was  a  moderate 
reformer,  and  helped  to  establish  the  law, 
moral  science,  and  physics  triposes,  which, 
however,  he  afterwards  characterised  as 
'  sickly  growths.'  He  was  naturally  inclined 
to  a  recluse  life,  and,  even  when  fairly 
absorbed  in  the  study  of  Roman  history, 
was  satisfied  with  a  single  brief  visit  to 
Rome  in  the  autumn  of  1845.  The  leisure 
necessary  for  his  historical  work  he  secured 
by  accepting  in  1848  the  rectory  of  Lawford, 
Essex,  with  which  he  united  the  chaplaincy 


Merivale 


164 


Merivale 


to  the  speaker  (John  Evelyn  Denison)  of 
the  House  of  Commons  from  February  1863 
until  his  preferment  in  November  1869  to 
the  deanery  of  Ely.  He  was  Hulsean 
lecturer  in  1862,  was  reappointed  select 
preacher  at  Whitehall  in  1864,  and  in  that 
and  the  following  year  delivered  the  Boyle 
lectures.  In  1862  and  1871  he  examined 
for  the  Indian  civil  service.  In  1806  he 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  from 
the  university  of  Oxford. 

Merivale  made  no  figure  in  convocation, 
and  after  allowing  himself  to  be  added  to 
the  committee  for  the  revision  of  the  autho- 
rised version  of  the  New  Testament  in 
February  1871,  withdrew  from  it  in  the  fol- 
lowing October.  He  identified  himself  with 
no  ecclesiastical  party,  abhorred  polemics, 
and  as  a  preacher  was  solid  and  judicious 
rather  than  eloquent.  Though  inclined  to 
comprehension  as  the  only  means  of  avert- 
ing the  disruption  of  the  church,  he  approved 
the  Public  Worship  Regulation  Act  of  1874. 
His  later  years  were  spent  in  almost  entire 
seclusion  at  Ely,  where  he  enlarged  the  school 
and  partially  restored  the  cathedral.  He 
also  organised  the  commemoration  in  1873 
of  the  foundation  of  Ely  Minster,  of  which 
he  published  an  account,  entitled  '  St.  Ethel- 
dreda  Festival:  Summary  of  Proceedings, 
with  Sermons  and  Addresses  at  the  Bissex- 
tenary  Festival  of  St.  Etheldreda  at  Ely, 
October  1873,'  Ely,  1874,  4to.  On  17  Feb. 
1892  he  had  a  slight  attack  of  paralysis ;  a 
second,  towards  the  close  of  November  1893, 
was  followed  by  his  death  on  27  Dec.  His 
remains  were  interred  in  Ely  cemetery,  his 
monument  with  epitaph  by  Dr.  Butler,  mas- 
ter of  Trinity,  was  placed  in  Ely  Cathedral. 
He  married,  on  2  July  1850,  Judith  Mary 
Sophia,  youngest  daughter  of  George  Frere 
of  Lincoln's  Inn  and  Twy ford  House,  Bishop's 
Stortford,  by  whom  he  left  issue. 

Merivale  contributed  the  version  of  '  Der 
Kampf  mit  dem  Drachen'  to  his  father's 
translation  of  the  minor  poems  of  Schiller 
(1844) ;  but  thenceforth  his  German  studies 
were  subordinate  to  his  historical  work.  He 
was  collaborating  on  a  '  History  of  Rome,' 
projected  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Useful  Knowledge,  when  the  fortunate 
failure  of  the  enterprise  set  him  free  to  re- 
cast and  continue  the  work  independently 
and  with  other  publishers.  Such  was  the 
origin  of  his  '  History  of  the  Romans  under 
the  Empire,'  London,  1850-64,  7  vols.  8vo ; 
new  edit.  1865,  8  vols.  The  sterling  merits 
of  this  work,  which  embraces  the  period 
from  the  rise  of  the  Gracchi  to  the  death  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  thus  forming  a  prelude  to 
Gibbon's  '  Decline  and  Fall,'  are  uncontested, 


while  its  recognised  blemish,  neglect  of  epi- 
graphical  sources,  was  hardly  to  be  avoided 
in  the  circumstances  in  which  it  was  written. 
The  vogue  of  the  first  three  volumes  was 
such  as  to  induce  him  to  issue  a  popular 
epitome  of  them  in  one  volume,  entitled 
'  The  Fall  of  the  Roman  Republic :  a  short 
History  of  the  last  Century  of  the  Common- 
wealth,' London,  1853,  8vo;  5th  edit.  1863. 
He  also  edited  as  parerga  '  C.  Sallustii  Crispi 
Catilina  et  Jugurtha,'  London,  1852,  8vo, 
and  'An  Account  of  the  Life  and  Letters 
of  Cicero,  translated  from  the  German  of 
Bernhard  Rudolf  Abeken,'  London,  1854, 
12mo,  and  in  1857  contributed  the  article  on 
Niebuhr  to  the  '  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.' 
About  the  same  time  he  formed  a  connection 
with  the '  Saturday  Review,'  which  lasted  for 
some  years.  His  '  Boyle  Lectures' — 1.  '  The 
Conversion  of  the  Roman  Empire,'  and 
2.  '  The  Conversion  of  the  Northern  Nations ' 
— appeared  in  1864  and  1866  respectively 
(London,  8vo).  More  definitely  apologetic 
was  his  lecture  for  the  Christian  Evidence  So- 
ciety, entitled  '  The  Contrast  between  Pagan 
and  Christian  Society,'  London,  1872,  8vo. 
His  '  General  History  of  Rome  from  the 
Foundation  of  the  City  to  the  Fall  of 
Augustulus,'  London,  1875,  8vo,  is  a  con- 
venient epitome  of  a  vast  subject :  an  abridg- 
ment by  C.  Puller  appeared  in  1877.  *  The 
Roman  Triumvirates  (Epochs  of  Ancient 
History  Ser.),  London,  1876,  8vo ;  '  St.  Paul 
at  Rome'  (S.P.C.K.),  London,  1877,  8vo; 
'  The  Conversion  of  the  Continental  Teutons' 
(S.  P.  C.  K.),  London,  1878,  8vo ;  and  '  Four 
Lectures  on  some  Epochs  of  Early  Church 
History  delivered  in  Ely  Cathedral,'  London, 
1879,  8vo,  complete  the  tale  of  his  historical 
and  apologetic  writings. 

Merivale's  prize  poems  are  printed  in  '  Pro- 
lusiones  Academic*,'  Cambridge,  1828,  iii. 
27, 35.  His  '  Keatsii  Hyperionis  Libri  Tres. 
Latine  reddidit  C.  Merivale/  London,  1863, 
8vo;  2nd  edit.,  with  a  collection  of  minor 
pieces  from  'Arundines  Cami'  in  1882, 
evinces  the  assiduity  with  which  in  after  life 
he  cultivated  his  unusual  gift  for  Latin  verse. 
His  '  Homer's  Iliad  in  English  Rhymed 
Verse,'  London,  1869,  8vo,  did  not  add  to 
his  reputation.  His  university  sermons, '  The 
Church  of  England  a  faithful  Witness  of 
Christ,  not  destroying  the  Law,  but  fulfill- 
ing it,'  appeared  at  Cambridge  in  1839,  8vo, 
and  were  followed  by '  Sermons  preached  in 
the  Chapel  Royal  at  Whitehall,'  Cambridge, 
1841,  8vo.  He  also  published  three  separate 
discourses,  besides  a  pamphlet  entitled '  Open 
Fellowships ;  a  Plea  for  submitting  College 
Fellowships  to  University  Competition ; '  and 
a  memoir  of  his  brother,  Herman  Merivale, 


Metford 


165 


Metford 


C.B.,  reprinted  from  the  '  Transactions '  of 
the  Devonshire  Association  for  the  advance- 
ment of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art,  1884, 
8vo.  His  '  Autobiography,'  a  fragment  reach- 
ing no  further  than  his  ordination,  was  edited 
with  his  epistolary  remains  by  his  daughter, 
Judith  Anne  Merivale,  for  private  circulation, 
in  1898  and  published  in  1899,  London,  8vo. 
[Autobiography  and  Letters  above  mentioned ; 
Tennyson's  Life,  i.  47;  Charles  Wordsworth's 
Annals  of  my  Early  Life,  p.  56 ;  Uoulburn's 
Life  of  Dean  Burgon,  ii.  139;  Life  and  Letters 
of  Dean  Alford;  Gent.  Mag.  1850,  ii.  423  ;  Ann. 
Keg.  1863  ii.  358,  1869  ii.  276;  Times,  28  Dec. 
1893;  Guardian,  10  Jan.  1894,  22  Nov.  1899; 
Athenseum,  30  DPC.  1893,  17  Sept.  1898;  Aca- 
demy, 21  Oct.  1899.]  J.  M.  K. 

METFORD,  WILLIAM  ELLIS  (1824- 
1899),  inventor,  born  on  4  Oct.  1824,  was 
the  elder  son  of  William  Metford,  a  physi- 
cian, of  Flook  House,  Taunton,  by  his  wife, 
M.  E.  Anderdon.  He  was  educated  at 
Sherborne  school  between  1838  and  1841, 
and  was  apprenticed  to  W.  M.  Peniston, 
resident  engineer  under  Isambard  Kingdom 
Brunei  [q.  v.],  on  the  Bristol  and  Exeter 
railway.  From  1846  to  1850  he  was  em- 
ployed on  the  Wilts,  Somerset,  and  Wey- 
mouth  railway.  After  1850  he  worked  for 
Thomas  Evans  Blackwell  in  connection 
with  schemes  for  developing  the  traffic  of 
Bristol,  and  subsequently  acted  for  a  short 
time  under  Peniston  as  engineer  on  the 
Wycombe  railway,  residing  at  Bourne  End. 
During  this  period  he  designed  an  improved 
theodolite  with  a  travelling  stage  and  a 
curved  arm  upholding  the  transit  axis,  and 
also  invented  a  very  good  form  of  level  (cf. 
Journal  of  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
February  1856). 

In  March  1856  Metford  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
and  early  in  1857  he  obtained  an  important 
appointment  on  the  East  India  Railway 
under  (Sir)  Alexander  Rendel.  He  arrived 
at  Monghyr  on  18  May  to  find  that  the 
mutiny  had  just  broken  out.  With  the  aid 
of  the  railway  staff  he  took  a  leading  part 
in  organising  the  defence  of  the  town.  His 
ceaseless  exertions  largely  contributed  to  the 
safety  of  the  garrison,  but  they  permanently 
impaired  his  health,  and  within  a  year  he 
found  himself  obliged  to  abandon  his  engage- 
ment and  return  to  England. 

Metford's  interest  in  rifle  shooting  began 
in  boyhood,  his  father  having  established  a 
rifle  club  with  a  range  in  the  fields  near 
Flook  House,  and  he  gave  constant  atten- 
tion to  it  in  the  intervals  of  his  engineering 
studies.  Late  in  1852  or  early  in  1853  he 
suggested  a  hollow-based  bullet  for  the  En- 


field  rifle,  expanding  without  a  plug.  It 
was  brought  out  with  the  assistance  of 
Pritchett,  who  was  awarded  1,OOOJ.  by 
government  for  the  invention  on  its  adop- 
tion by  the  small-arms  committee.  In  1854 
Metford  investigated  the  disturbance  of  the 
barrel  by  the  shock  of  the  explosion,  which 
affects  the  line  of  flight  of  the  bullet,  a  diffi- 
culty which  had  led  to  much  misunder- 
standing. In  1857  the  select  committee  found 
his  form  of  explosive  rifle  bullet  the  best 
of  those  submitted  to  them,  and  in  1863  it 
was  adopted  by  government.  In  March 
1869,  however,  it  was  declared  obsolete  in 
accordance  with  the  resolution  of  the  St. 
Petersburg  convention  against  the  employ- 
ment of  such  missiles  in  warfare.  Metford's 
chief  distinction  in  rifle  progress,  however, 
is  that  he  was  the  pioneer  of  the  substitution 
of  very  shallow  grooving  and  a  hardened 
cylindrical  bullet  expanding  into  it,  for  deep 
grooving  and  bullets  of  soft  lead.  In  1865 
his  first  match  rifle  appeared,  having  five 
shallow  grooves  and  shooting  a  hardened 
bullet  of  special  design  (Patent  No.  2488). 
In  1870  he  embarked  seriously  on  the  pro- 
duction of  a  breechloading  rifle,  paying  the 
closest  attention  to  every  detail  of  the 
barrel  and  cartridge.  Before  long  his  first 
experimental  breechloading  rifles  appeared, 
and  at  Wimbledon  in  1871  two  of  them  were 
used,  with  one  of  which  the  principal  prize 
for  military  breechloading  rifles  was  won  by 
Sir  Henry  St.  John  Halford  [q.  v.  Suppl.J, 
whose  acquaintance  he  had  made  in  1862  at 
the  Wimbledon  meeting,  and  who  hence- 
forth was  his  friend  and  assistant  in  his 
experiments.  From  1877  the  record  of  the 
Metford  rifle  was  an  unbroken  succession  of 
triumphs.  Between  that  date  and  1894  it 
failed  only  four  times  to  win  the  Duke  of 
Cambridge's  prize,  while  it  took  a  prepon- 
derating share  of  other  prizes. 

The  advance  in  military  small  arms 
abroad,  and  especially  the  increased  rapidity 
of  loading,  caused  the  appointment  of  a 
committee  in  February  1883  to  deal  with 
the  question.  Metford  designed  for  them 
the  detail  of  the  '42  bore  for  the  rifle  pro- 
visionally issued  for  trial  early  in  1887,  and 
on  the  adoption  of  the  '303  magazine  rifle, 
known  as  the  Lee-Enfield,  he  gave  much 
assistance  in  designing  the  barrel,  chamber, 
and  cartridge. 

In  1888  the  war-office  committee  on  small 
arms  selected  as  the  pattern  for  British  use 
a  rifle  which  combined  the  Metford  bore 
with  the  bolt-action  and  detachable  magazine 
invented  by  the  American,  James  P.  Lee. 
This  arm,  known  as  the  Lee-Metford  rifle, 
is  still  in  use. 


Middleton 


166 


Middleton 


In  1892  Metford's  health  finally  broke 
down,  and  henceforth  he  was  precluded  from 
active  work.  He  died  at  his  house  at  Redland, 
Bristol,  on  14  Oct.  1899.  About  1856  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Dr.  Wallis  of  Bristol. 

[Privately  printed  memoir  of  W.  E.  Metford 
(with  portrait).  This  memoir  appeared  in  an 
abbreviated  form  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  In- 
stitution of  Civil  Engineers,  1900,  vol.  cxl.l 

E  I  C 

MIDDLETON,  JOHN  HENRY  (1846- 
1896),  archaeologist,  architect,  professor  of 
fine  art,  and  museum  director,  born  at  York 
on  6  Oct.  1846,  was  the  only  surviving  child 
of  John  Middleton,  architect,  of  York,  and 
Maria  Margaret,  his  wife,  daughter  of  James 
Pigott  Pritchett  [q.  v.],  architect,  of  York, 
and  his  first  wife,  Peggy  Maria  Terry.  As 
a  child  he  was  taken  by  his  parents  to  Italy, 
where  he  acquired  a  love  of  that  country 
and  its  language,  which  lasted  throughout 
his  life.  On  their  return  his  parents  settled 
at  Cheltenham,  where  his  father  practised  as 
an  architect,  and  where  Middleton  himself 
was  educated,  first  at  the  juvenile  proprietary 
school,  and  afterwards  at  Cheltenham  Col- 
lege. In  1865  he  was  matriculated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford.  Middleton,  though 
far  from  being  an  eccentric  recluse,  or  of  as 
weakly  a  constitution  as  his  appearance 
seemed  to  denote,  displayed  from  his  youth 
an  acutely  nervous  and  fastidious  tempera- 
ment, liable  to  strong  emotions  and  to  deep 
depression.  This  was  accentuated  in  1866 
by  the  shock  caused  by  the  sudden  death  of 
a  close  friend  at  Oxford,  which  brought  on 
a  severe  and  painful  illness,  which  confined 
him  to  his  room  for  five  or  six  years ;  hence 
he  did  not  graduate  in  the  ordinary  course. 
During  this  period,  however,  by  assiduous 
reading  and  study  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
that  remarkable,  painstaking,  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  art  and  archaeology,  for  which 
he  was  afterwards  so  highly  distinguished. 
On  his  recovery  he  started  off  on  a  series  of 
travels  of  an  arduous  and  adventurous 
nature.  He  visited  America,  crossing  it  to 
Salt  Lake  City  and  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  descending  into  Mexico.  He  travelled 
in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  North 
Africa.  He  undertook  a  special  journey  to 
Fez  in  Morocco  to  study  the  philosophy  of 
Plato  as  taught  there,  and  in  the  disguise 
of  a  pilgrim  effected  admission  into  the 
Great  Mosque,  which  no  unbeliever  had 
previously  succeeded  in  doing,  and  also 
was  presented  to  the  sultan  as  one  of  the 
faithful.  On  his  return  he  adopted  the 
profession  of  an  architect,  studied  for  a 
time  in  the  office  of  Sir  George  Gilbert  Scott 
[q.  v.],  and  became  a  partner  in  his  father's 


business  at  Storey's  Gate,  Westminster. 
The  profession  was,  however,  never  congenial 
to  him,  and  after  his  father's  sudden  death 
in  February  1885  he  placed  the  business  in 
thorough  working  order,  and  disposed  of  it 
to  others. 

Middleton  had  never  ceased  to  pursue  his 
favourite  studies  of  art  and  archaeology,  and 
even  went  through  a  course  in  the  schools 
of  the  Royal  Academy.  His  extensive  and 
accurate  knowledge  became  well  known, 
and  brought  him  many  friends,  among  others 
William  Morris  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  with  whom 
Middleton  travelled  in  Iceland.  In  June 
1879  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  and  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  their  '  Proceedings '  and  their  publications ; 
he  was  elected  a  vice-president  of  the  society 
in  1894.  He  was  also  a  considerable  contribu- 
tor to  the  '  Encyclopaedia  Britannica '  (9th 
edition),  as  well  as  to  many  weekly  and  other 
periodicals.  He  made  a  special  study  of 
the  antiquities  of  Rome,  and  in  1885  pub- 
lished these  as  '  Ancient  Rome,'  a  revised 
edition  of  which  appeared  in  1888.  In 
1892  he  followed  this  with  another  work, 
'  Remains  of  Ancient  Rome.'  In  these 
works  Middleton  was  the  pioneer  of  the 
serious  and  scientific  study  of  Roman  anti- 
quities, and  his  work,  if  it  has  been  to  a 
great  extent  supplemented,  has  not  as  yet 
been  superseded.  In  1886  he  was  elected 
Slade  professor  of  fine  art  at  Cambridge, 
and  given  the  honorary  degree  of  M.A.  at 
Cambridge  in  1886,  and  at  Oxford  in  1887, 
followed  by  those  of  Litt.D.  at  Cambridge 
in  1892,  and  D.C.L.  at  Oxford  in  1894 ;  he 
was  also  honoured  with  a  doctor's  degree 
at  the  university  of  Bologna.  He  was 
twice  re-elected  to  the  professorship.  In 
1888  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1889  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  be  director  of  the  Fitzwilliam 
Museum  at  Cambridge,  a  post  which  offered 
him  opportunities  for  a  further  display  of 
his  knowledge  in '  Engraved  Gems  of  Classical 
Times '  (1891),  '  Illuminated  MSS.  of  Clas- 
sical and  Mediaeval  Times'  (1892),  and  a 
catalogue  of  '  The  Lewis  Collection  of 
Gems '  (1892).  Middleton  was  also  ap- 
pointed a  lecturer  at  the  Royal  Academy  in 
London.  In  1892  he  was  selected  to  fill  the 
important  post  of  art  director  of  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  a  department  then 
sadly  in  need  of  reform  and  reorganisation. 
Several  reforms  of  great  importance  were  at 
once  initiated  and  carried  out  by  Middleton 
at  South  Kensington.  Unfortunately  the 
strain  of  difficult  and  uncongenial  depart- 
mental work  brought  on  threatenings  of  the 
disease  from  which  he  had  suffered  in  his 


Millais 


167 


Millais 


early  youth,  and  for  which  he  had  frequently  I 
to  have  recourse  to  opiates.  An  accidental 
overdose  of  morphia  cut  short  his  life  at 
the  Residences,  South  Kensington  Museum, 
on  10  June  1896.  His  body  was  cremated 
at  Woking,  and  the  remains  interred  at 
Brookwood  cemetery.  Middleton  married, 
in  December  1892,  Bella,  second  daughter 
of  William  J.  Stillman,  American  corre- 
spondent of  the '  Times '  at  Rome,  by  whom 
he  left  one  child. 


[Private  information.] 


L.  C. 


MILLAIS,     SIB     JOHN     EVERETT 

(1829-1896),  painter  of  history,  genre, 
landscape,  and  portraits,  and  president  of 
the  Royal  Academy,  born  at  Southampton 
on  8  June  1829,  was  the  youngest  son  of 
John  William  Millais,  who  belonged  to  an 
old  Norman  family  settled  in  Jersey  for  many 
generations,  and  Emily  Mary,  daughter  of 
John  Evamy,  and  the  widow  of  Enoch 
Hodgkinson,  by  whom  she  had  two  sons. 
The  father  (who  died  in  1870)  was  noted 
in  the  island  of  Jersey  for  his  good  looks 
and  charming  manners.  He  was  also  a  good 
musician  and  a  fair  artist,  and  held  a  com- 
mission in  the  Jersey  militia.  He  arrested  ; 
Oxford  who  shot  at  the  queen  in  1840.  The 
Millaises  lived  at  LeQuaihouse,  just  outside 
St.  Hellers,  before  they  removed  to  Southamp- 
ton, where  Sir  John  and  his  elder  brother 
William  Henry  (also  an  artist,  and  the 
author  of  '  The  Game  Birds  of  England ') 
were  born.  The  family  returned  to  Jersey 
soon  after  Millais's  birth,  and  there  he  de- 
veloped a  taste  for  natural  history  and 
sketching.  A  frame  containing  drawings 
done  when  only  seven  years  old  was  ex- 
hibited at  the  Royal  Academy  in  the  winter 
of  1898.  He  drew  a  portrait  of  his  ma- 
ternal grandfather,  John  Evamy,  fishing, 
•when  he  was  eight  years  old,  and  another 
of  his  father  when  he  was  eleven.  He 
was  sent  to  school,  but  showed  no  inclination 
for  study,  and  was  expelled  for  biting  his 
master's  hand.  Among  the  friends  of  the 
Millaises  at  Jersey  were  the  family  of  the  i 
Lemprieres,one  of  whom  (afterwards  General  ; 
Lempriere),  the  grandson  of  Philip  Raoul 
Lempriere,  Seigneur  of  Roselle  Manor,  was  | 
the  model  for  the  Huguenot  in  Millais's  : 
famous  picture  of  that  name.  In  1835  the  | 
family  removed  to  Dinan  in  Brittany,  where 
the  child  delighted  the  French  military 
officers  by  his  sketches.  One  of  the  colonel 
smoking  a  cigar,  and  another  of  the  '  tambour 
major'  are  specially  mentioned  in  his  bio- 
graphy by  his  son.  In  1837  the  family  once 
more  returned  to  Jersey,  where  John  received 
his  first  instruction  in  art  from  a  Mr.  Bessel, 


the  best  drawing-master  in  the  island,  who 
soon  confessed  that  he  could  not  teach  his 
pupil  anything  more,  and  in  1838  he  came  to 
London  with  an  introduction  to  Sir  Martin 
Archer  Shee  [q,  v.l,  the  president  of  the 
Royal  Academy.  On  the  way  he  sketched 
Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Joseph)  Paxton  [q.  v.l 
asleep  in  the  coach.  Sir  Martin  told  his 
parents  that  it  was  their  plain  duty  to  fit 
their  son  for  the  vocation  for  which  nature 
had  evidently  intended  him,  and  in  the 
winter  of  1838-9  he  was  sent  to  the  well- 
known  school  of  Henry  Sass  [q.  v.]  in 
Bloomsbury.  In  the  same  year  he  obtained 
a  silver  medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts, 
and  in  1840  became  a  student  at  the  Royal 
Academy.  Here  he  carried  off  every  prize. 
His  first  picture  in  oils  wa"s  '  Cupid  crowned 
with  Flowers,'  painted  in  1841.  In  1843 
he  gained  the  first  silver  medal  for  drawing 
from  the  antique,  and  when  seventeen  the 
gold  medal  for  an  oil  painting,  '  The  Young 
Men  of  Benjamin  seizing  their  Brides.' 

Millais  still  retained  his  disinclination  for 
ordinary  studies,  and  received  all  his  educa- 
tion (except  in  art)  from  his  mother,  who 
read  to  him  continually.  He  wore  his 
boyish  costume  of  gouffred  tunic  and  wide 
falling  collar  till  long  past  the  usual  age, 
and  for  this  reason  was  called  '  the  child ' 
by  his  fellow-students  at  the  academy — a 
name  which  stuck  to  him  long  afterwards. 
He  was  tall  and  slim,  high-spirited  and 
independent,  though  very  delicate.  He  was 
fond  of  cricket  and  of  fishing,  and  made 
many  friends.  As  early  as  1840  he  was 
asked  to  breakfast  by  Samuel  Rogers,  and 
met  Wordsworth,  and  in  1846  he  stayed 
with  his  half-brother,  Henry  Hodgkinson, 
at  Oxford,  and  was  introduced  to  Wyatt, 
the  dealer  in  art,  at  whose  house  he  fre- 
quently stayed  as  a  guest  during  the  next 
three  years.  On  a  window  in  the  room  he 
occupied  he  painted  in  oils  '  The  Queen 
of  Beauty '  and  '  The  Victorious  Knight.' 
Wryatt  bought  his  picture  of  'Cymon  and 
Iphigenia '  (now  belonging  to  Mr.  Standen), 
painted  in  1847  for  the  Royal  Academy, 
but  not  exhibited.  To  1849  belongs  a  por- 
trait by  Millais  (exhibited  in  1850)  of  Wyatt 
and  his  grandchild.  Other  acquaintances 
made  at  Oxford  were  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Combe 
of  the  Clarendon  Press,  with  whom  he  be- 
came intimate,  and  Mr.  Drury  of  Shotover 
Park.  He  earned  money  also,  and  from  the 
age  of  sixteen  defrayed  the  greater  part  of 
the  household  expenses  in  Gower  Street, 
where  he  lived  with  his  family.  In  184-"i  he 
was  engaged  to  paint  small  pictures  and  back- 
grounds for  a  dealer  named  Ralph  Thomas 
for  100/.  a  year.  He  recorded  his  delight 


Millais 


1 68 


Millais 


at  receiving  his  first  cheque  (still  preserved) 
by  endorsing  it  with  a  drawing  of  himself. 
They  fell  out,  and  Millais  threw  his  palette 
at  Thomas,  and  so  ended  the  connection  for 
a  while,  but  it  was  afterwards  renewed 
(though  not  for  long)  at  an  increased  salary 
of  150/.  a  year. 

In  1846  Millais  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy  for  the  first  time.  The  subject  of 
his  picture  was  '  Pizarro  seizing  the  Inca  of 
Peru.'  This  was  followed  in  1847  by 
'  Elgiva  seized  by  the  Soldiers  of  Odo.' 
John  (known  as  Lester)  Wallack,  the  actor 
[see  under  WALLACK,  JAMES  WILLIAM,  ad 
/?».],  who  married  Millais's  sister,  sat  for 
Pizarro.  In  1847  also  he  entered  unsuccess- 
fully into  the  competition  at  Westminster 
Hall  for  the  decoration  of  the  houses  of 
parliament,  sending  an  oil  picture  of  '  The 
Widow's  Mite'  (ten  feet  seven  inches  by 
fourteen  feet  three  inches),  since  cut  up. 
He  did  not  exhibit  at  the  academy  in  1848. 

Down  to  this  time  his  career  had  differed 
from  those  of  other  academy  students  only 
by  its  distinguished  success,  and  his  pictures 
had  shown  little  if  any  divergence  from  the 
ordinary  ideals  and  methods  taught  in  the 
schools;  but  about  the  beginning  of  1848  he 
and  Mr.  Holman  Hunt,  deeply  conscious  of 
the  lifeless  condition  into  which  British  art 
had  fallen,  determined  to  adopt  a  style  of 
absolute  independence  as  to  art  dogma  and 
convention,  which  they  called  '  Pre-Raphael- 
itism.'  The  next  to  join  the  movement  was 
Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  [q.v.],  who  at  this 
time  was  struggling  with  the  technical  diffi- 
culties of  painting  under  the  instruction  of 
Holman  Hunt,  but  was  unknown  to  Millais. 
The  three  met  together  at  the  Millaises'  house 
in  Gower  Street,  where  Millais  showed  them 
engravings  from  the  frescoes  in  the  Campo 
Santo  at  Pisa,  and  all  agreed  to  'follow'  them. 
The  result  was  the  formation  of  the'celebrated 
'  Pre-Raphaelite  Brotherhood,'  consisting  of 
seven  members.  There  has  been  much  dis- 
pute as  to  what  were  the  precise  principles  of 
the  brotherhood  ;  but,  according  to  Millais, 
'the  Pre-Raphaelites  had  but  one  idea,  to 
present  on  canvas  what  they  saw  in 
nature,'  and  to  this  idea  he  adhered  from 
first  to  last.  Another  disputed  point  is  the 
influence  of  Rossetti  on  Millais's  earlier 
•work.  This  was  entirely  denied  by  Millais 
himself;  but  it  was  probably  greater  than  he 
knew,  for  Rossetti's  picture  of  '  The  Girl- 
hood of  Mary  Virgin '  was  clearly  the  fore- 
runner of  Millais's  '  Christ  in  the  House  of 
his  Parents,'  and  there  was  a  spirit  of  poetical 
romance  in  Millais's  work  while  their  closest 
intercourse  lasted  (1848-52)  which  slowly 
faded  away  afterwards.  The  intense  intel- 


lectual and  spiritual  influence  of  Rossetti  ore 
the  brotherhood  generally  cannot  be  denied. 
He  was  the  ruling  spirit  of  their  short-lived 
organ,  '  The  Germ '  (2  parts,  1850),  for  which 
Millais  made  one  or  two  sketches  and  an  etch- 
ing and  wrote  a  story,  though  none  of  them  ap- 
peared. (A  copy  of  the  etching  will  be  found  in 
'  British  Contemporary  Artists.')  On  the 
other  hand  Millais  was  very  independent 
and  impatient  of  control,  and  would  not 
read  the  first  volume  of  '  Modern  Painters* 
(1841),  in  which  principles  like  those  prac- 
tically followed  by  the  Pre-Raphaelites 
were  first  recommended  to  young  artists. 
It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  Rossetti 
was  at  this  time  a  mere  tyro  in  painting, 
whereas  Millais  was  a  trained  artist,  and 
that  of  love  of  nature  and  skill  in  expressing 
it  Millais  could  learn  nothing  from  Rossetti. 

At  all  events  it  is  quite  certain  that  Mr. 
Holman  Hunt  and  Millais  were  most  inti- 
mately associated  in  all  their  views  and  in 
their  practice.  They  had  worked  together  in 
complete  sympathy  from  the  days  of  their 
studentship,  and  they  together  started  the 
new  movement.  The  depth  of  the  gulf 
between  it  and  the  old  is  clearly  seen  if  we 
compare  the  '  Pizarro '  of  1846  with  the 
'  Isabella '  of  1 849 — a  banquet  scene  from 
Keats's  poem  of  'Isabella  and  the  Pot  of 
Basil '  founded  on  a  story  by  Boccaccio.  In 
this  nearly  all  the  characters  were  painted 
from  his  relatives  and  friends.  Among 
them  were  three  at  least  of  the  brotherhood, 
the  two  Rossettis,  Dante  and  William,  and 
Mr.  F.  G.  Stephens,  and  it  contains  all  the 
characteristics  of  '  Pre-Raphaelite '  work — 
most  minute  imitation  of  nature  down  to  the 
smallest  detail,  all  persons  and  objects  studied 
directly  from  the  originals,  and  disregard  of 
composition,  generalisation,  and  all  conven- 
tion. The  tale  was  told  with  dramatic  power, 
and  the  expression  of  the  heads,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  lovesick  Lorenzo,  was  excellent. 
Millais  never  again  painted  a  composition  of 
so  many  figures,  or  of  greater  patience  and 
success  in  execution.  The  picture  was  boughfc 
by  Mr.  Windus,  was  for  a  time  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Thomas  Woolner  [q.v.],  the  sculptor 
(and  one  of  the  brethren),  and  is  now  in  the- 
gallery  of  the  corporation  of  Liverpool.  It 
was  exhibited  in  1849. 

Millais's  next  important  picture  was  a  sup- 
posed scene  in  Christ's  childhood,  treated  as  an- 
incident  in  the  ordinary  life  of  a  carpenter's 
family.  It  is  usually  known  as  '  The  Car- 
penter's Shop,'  or  '  Christ  in  the  House  of 
his  Parents;'  but  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
Royal  Academy  it  had,  in  place  of  a  title,  a 
quotation  from  Zechariah  xiii.  6.  The  boy 
has  wounded  the  palm  of  his  hand  with  a 


Millais 


169 


Millais 


nail.  His  mother  kneels  by  him  and  kisses 
him.  St.  Joseph,  St.  Anne,  and  St.  John,  un- 
distinguishable  from  ordinary  human  beings, 
play  different  parts  in  the  little  drama  of 
sympathy,  just  as  a  carpenter's  family  might 
do  any  day  in  any  country.  They  are  all 
English  in  type.  Such  a  treatment  of  a 
scene  in  the  life  of  the  Holy  Family  aroused 
great  hostility.  The  'Times'  stigmatised  it 
as  '  revolting,'  and  its  minute  finish  of  detail 
as  '  loathsome.'  Violent  attacks  came  from 
nearly  all  quarters,  including  '  Blackwood,' 
and  even  from  Charles  Dickens  in  '  House- 
hold Words,'  who  afterwards  owned  his 
mistake.  Another  picture  of  this  year,  1850, 
'  Ferdinand  lured  by  Ariel,' met  with  scarcely 
better  reception  from  the  critics,  and  was 
refused  by  the  dealer  for  whom  it  was 
painted.  Nevertheless,  '  The  Carpenter's 
Shop'  was  bought  for  15(W.  by  a  dealer 
named  Farrer,  and  'Ferdinand'  by  Mr.  Elli- 
son of  Sudbrooke  Holme,  Lincolnshire,  for 
the  same  sum.  About  this  time  Millais  began 
to  feel  that  the  excessively  minute  handling 
which  was  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Pre-Raphaelites  was  a  mistake  (see  WIL- 
LIAM BELL  SCOTT'S  Autobiographical  Notes,  i. 
278),  but  little  difference  in  this  respect  is 
to  be  noted  in  his  work  of  the  next  few  years. 
The  most  notable  of  these  were :  '  The  Re- 
turn of  the  Dove  to  the  Ark,'  and '  The  Wood- 
man's Daughter,'  from  a  poem  by  Patmore, 
and  '  Mariana  of  the  Moated  Grange '  (all 
exhibited  in  1851);  'The  Huguenot'  and 
'  Ophelia'  (1852) ;  « The  Proscribed  Royalist' 
and  '  The  Order  of  Release'  (1853).  '  The 
Return  of  the  Dove,'  though  the  girls  who 
are  receiving  the  bird  were  very  plain,  was 
exquisitely  painted,  and  Ruskin  wished  to 
buy  it ;  but  it  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Combe 
for  150  guineas,  who  bequeathed  it  to  the 
university  of  Oxford.  The  background  of 
'  The  Woodman's  Daughter'  was  a  wood  near 
Oxford,  and  the  strawberries  which  the 
squire's  boy  is  offering  to  the  labourer's 
daughter  were  purchased  in  Covent  Garden 
— four  for  5s.  Qd.  '  Mariana*  was  purchased 
by  Mr.  AVindus,  and  now  belongs  to  Mr. 
H.  F.  Makins.  '  The  Huguenot,'  the  figures 
of  which  were  painted  from  Mr.  Arthur 
(afterwards  General)  Lempriere  and  Miss 
Ryan,  was  bought  by  a  dealer  named  White 
for  300/.  'Ophelia'  was  a  portrait  of  Miss 
Siddall  (Mrs.  D.  G.  Rossetti),  and  the  scene 
was  painted  by  the  side  of  the  Ewell  at 
Kingston.  For  'The  Proscribed  Royalist' 
Mr.  Arthur  Hughes,  the  well-known  painter, 
sat,  Miss  Ryan  again  appearing  in'the  female 
figure.  The  scene  was  a  little  wood  near 
Hayes  in  Kent.  In  '  The  Order  of  Release' 
the  female  figure  was  painted  from  Mrs. 


Ruskin,  who  was  afterwards  to  become  his 
wife.  During  these  years  Millais  was  wont 
to  spend  much  time  in  the  country  to  paint 
his  backgrounds,  lodging  at  farmhouses  and 
cottages,  in  company  with  his  brother,  Mr. 
Holman  Hunt,  and  Charles  Allston  Collins. 
Having  settled  upon  the  piece  of  landscape 
he  meant  to  introduce,  he  would  paint  it 
day  by  day  with  exact  fidelity  and  almost 
microscopic  minuteness.  Such  backgrounds, 
not  only  in  his  pictures,  but  those  of  Holman 
Hunt  and  their  followers,  form  a  very  dis- 
tinct feature  of  the  strict  '  Pre-Raphaelite ' 
period.  For  literal  truth  to  nature's  own 
colours  and  rendering  of  intricate  detail, 
those  by  Millais  stand  almost  alone,  espe- 
cially the  river  scene  in  '  Ophelia.' 

All  this  time  Millais  was  fighting  hard  for 
his  new  principles  of  art,  and  suffered  much 
from  the  antagonism  of  critics,  dealers,  and 
others,  including  many  artists  of  the  older 
school ;  but  he  managed  to  sell  his  pictures 
in  spite  of  all,  and  gradually  achieved  popu- 
larity also.  With  the  exhibition  of  '  The 
Huguenot '  the  fight  may  be  said  to  have  been 
won,  as  far  at  least  as  the  public  were  con- 
cerned. Its  sentiment,  its  refinement  of  ex- 
pression, and  thorough  execution  appealed  to 
nearly  all  who  saw  it.  But  Millais  and  the 
Pre-Raphaelite  cause  had  many  supporters 
and  sympathisers,  the  most  important  of  whom 
was  John  Ruskin  [q.v.Suppl.],  who  expressed 
his  enthusiasm  in  letters  to  the  '  Times  '  and 
in  his  pamphlet  called  '  Pre-Raphaelitism ' 
(1851).  Millais  first  met  Ruskin  in  this  year, 
and  two  years  afterwards  he  was  joined  by 
Ruskin  and  his  wife. at  Wellington,  the  Tre- 
velyans'  house  in  Northumberland,  and  went 
to  Scotland  with  them.  He  made  several 
architectural  designs  for  Ruskin,  and  in 
1854  painted  a  portrait  of  him  standing  by 
the  river  Finlass,  which  was  bought  by  Sir 
Thomas  Dyke  Acland  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  In  the 
autumn  of  1853  he  took  to  hunting  with 
John  Leech  [q.  v.],  and  in  November  of  the 
same  year  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy.  By  this  time  the  brother- 
hood, whose  meetings  had  always  been  few 
and  far  between,  had  died  a  natural  death, 
and  Millais  had  soon  to  lose  the  companion- 
ship of  Mr.  Holman  Hunt,  who  went  to 
Syria  in  February  1854.  In  this  year  Mil- 
lais did  not  exhibit  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
but  in  1855  he  sent  three  pictures,  including 
'  The  Rescue,'  a  scene  from  a  fire  in  a  modern 
town  house,  with  a  frantic  mother  seizing 
her  two  children  from  the  arms  of  a  fireman. 
This  was  painted  in  honour  of  brave  firemen, 
and  was  a  new  departure,  for  the  scene  was 
completely  modern,  and  the  conception  was 
entirely  his  own.  The  mother  was  painted 


Millais 


170 


Millais 


from  Mrs.  Nassau  Senior,  the  sister  of  Tom 
HughesTq.  v.  Suppl.lauthor  of '  TomBrown's 
School  Days.'  Ruskin,  in  his  notes  on  the 
principal  pictures  in  the  academy,  declared  it 
to  be  '  the  only  great  picture  exhibited,'  add- 
ing that  it  was  '  very  great,'  and  that  '  the 
immortal  element  is  in  it  to  the  full.'  In  the 
great  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855  Millais  was 
represented  by  '  The  Order  of  Release/ 
«  Ophelia,'  and  '  The  Return  of  the  Dove.' 
This  was  the  year  of  Leighton's  '  Cimabue,' 
and  the  two  painters  met  for  the  first  time. 
In  July  of  this  year  (1855)  Millais  married 
Euphemia  Chalmers,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  George  Gray  of  Bowerswell,  Perth,  who 
had  obtained  a  decree  of  the  'nullity'  of 
her  marriage  with  John  Ruskin.  They  went 
to  live  at  Annat  Lodge,  near  Bowerswell. 
In  the  garden  of  this  residence  was  painted 
the  celebrated  picture  of  'Autumn  Leaves,' 
which  was  exhibited  in  1856  with  'Peace 
Concluded,  1856,"  The  Blind  Girl,'  'L'En- 
fant  du  Regiment,'  and  a  '  Portrait  of  a  Gen- 
tleman.' 'Autumn  Leaves' represents  four 
girls  heaping  up  dead  leaves  in  a  warm 
twilight  or  afterglow ;  '  Peace  Concluded,'  a 
wounded  officer  and  his  wife,  with  their 
children  playing  with  animals  out  of  a 
Noah's  ark — a  cock,  a  bear,  a  lion,  and  a 
turkey,  symbolical  of  the  nations  engaged  in 
the  late  war  in  the  Crimea.  In  his  '  Notes' 
Ruskin  strongly  praised  'Autumn  Leaves' 
and  '  Peace  Concluded;'  indeed,  his  praise  of 
the  latter  was  extravagant.  Of  'Autumn 
Leaves'  he  said  it  'is  by  much  the  most 
poetical  work  the  painter  has  yet  conceived, 
and  also,  as  far  as  I  know,  the  first  instance 
existing  of  a  perfectly  painted  twilight,'  and 
of  both  he  prophesied  that  they  would  '  rank 
in  future  among  the  world's  best  master- 
pieces.' 'The  Blind  Girl'  contained  two 
figures — the  blind  girl  and  her  com- 
panion, a  younger  girl,  resting  on  a  bank 
beside  a  common.  The  blind  girl,  with  red 
hair  and  a  concertina,  is  not  beautiful,  but 
the  group  is  pathetic  from  its  very  truth  and 
simplicity.  The  background — one  of  the 
best  the  artist  ever  painted — represents  the 
common  and  village  of  Icklesham,  near  Win-  j 
chelsea.  '  L'Enfant  du  Regiment,' now  called 
'  The  Random  Shot,'  is  supposed  to  be  an  j 
incident  in  the  French  Revolution,  and  re-  | 
presents  a  wounded  child  lying  on  a  soldier's 
cloak  in  a  church.  The  tomb  on  which  the 
cloak  is  spread  was  painted  from  one  in  Ickles- 
ham church. 

In  the  spring  of  1857  Millais  took  lodgings 
in  Savile  Row.  His  studio  in  Langham 
Chambers  was  shared  with  his  friend,  J.  D. 
Luard,  from  1853  to  1860,  when  Luard  died. 
The  principal  pictures  exhibited  in  1857  were 


'  Sir  Isumbras  at  the  Ford '  and '  The  Escape 
of  a  Heretic.'  The  knight  is  old,  in  golden 
armour,  mounted  on  a  black  horse,  and  is 
bearing  with  him  two  poor  children  across 
the  river.  In  front  of  him  a  girl  is  seated, 
and  a  boy  clings  to  him  from  behind.  Behind, 
under  a  brilliant  evening  sky,  is  a  landscape 
composed  from  the  Bridge  of  Eden  and  the 
range  of  the  Ochills,  with  a  tower  painted 
from  old  Elcho  Castle.  On  the  further  bank 
are  two  nuns. 

The  comparative  freedom  with  which  he 
was  now  painting  offended  Ruskin,  who  de- 
voted to '  Sir  Isumbras '  several  pages  of  stern 
reproof,  declaring,  in  his  '  Notes  '  for  1857, 
that  the  change  in  the  artist's  manner  from 
the  years  of '  Ophelia '  and  '  Mariana ' '  is  not 
only  Fall — it  is  Catastrophe.'  This  picture 
was  very  cleverly  caricatured  in  a  lithograph 
by  Mr.  F.  Sandys,  in  which  the  horse  is  turned 
to  a  donkey  branded  J.  R.,  the  knight  into 
Millais,  while  Dante  Rossetti  and  Holman 
Hunt  take  the  places  of  the  girl  and  the 
boy.  '  Sir  Isumbras  '  was  bought  by  Charles 
Reade,  the  novelist,  and  is  now  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Mr.  R.  V.  Benson,  at  whose  request 
the  artist  repainted  the  horse  and  its  trappings. 
Ruskin  was  equally  severe  on  '  The  Escape 
of  the  Heretic'  on  account  of  its  subject 
and  the  violence  of  its  expression.  Millais's 
next  important  pictures  were  '  Apple  Blos- 
soms '  or  '  Spring,'  and  '  The  Vale  of  Rest,' 
which  were  exhibited  in  1859  (he  sent  no 
picture  to  the  academy  in  1858).  The  subject 
of  '  The  Vale  of  Rest '  (two  nuns  in  a  con- 
vent garden,  one  digging  a  grave)  had  oc- 
curred to  him  during  his  honeymoon,  and 
'  Apple  Blossoms '  was  commenced  in  1856. 
The  first  was  distinguished  by  its  impressive 
sentiment  and  the  background  of  oaks  and 
poplars  seen  against  an  evening  sky.  The 
face  of  one  of  the  nuns  was  of  repellent 
ugliness,  and  was  repainted  in  1862  from  a 
Miss  Lane.  '  The  Vale  of  Rest '  is  now  in  the 
Tate  Gallery.  Both  pictures  were  painted 
at  Bowerswell.  In  '  Apple  Blossoms '  some 
beautiful  girls  are  sporting  in  an  orchard 
under  boughs  of  brilliant  apple  blossom, 
painted  with  great  force  and  freedom.  The 
central  figure  is  Miss  Georgiana  Moncrieff 
(Lady  Dudley) ;  Lady  Forbes,  two  sisters-in- 
law,  and  a  model  sat  for  the  others.  Ruskin 
extolled  the  power  with  which  these  pictures 
were  painted,  and  called  '  The  Vale  of  Rest ' 
a  '  great  picture,'  but  still  insisted  on  the 
deterioration  of  the  artist.  At  this  time 
Millais  still  seems  to  have  suffered  much 
from  the  animosity  of  critics  and  others,  and 
to  have  felt  anxiety  about  the  future ;  but  he 
sold  all  his  pictures  at  good  prices,  and  in 
1860  took  a  house  in  Bryanston  Square, 


Millais 


171 


Millais 


from  which  he  moved  to  7  Cromwell  Place, 
South  Kensington,  in  1862.  In  1860  he  ex- 
hibited '  The  Black  Brunswicker,'  a  parting 
scene  between  an  officer  and  his  fiancee 
before  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  The  officer 
was  painted  from  a  private  in  the  life  guards, 
and  the  lady  from  Miss  Kate  Dickens  (Mrs. 
Perugini),  the  daughter  of  Charles  Dickens. 
The  picture  was  less  refined  in  conception 
than  his  other  historic  love  scenes,  '  The 
Huguenot'  and  'Proscribed  Royalist,'  but  it 
was  painted  with  great  skill,  and  may  be 
said  to  terminate  the  period  of  transition 
from  his  first  or  Pre-Raphaelite  manner,  and 
that  of  complete  breadth  and  freedom. 
Other  changes  besides  that  of  style  begin  to 
be  more  marked.  He  became  less  sedulous 
in  his  search  for  subjects,  less  romantic  in 
his  feeling,  more  content  to  paint  the  life 
about  him,  without  drawing  much  upon  his 
imagination,  or  even  his  faculty  for  refined 
selection.  The  portrait  element,  always 
strong  in  his  work,  became  stronger,  and  his 
family  furnished  ready  subjects  for  many 
pictures.  At  the  same  time  his  invention 
was  much  employed  in  illustration,  es- 
pecially of  Trollope's  novels,  '  Orley  Farm,' 
'  Framley  Parsonage,'  '  The  Small  House  at 
Allington,' '  Rachel  Ray,'  and '  Phineas  Finn,' 
for  which  he  made  eighty-seven  drawings, 
beginning  with  '  Framley  Parsonage  '  in  the 
'  Cornhill  Magazine.'  Trollope  was  one  of 
his  friends  at  this  time  with  Thackeray, 
Wilkie  Collins,  and  John  Leech.  From 
1860  to  1869  he  was  continually  employed 
in  designs  to  be  cut  upon  wood  for  Bradbury 
&  Evans,  Macmillan,  Hurst  &  Blackett, 
Chapman  &  Hall,  Smith,  Elder,  &  Co.,  Dalziel 
Bros.,  Mr.  Gambart,  Moxon  (the  illustrated 
edition  of  Tennyson).  He  was  one  of  the 
most  prolific  and  the  cleverest  of  all  the 
book  illustrators  of  this  period,  so  celebrated 
for  its  revival  of  woodcutting,  and  one  or 
more  cuts  from  his  designs  are  to  be  found 
in  '  Once  a  Week,'  '  The  Cornhill,' '  Punch,' 
'  The  Illustrated  London  News,'  '  Good 
Words,' '  London  Society,'  and  many  books. 
Later  in  life  (1879)  he  illustrated  'Barry 
Lyndon '  for  the  edition  de  luxe  of  Thackeray's 
works.  He  also  made  many  water-colour 
replicas  of  his  pictures.  He  was  elected  a 
Royal  Academician  in  1863.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  historical  and  poetical  pic- 
tures of  this  period  (1860-70)  were  'The 
Eve  of  St.  Agnes  '  (1863),  '  Romans  leaving 
Britain '  and  '  The  Evil  One  sowing  Tares ' 
(1865),  '  Jephthah  '  (1867),  '  Rosalind  and 
Celia'  (1868),  'A  Flood,'  '  The  Boyhood  of 
Raleigh,'  and  '  The  Knight  Errant '  (1870). 
The  subject  of  'The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes'  is 
taken  from  Keats's  poem.  The  heroine  is 


his  wife,  and  the  moonlit  room  in  which 
'  her  rich  attire  creeps  rustling  to  her  knees ' 
is  at  Knole  House,  Kent.  It  was  painted 
in  five  days  and  a  half,  in  December  1862, 
and  is  one  of  the  finest  of  his  works.  It  now 
belongs  to  Mr.  Val  Prinsep,  R.A.  'The 
Knight  Errant '  is  remarkable  from  the  fine 
execution  of  a  full-length  life-size  female 
figure,  the  only  one  to  be  found  in  the 
artist's  works.  Of  the  others  the  most  suc- 
cessful, perhaps,  were  '  The  Evil  One  sowing 
Tares,'  a  version  in  oils  of  one  of  a  fine 
series  of  designs  for  '  The  Parables  of  Our 
Lord,'  published  by  Bradbury  &  Evans,  '  A 
Flood '  (a  child  carried  in  its  wooden  cradle 
down  the  swollen  stream),  and  '  The  Boy- 
hood of  Raleigh,'  in  which  two  boys  (his 
own  sons  Everett  and  George)  are  listening 
to  the  strange  tales  of  a  sailor  returned  from 
the  Spanish  main.  The  newest  element  in 
his  worl»  of  this  period  was  supplied  from  his 
own  nursery,  which  afforded  subjects  for 
many  very  popular  pictures,  like  '  My  First 
Sermon,'  '  My  Second  Sermon,'  '  Sleeping,' 
'  Waking,' '  Sisters,' '  The  First  Minuet,'  and 
'  The  Wolfs  Den.' 

Portraits  of  other  children  were  also 
among  his  greatest  successes,  like  '  Leisure 
Hours,'  the  daughters  of  Sir  John  Pender 
with  a  bowl  of  goldfish,  and  'Miss  Nina 
Lehmann'  (Lady  Campbell).  Most  of  his 
pictures  were  now  single  figures,  with  more 
or  less  sentiment,  like '  Stella '  and '  Vanessa,' 
'  The  Gambler's  Wife,'  '  The  Widow's  Mite,' 
and  '  Swallow,  Swallow.'  A  more  important 
composition, '  Pilgrims  to  St.  Paul's '  (Green- 
wich pensioners  before  Nelson's  tomb),  ap- 
pealed to  national  feeling.  Technically  he 
had  reached  full  maturity,  evidently  exulting 
in  his  command  over  his  materials  and  in- 
dulging occasionally  in  a  rivalry  with  the 
broadest  style  of  Velazquez,  as  in  '  Vanessa,' 
and  '  A  Souvenir  of  Velazquez,'  his  diploma 
picture.  Belonging  to  this  period,  though 
not  exhibited  till  1871,  was  the  grandest  of 
his  biblical  pictures  called  '  Victory,  0 
Lord,'  representing  Aaron  and  Hur  holding 
up  the  hands  of  Moses  on  the  top  of  the  hill 
(Exodus  xvii.  12). 

While  at  work  no  one  worked  harder 
than  Millais,  but  no  one  enjoyed  his  holi- 
days more,  or  was  more  convinced  of  the 
importance  of  long  and  thorough  ones. 
Every  year  he  spent  some  months  in  the 
country,  usually  in  Scotland,  where  he  could 
indulge  his  love  of  shooting  and  salmon 
fishing.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  his  pure  land- 
scapes were  also  painted  there.  In  1856  he 
took  the  manse  of  Brig-o'-Turk  in  Glenfinlas, 
and  in  1860  the  shooting  of  Kincraig,  In- 
verness-shire, with  Colonel  Aitkin.  In  1865 


Millais 


172 


Millais 


he  was  shooting  with  Sir  William  Harcourt 
near  Inverary,  and  afterwards  visited  Flo- 
rence and  Italy  in  company  with  Sir  Wil- 
liam and  his  wife,  and  in  1868  he  was 
shooting  again  with  Sir  William  and  with 
Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  and  went  with  Mr. 
Frith  to  Paris,  where  they  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Rosa  Bonheur. 

'  Chill  October,'  his  first  exhibited  pure 
landscape,  afterwards  bought  by  Lord 
Armstrong,  was  at  the  academy  in  1871, 
and  was  painted  in  the  open  air  from  a 
backwater  of  the  Tay  just  below  Kin- 
fauns,  near  Perth.  It  was  followed  by 
'Scotch  Firs'  and  'Winter  Fuel,'  painted 
in  1874,  'The  Fringe  of  the  Moor'  (1875), 
'  Over  the  Hills  and  Far  Away '  and  '  The 
Sound  of  many  Waters'  (1876),  all  of 
which  were  equally  remarkable  for  their 
truth  to  nature  and  fine  execution,  but  they 
were  without  the  pathetic  sentiment  of 
'  Chill  October.'  It  was  to  portrait  and 
landscape  that  he  devoted  himself  mainly 
after  1870,  and  to  single  figures  of  children 
and  pretty  girls  under  fancy  titles  like 
•  Cherry  Ripe,'  '  Little  Miss  Muffet,'  <  Cuc- 
koo,' '  Pomona,'  '  Olivia,'  and  many  more 
which  were  very  popular  in  engravings 
and  in  coloured  prints  for  the  illustrated 
newspapers.  None  of  these  paintings  were 
perhaps  more  beautiful  or  popular  than 
'  Sweetest  eyes  were  ever  seen,'  '  Caller 
Herrin','  and  '  Cinderella,'  for  which  Miss 
Beatrice  Buxton  sat.  Inspired  by  a  stronger 
sentiment  were  '  The  North- West  Passage ' 
(1874),  'The  Princes  in  the  Tower'  (1878), 
«  The  Princess  Elizabeth  '  (1879),  and  two 
illustrations  of  Scott,  '  Effie  Deans '  and 
'  The  Master  of  Ravenswood,'  painted  for 
Messrs.  Agnew  in  1877  and  1878.  'The 
North- West  Passage'  represents  a  deter- 
mined old  mariner  (a  portrait  of  Edward 
John  Trelawny  [q.v.])  in  a  room  overlooking 
the  sea  and  strewn  with  charts.  He 
listens  to  a  young  woman  who  is  reading 
some  tale  of  Arctic  exploration.  The  artist 
never  painted  a  finer  head  than  that  of  the 
sailor,  and  the  execution  throughout  is  so 
fine  that  the  picture  is  regarded  by  some  as 
his  masterpiece.  '  A  Yeoman  of  the  Guard ' 
(1877),  with  his  age-worn  face  and  uniform 
of  scarlet  and  gold,  is  as  strong  in  character, 
and  perhaps  the  artist's  most  splendid  effort 
as  a  colourist.  It  was,  however,  as  a  por- 
trait painter  that  he  added  most  to  his  great 
reputation  during  the  last  twenty-five 
years  of  his  life.  Among  his  most  cele- 
brated sitters  were  the  Marquises  of  Salis- 
bury, Hartington  (Duke  of  Devonshire), 
and  Lome  (Duke  of  Argyll),  the  Earls  of 
Shaftesbury,  Beaconsfield,  and  Rosebery, 


Lord  Tennyson,  W.  E.  Gladstone,  John 
Bright,  Sir  Charles  Russell  (Lord  Russell 
of  Killowen),  Cardinal  Newman,  George 
Grote,  Sir  William  Sterndale  Bennett,  Sir 
James  Paget,  Sir  Henry  Thompson,  Thomas 
Carlyle,  Wilkie  Collins,  Sir  Henry  Irving, 
J.  C.  Hook,  R.A.,  and  Du  Maurier,  one  of 
the  most  intimate  of  all  his  friends.  All 
these  portraits  aro  lifelike  and  powerful, 
giving  the  very  presence  of  the  originals, 
and  inspiring  even  their  clothes  with  indi- 
viduality. He  was  never  more  successful 
than  in  realising  the  grand  head  and  keen 
expression  of  W.  E.  Gladstone,  whom  he 
painted  in  1879,  1885,  and  1890.  He  drew 
Charles  Dickens  after  his  death.  He  was  on 
very  friendly  terms  with  Gladstone,  Lord 
Beaconsfield,  Lord  Rosebery,  and  indeed  with 
nearly  all  his  sitters. 

Among  his  best  portraits  of  ladies  may  be 
mentioned  '  Hearts  are  Trumps  '  (the  three 
Misses  Armstrong),  Mrs.  Coventry  Patmore, 
Mrs.  Bischoffsheim,  Mrs.  F.  H.  Myers,  Mrs. 
Stibbard  (his  wife's  sister),  Mrs.  Jopling, 
the  Duchess  of  Westminster,  and  Lady 
Campbell.  To  his  portraits  of  children 
already  mentioned  may  be  added  Miss  Do- 
rothy Thorpe,  Lady  Peggy  Primrose  (after- 
wards Countess  of  Crewe),  and  the  Princess 
Marie  of  Edinburgh,  which  belonged  to  Queen 
Victoria. 

In  1875  Millais  took  a  trip  to  Holland 
with  some  of  his  wife's  family,  and  was 
greatly  impressed  by  the  masterpieces  of 
Rembrandt,  Franz  Hals,  and  Van  der  Heist. 
In  1878  Millais  was  represented  at  the  Paris 
Exhibition  by 'Chill  October,'  'A  Yeoman 
of  the  Guard,'  '  Madam  Bischoffsheim,' 
'  Hearts  are  Trumps,'  and  '  The  Bride  of 
Lammermoor,'  which  greatly  increased  his 
reputation  in  France,  and  he  was  made  an 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  In  this 
year  came  the  greatest  sorrow  of  his  life  in 
the  loss  of  his  second  son,  George,  who  had 
nearly  completed  his  twenty-first  year.  In 
1879  he  left  Cromwell  Place  for  a  house 
built  for  him  at  Palace  Gate  from  the  de- 
signs of  Philip  Charles  Hardwick,  where  he 
remained  till  he  died.  In  1880  he  painted 
his  own  portrait  for  the  Uffizi  Gallery  at 
Florence.  He  still  paid  his  annual  visit  to 
Scotland,  and  in  1881  took  a  house  at 
Murthly,  Little  Dunkeld,  Perthshire,  with 
good  fishing  and  shooting.  At  Murthly  or 
its  neighbourhood  all  his  other  landscapes 
were  painted :  '  Murthly  Moss,'  '  Murthly 
Water,' '  Dew-drenched  Furze,'  '  Lingering 
Autumn,'  and  others.  In  1881  a  small  ex- 
hibition of  his  pictures  was  held  by  the  Fine 
Art  Society.  On  16  July  1885,  at  Glad- 
stone's suggestion,  he  was  created  a  baronet, 


Millais 


173 


Millais 


and  among  his  other  honours  were  honorary 
degrees  at  the  universities  of  Oxford  (9  June 
1880)  and  Durham.  He  was  an  associate  of 
the  Institute  of  France,  an  honorary  member 
of  the  Royal  Scottish  and  Royal  Hibernian 
academies,  a  member  of  the  academies  of 
Vienna,  Belgium,  Antwerp,  and  of  St.  Luke, 
Rome,  and  San  Fernando,  Madrid  ;  was  an 
officer  of  the  order  of  Leopold,  of  the  order 
of  St.  Maurice,  and  of  the  Prussian  order, 
'  Pour  le  Merite.'  In  1886  a  large  collec- 
tion of  his  works  was  exhibited  at  the 
Grosvenor  Gallery. 

In  1891  his  tenancy  of  Murthly  expired, 
and  he  took  a  shooting  with  residence  at 
Newmill,  which  was  burnt  down  in  January 
1892.  About  this  time  his  health  began  to 
fail.  After  a  bad  attack  of  influenza  he 
•was  troubled  with  a  swelling  in  his  throat, 
and  suffered  much  from  depression.  He 
still,  however,  worked  whenever  he  could, 
and  executed  with  enjoyment  several  pic- 
tures, including  '  St.  Stephen,'  '  A  Disci- 
ple,' and  '  Speak  !  Speak  ! '  which  was  pur- 
chased out  of  the  Chantrey  bequest.  The 
admirable  portraits  of  Mr.  John  Hare  the 
actor  and  Sir  Richard  Quain  also  belong  to 
his  last  years.  The  last  subject  picture  exhi- 
bited by  him  was  '  The  Forerunner '  (St. 
John  Baptist),  which  was  painted  as  well  as 
ever,  though  somewhat  trivial  in  motive. 

In  1895,  in  consequence  of  the  illness  of 
the  president,  Sir  Frederic  (afterwards 
Lord)  Leigh  ton  [q.  v.  Suppl.~|,  he  was  called 
upon  to  preside  at  the  Royal  Academy  ban- 
quet, a  task  he  accomplished  with  great 
difficulty,  owing  to  the  weakness  of  his 
voice.  On  the  death  of  Lord  Leighton,  on 
25  Jan.  1896,  he  was  unanimously  elected  to 
succeed  him  in  the  presidential  chair,  but 
he  did  not  live  long  to  enjoy  the  honour. 
He  gradually  failed,  and  died  of  cancer  in 
the  throat  on  13  Aug.  1896,  and  was  buried 
in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  on  the  20th.  He  left 
a  widow  and  six  children  ;  Lady  Millais 
died  on  23  Dec.  1897  of  the  same  disease ; 
a  pencil  drawing  by  herself  of  Millais's 
portrait  of  her  is  given  in  Millais's  '  Life,'  i. 
218,  and  another  portrait  of  her  drawn  by 
Mr.  G.  F.  Watts,  R.A.,  is  the  frontispiece  of 
the  second  volume.  Millais's  eldest  son 
Everett,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy, 
died  on  7  Sept.  1897.  The  present  baronet 
is  Sir  John  Everett  Millais,  son  of  the  second 
baronet. 

Notwithstanding  the  opposition  he  had  to 
conquer  as  a  Pre-Raphaelite,  Millais's  career 
was  one  of  almost  continuous  success  and 
prosperity,  and  perhaps  there  is  no  greater 
proof  of  his  popularity  than  the  number 
(over  a  hundred)  of  his  pictures  which  were 


separately  engraved  on  steel.  The  winter 
exhibition  of  the  Royal  Academy  1898  was 
entirely  devoted  to  his  works. 

It  is  too  early  to  fix  precisely  the  position 
of  Millais  as  an  artist,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  painters  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  and  that  he  did 
more  than  any  other  of  his  generation  to 
infuse  a  new  and  healthy  life  into  British 
art.  There  was  nothing  of  the  idealist  or 
visionary  in  his  designs,  and  he  had  not  a 
great  imagination  ;  but  he  could  paint  what 
he  saw  with  a  force  and  a  truth  which  have 
seldom  been  excelled,  and  his  intense  love 
of  nature  and  of  his  kind  tilled  his  work 
with  life  and  poetry. 

As  a  man  Millais  was  frank,  manly,  and 
genial,  not  over-refined,  but  devoid  of  affec- 
tation. Though  of  no  great  intellectual 
power,  he  had  a  strong  fund  of  common 
sense,  and,  if  not  a  great  reader,  was  fond  of 
poetry  (especially  Tennyson  and  Keats),  of 
the  best  fiction,  and  of  books  of  travel,  and 
he  could  write  graceful  and  humorous 
verses.  In  manner  and  appearance  he  re- 
sembled a  country  gentleman  rather  than 
an  artist.  He  was  devoted  to  his  art,  but 
not  blind  to  the  advantages  of  success  and 
prosperity.  He  was  the  life  of  his  own 
family,  and  regarded  with  affection  by  a 
very  large  and  distinguished  circle  of  ac- 
quaintance ;  but  he  did  not  care  for  ordinary 
social  gatherings,  and  preferred  to  spend  his 
evenings  at  the  Garrick  Club,  where  he  was 
sure  to  meet  a  number  of  congenial  friends. 
In  person  he  was  very  handsome,  his  face 
(which  in  his  youth  Rossetti  described  as 
that  ot  an  angel)  retained  great  beauty 
throughout  life,  and  his  figure  grew  well- 
knit  and  strong.  His  fine  presence  and 
cheery  voice  made  themselves  felt  wherever 
he  went,  and  there  were  few  who  knew  him 
well  who  would  not  echo  the  words  of  Sir 
George  Reid,  P.R.S.A.,  who  wrote  of  him  as 
'  one  of  the  kindest,  noblest,  most  beautiful 
and  lovable  men  I  ever  knew  or  ever  hope  to 
know.' 

Besides  the  portrait  of  Millais  which  was 
painted  by  himself  for  the  Uffizi  Gallery, 
there  are  portraits  of  him  by  John  Philip 
in  1841,  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Watts,  R.A.,  in 
1871,  and  by  Sir  Henry  Thompson,  bart.,  in 
1881.  These,  with  sketches  of  him  by  his 
brother,  W.  H.  Millais,  John  Leech,  and 
others,  are  reproduced  in  J.  G.  Millais's  '  Life 
and  Letters '  (1899). 

The  following  works  of  Millais  are  to  be 
found  in  public  galleries.  National  Gal- 
lery, Trafalgar  Square :  '  Portrait  of  W.  E. 
Gladstone '  (1879)  and  '  A  Yeoman  of  the 
Guard.'  National  Gallery  of  British  Art : 


Milligan 


174 


Milligan 


'  Ophelia,' '  The  Vale  of  Rest,'  '  The  Knight 
Errant,'  'The  North- West  Passage,' '  Mercy,' 
'  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  1572,' '  Saint  Ste- 
phen,' '  A  Disciple,'  '  Speak  !  Speak,'  '  The 
Order  of  Release,  1746,'  and  '  The  Boyhood 
of  Raleigh.'  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum : 
'  Pizarro  seizing  the  Inca  of  Peru  '  and '  Lord 
Lytton.'  The  National  Portrait  Gallery: 
'  Lord  Beaconsfield,' '  Thomas  Carlyle,' '  Wil- 
kie  Collins,'  and '  Leech.'  Oxford  University 
Gallery  :  '  The  Return  of  the  Dove  '  and '  Por- 
trait of  Thomas  Combe.'  Manchester  Cor- 
poration Gallery  :  '  Autumn  Leaves,'  '  A 
Flood,'  'Victory,  0  Lord,'  'Winter  Fuel,' 
and  '  Bishop  Fraser.'  Birmingham  Art  Gal- 
lery :  '  The  Huguenot '  (1856), '  The  Widow's 
Mite,'  and  '  The  Blind  Girl.'  Holloway  Col- 
lege :  '  Princes  in  the  Tower '  and  '  Princess 
Elizabeth.'  Liverpool  Art  Gallery :  '  Isa- 
bella,' '  The  First  Minuet,'  and  '  The  Martyr 
of  the  Solway.'  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital : 
'  Sir  James  Paget '  and  '  Luther  Holden.' 
University  of  London  :  '  George  Grote.' 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society:  'Lord 
Shaftesbury.'  University  of  Glasgow :  '  Dr. 
Caird.'  Corporation  of  Oldham :  «  T.  0.  Bar- 
low, R.A.' 

[Life  &c.  by  J.  G.  Millais,  1899  ;  Art  Annual, 
1886  (memoir  by  Sir  Walter  Armstrong)  ;  Cat. 
of  Grosvenor  Gallery,  Summer  Exhibition,  1886 
(F.  G.  Stephens);  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia  (art. 
'  Pre-Raphaelitism',  by  W.'Holman  Hunt) ;  Royal 
Academy  Cat.,  Winter,  1898;  Cat.  of  Fine  Art 
Society,  1881  (A.  Lang);  British.  Contemporary 
Artists ;  Pre-Raphaelite  Diaries  and  Letters,  ed. 
W.  M.  Rossetti ;  Cat.  National  Galleryof  British 
Art ;  Spielman's  Millais  and  his  Works;  SirW.  B. 
Richmond's  Leighton,  Millais,  &c. ;  J.  B.  Payne's 
The  Lineage  and  Pedigree  of  the  Family  of 
Millais ;  Ruskin's  Notes  on  Royal  Academy 
Exhibitions,  Pre-Raphaelitism,  and  Modern 
Painters ;  Autobiographical  Notes  of  William 
Bell  Scott ;  Memoirs  of  Coventry  Patmore ; 
Frith's  Reminiscences.]  C.  M. 

MILLIGAN,  WILLIAM  (1821-1893), 
Scottish  divine,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  on 
15  March  1821,  the  eldest  of  seven  children 
of  the  Rev.  George  Milligan  and  his  wife, 
Janet  Fraser.  His  father,  a  licentiate  of 
the  church  of  Scotland,  was  then  engaged 
in  teaching  at  Edinburgh,  and  Milligan 
was  sent  to  the  high  school,  where  he  was 
dux  of  his  class.  In  1832,  when  his  father 
became  minister  of  the  Fifeshire  parish  of 
Elie,  he  was  transferred  to  the  neighbouring 
parish  school  of  Kilconquhar,  and  thence 
proceeded  in  1835  to  the  university  of  St. 
Andrews.  Though  only  fourteen  years  of 
age,  he  earned  from  that  day,  by  private 
teaching,  as  much  as  paid  his  class-fees,  much 
to  his  parents'  relief,  for  Elie  was  a  '  small 


living.'  Graduating  M.A.  in  1839,  and  de- 
voting himself  to  the  ministry,  he  took  his 
divinity  course  partly  at  St.  Andrews  and 
partly  at  Edinburgh,  and  for  a  time  he  was 
tutor  to  the  sons  of  Sir  George  Suttie  of 
Prestongrange.  During  the  disruption  con- 
troversy of  1843  Milligan  adhered  to  the 
church  of  Scotland.  He  wrote  to  his  father 
that  he  was  resolved  to  '  remain  in  ...  and 
lend  any  aid  he  could  to  those  who  are  ready 
to  unite  in  building  up,  on  principles  agree- 
able to  the  word  of  God,  the  old  church  of 
Scotland.'  He  was  at  this  time  assistant 
to  Robert  Swan,  minister  at  Abercrombie ; 
next  year  he  was  presented  to  the  Fifeshire 
parish  of  Cameron  and  ordained. 

In  1845  his  health  gave  cause  for  anxiety, 
and  he  obtained  a  leave  of  absence  for  a 
year,  which  he  spent  in  Germany,  studying 
at  Halle.  He  made  the  acquaintance,  among 
others,  of  Neander,  in  whom  he  found  a 
kindred  spirit.  Promoted  in  1850  to  the 
more  important  parish  of  Kilconquhar,  he 
married,  in  1859,  Annie  Mary,  the  daughter 
of  David  Macbeth  Moir  [q.  v.]  ;  and  in  1860 
he  was  appointed  first  professor  of  biblical 
criticism  in  the  university  of  Aberdeen.  He 
worked  hard  ;  but  his  liberal  politics  and 
mild  broad-church  views  were  not  congenial 
to  many  of  his  colleagues,  and  his  amiability 
concealed  from  his  students  the  real  strength 
of  his  character.  Nevertheless  his  power  and 
influence  grew,  and  in  1870  he  joined  the 
company  formed  for  the  revision  of  the  Eng- 
lish New  Testament.  From  that  time  on- 
ward he  was  a  prolific  writer.  His  style, 
prolix  at  first,  became  pure  and  graceful,  and 
in  such  works  as  those  on  the  resurrection 
and  ascension  of  Jesus  Christ  and  on  the 
Revelation  of  St.  John  he  took  a  foremost 
place  among  British  theologians.  In  the 
church  courts,  too,  his  rise  was  steady.  In 
1872  he  was  sent,  together  with  the  Rev.  J. 
Marshall  Lang  (now  Principal  Lang)  as  a 
representative  from  the  general  assembly  of 
the  church  of  Scotland  to  the  assembly  of 
the  presbyterian  church  in  the  United 
States  ;  in  1875  he  was  elected  depute-clerk 
of  the  general  assembly ;  and  in  1886  he  suc- 
ceeded Principal  John  Tulloch  [q.  v.]  as 
principal  clerk. 

Already  in  1882,  partly  in  recognition  of 
his  work  as  a  New  Testament  reviser,  he 
had  been  elevated  to  the  moderator's  chair. 
His  address  on  the  occasion  was  notable 
for  its  declaration  that,  in  any  scheme  for 
church  reunion  in  Scotland,  the  Scottish 
episcopalians  must  be  considered ;  while  its 
enunciation  of  doctrine  concerning  the 
church  called  forth  the  warm  approval  of 
Canon  Liddon  [q.  v.],  who  wrote  and 


Milligan 


175 


Mills 


thanked  him  for  it.  Although  in  his  earlier 
days  his  humanitarian  feelings,  and  his  en- 
thusiasm for  liberty  and  progress,  had  allied 
him  with  those  who  were  then  called  broad 
churchmen,  Milligan  did  not  have  at  any 
period  of  his  career  the  slightest  sympathy 
with  the  disregard  for  doctrine  which  has 
sometimes  marked  the  members  of  that  school. 
Ultimately  he  ranged  himself  with  high 
churchmen,  being,  he  declared,  impelled  to 
join  them  by  increased  study  of  the  New 
Testament.  His  doctrine  of  the  church  he 
gathered  for  himself  from  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,  on  which  he  had  contributed  an 
important  article  to  the  ninth  edition  of  the 
'Encyclopaedia  Britannica.'  His  views  on 
the  importance  of  dogma  and  on  the  sacra- 
ments he  learned,  as  he  believed,  from  St. 
John,  of  whose  writings  he  was  a  lifelong 
student  and  diligent  expositor.  This  develop- 
ment of  his  opinions  in  no  way  limited  his 
width  of  sympathy,  nor  did  it  interfere  with 
the  friendly  intercourse,  ecclesiastical  as  well 
as  social,  that  he  had  been  wont  to  hold 
with  nonconformists — with  Wesleyans  like 
Dr.  W.  F.  Moulton  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  or  with 
independents  like  Principal  Fairbairn.  He 
had  been  a  member  for  years  of  the  Church 
Service  Society.  In  1892,  when  the  Scottish 
Church  Society  was  constituted  '  to  defend 
and  advance  catholic  doctrine  as  set  forth 
in  the  ancient  creeds,  and  embodied  in  the 
standards  of  the  church  of  Scotland,  &c.,' 
he  took  an  important  part  in  its  formation, 
and  accepted  office  as  its  first  president. 
The  last  letter  he  wrote  from  his  death-bed 
was  to  the  first  conference  of  this  society, 
then  being  held  in  Glasgow.  A  few  days 
previously  he  had  said  that  the  greatest  need 
of  the  church  of  Scotland  was  the  restoration 
of  a  weekly  celebration  of  the  eucharist. 

Milligan  was  keenly  interested  in  social 
and  especially  in  educational  questions.  In 
1888  he  went  to  Germany  to  inquire  about 
technical  education  and  continuation  schools 
in  that  country ;  and  the  next  year  he 
visited  Sweden  to  see  the  working  of  the 
Gottenburg  licensing  system.  In  Aberdeen 
he  was  an  active  philanthropist  ;  and  all 
over  Scotland  his  services  as  a  preacher 
were  in  much  request. 

When  on  the  eve  of  retiring  from  his 
chair  at  Aberdeen  owing  mainly  to  failing 
eyesight,  Milligan  was  suddenly  seized  with 
illness  which  soon  proved  fatal.  He  died 
at  Edinburgh  on  11  Dec.  1893.  His  wife,  by 
whom  he  left  issue,  survived  him.  He  left 
unfinished  a  work  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  forbade  the  publication  of  the 
parts  he  had  written ;  some  of  his  notes, 
however,  have  been  used  in  a  work  on  the 


same  subject,  since  published  by  his  eldest 
son,  the  Rev.  George  Milligan. 

There  is  a  portrait  of  Milligan  by  Sir 
George  Reid,  P.R.S.A.,  at  King's  College, 
Old  Aberdeen  (one  of  the  artist's  happiest 
likenesses).  In  1898  an  altar-table,  bearing 
an  inscription  from  the  pen  of  his  friend 
and  colleague,  Principal  Sir  William  Geddes 
[q.  v.  Suppl.],  was  erected  to  his  memory  in 
the  College  Chapel,  Old  Aberdeen. 

Milligan's  literary  productiveness  began 
in  1855,  when  he  contributed  the  first  of  a 
series  of  papers  to  Kitto's  '  Journal  of 
Sacred  Literature.'  In  1857  he  addressed  a 
'  Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Argyll  on  the  Edu- 
cation Question.'  •'  The  Decalogue  and  the 
Lord's  Day '  (1866)  was  evoked  by  the  con- 
troversy stirred  in  Scotland  by  a  speech  of 
Dr.  Norman  MacLeod's  (1812-1872)  [q.  v.], 
as  his  'Words  of  the  New  Testament'  (1873) 
— written  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Roberts — 
belonged  to  the  literature  of  New  Testa- 
ment revision.  In  1878  appeared  a  volume  on 
the  '  Higher  Education  of  Women ; '  and  the 
next  year  he  contributed  to  the '  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica '  his  important  article  on  the 
'  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.'  '  The  Resur- 
rection of  our  Lord '  and  his  '  Commentary 
on  St.  John '  (in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Moul- 
ton) (1882),  his'  Commentary  on  the  Revela- 
tion' (1883),  his  'Discussions  on  the  Apo- 
calypse '  (1883),  his  '  Baird  Lectures  on  the 
Revelation  of  St.  John'  (1886),  'Elijah' 
(1887),  'The  Resurrection  of  the  Dead' 
(1890),  'The  Ascension  and  Heavenly 
Priesthood  of  our  Lord,'  and  his  presidential 
address  on  the  'Aims  of  the  Scottish  Church 
Society '  (1892),  were  all  productions  of  his 
ripened  powers.  Besides  these  he  contri- 
buted many  articles  to  periodicals.  His  last 
article  was  a  notice  '  In  Memoriam '  of  Dr. 
Hort,  which  appeared  in  the  '  Expository 
Times '  (1893). 

[In  Memoriam,  a  memoir  drawn  up  for  his 
family  by  his  Wife,  Aberdeen,  1894;  Aurorae 
Boreales,  Aberdeen,  1899  ;  private  information ; 
personal  recollections.]  J.  C. 

MILLS,  SIB  CHARLES  (1825-1895), 
first  agent-general  for  the  Cape  Colony,  was 
born  in  1825  at  Ischl,  Hungary,  and  edu- 
cated chiefly  at  Bonn.  On  1  Feb.  1843  he 
enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  98th  regiment, 
and  went  to  China,  where  he  very  soon  at- 
tracted some  notice,  was  made  staff"  clerk  in 
the  adjutant-general's  office,  and  excused  or- 
dinary duty.  He  seems  to  have  readily  mixed 
and  become  well  known  in  the  general  so- 
ciety of  the  station,  though  nominally  only 
'  Corporal  Mills.'  When  his  regiment  was 
ordered  to  India  in  1848,  he  was  offered  a 
clerkship  in  the  consular  service,  but  pre- 


Mills 


176 


Milne 


ferred  to  go  into  active  military  service.  He 
was  accordingly  with  his  regiment  through 
the  Punjab  campaign,  and  was  present  in  1849 
at  Chillianwallah,  where  he  was  wounded. 
He  received  the  medal.  On  6  June  1851  he 
received  a  commission  as  ensign  in  the  98th 
regiment,  became  adjutant  on  17  June  1851, 
and  on  22  Nov.  1854  was  promoted  lieutenant 
in  the  50th  foot. 

Mills,  having  returned  home  with  his  regi- 
ment, became,  in  1855,  brigade-major  under 
General  Woolridge,  who  was  charged  with 
the  formation  of  a  camp  of  instruction  for  the 
German  legion  at  the  Crimea,  and  went  to 
the  seat  of  war  with  the  legion  under  Sir 
Henry  Storks  [q.  v.]  During  this  war  he 
gained  special  credit  for  his  share  in  sup- 
pressing an  attempt  at  mutiny  among  some 
of  the  Turkish  troops.  He  received  the  order 
of  the  Medjidie. 

At  the  close  of  the  Crimean  war,  when 
the  German  legion  was  disbanded,  it  was 
proposed  to  make  a  military  settlement  of 
Germans  on  the  eastern  border  of  British 
Kaffraria.  Mills,  who  now  left  the  army,  was 
selected  as  officer  in  charge  of  the  settle- 
ment ;  he  arrived  at  ,Cape  Town  in  January 
1858,  and  became  successively  sheriff  of  King- 
williamstown  and  secretaryto  the  government 
of  Kaffraria.  He  had  brought  out  three  thou- 
sand men,  who  prospered  almost  without 
exception ;  he  has  himself  stated  that  for 
seven  years  he  was  their  '  guide,  philosopher, 
and  friend,'  and  looked  upon  this  as  the  most 
successful  work  of  his  life.  He  had  intended 
writing  an  account  of  the  settlement,  but 
never  did  so. 

In  1865,  when  Kaffraria  was  incorporated 
with  the  Cape  Colony,  Mills  retired  on  a  pen- 
sion. Subsequently,  in  1866,  he  was  elected 
to  represent  Kingwilliamstown  in  the  parlia- 
ment of  the  Cape,  where  he  supported  the 
government,  opposing  the  party  which  at 
that  time  demanded  responsible  government. 
Sir  Philip  Wodehouse  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  who 
was  then  governor,  eventually  persuaded 
him  to  resign  political  life  and  enter  the 
colonial  service,  and  in  1867  appointed  him 
chief  clerk  for  finance  in  the  colonial  secre- 
tary's office.  In  1872  he  became  permanent 
under-secretary  in  the  same  office  when  self- 
government  was  conferred  on  the  colony ; 
in  this  capacity  he  rendered  considerable 
service  in  organising  the  Cape  civil  service. 
In  1880  he  was  sent  to  London  to  arrange 
as  to  the  adjustment  of  expenditure  on  the 
Zulu  war.  When  in  1882  the  Cape  govern- 
ment decided  to  have  an  agent-general  of 
their  own  in  London,  Mills  was  at  once 
selected  for  the  position,  which  he  took  up 
in  October  1882. 


As  agent-general  Mills  was  a  familiar 
and  popular  figure  at  all  functions  in  which 
the  colonies  were  interested.  In  1886  he 
was  executive  commissioner  for  the  Cape  at 
the  Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibition.  In  1887 
he  was  delegate  for  the  Cape  at  the  colonial 
conference.  In  1894  he  was  one  of  the  dele- 
gates of  the  Cape  at  the  intercolonial  con- 
ference at  Ottawa,  and  this  was  his  last 
special  service.  He  died  at  110  Victoria 
Street,  London,  on  31  March  1895,  and  was 
buried  at  Highgate  cemetery.  He  had  been 
made  C.M.G.  in  1878,  K.C.M.G.  in  1885, 
and  C.B.  in  1886.  He  was  a  governor  of  the 
Imperial  Institute. 

Mills  was  in  later  years  stoud  and  florid, 
very  cheery  in  manner,  and  fond  of  society. 
He  was  always  reckoned  businesslike  and 
capable ;  at  times  working  exceedingly  hard, 
as  when  he  stayed  almost  continuously  in 
the  colonial  secretary's  office  for  over  three 
months  in  1872.  There  are  portraits  of  him 
in  the  colonial  secretary's  office,  and  in  the 
Civil  Service  Club,  at  Cape  Town. 

[Times,  1  April  1895;  Capo  Times,  2  April 
1 895  ;  Cape  (weekly)  Argus,  3  April  1 895,  p.  5 ; 
Cape  Illustrated  Magazine,  April  1895;  Army 
Libts,  1850-8.]  C.  A.  H. 

MILNE,  SIR  ALEXANDER,  first  baro- 
net (1806-1896),  admiral  of  the  fleet,  second 
son  of  Sir  David  Milne  [q.v.],  was  born  on 
10  Nov.  1806.  In  February  1817  he  en- 
tered the  Royal  Naval  College,  and  in  1819 
first  went  afloat  in  the  Leander,  his  father's 
flagship  on  the  North  American  station.  He 
afterwards  served  in  the  Conway  with  Cap- 
tain Basil  Hall  [q.  v.],  in  the  Albion  with 
Sir  William  Hoste  [q.  v.],  and  in  the 
Ganges,  flagship  of  Sir  Robert  Waller 
Otway  [q.  v.],  on  the  South  American 
station.  In  June  1827  he  was  appointed 
acting- lieutenant  of  the  Cadmus  brig  on  the 
Brazilian  station,  his  commission  being  con- 
firmed on  8  Sept.  In  1830  the  brig  returned 
to  England,  and  Milne  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  commander,  25  Nov.  In  December 
1836  he  commissioned  the  Snake  sloop  for 
service  in  the  West  Indies,  where,  in  No- 
vember and  December  1837,  he  captured  two 
slavers,  having  on  board  an  aggregate  of  665 
slaves.  He  was  promoted,  30  Jan.  1839, 
to  be  captain  of  the  Crocodile,  in  which, 
and  later  on  in  the  Cleopatra,  he  continued 
in  the  West  Indies  or  on  the  coast  of  North 
America,  and  in  charge  of  the  Newfound- 
land fisheries,  till  November)  1841.  From 
April  1842  to  April  1845  he  was  his 
father's  flag  captain  at  Devonport ;  and  from 
October  1846  to  December  1847  flag  captain 
to  Sir  Charles  Ogle  at  Portsmouth.  For 


Milne 


177 


Mitchell 


the  next  twelve  years  to  June  1859  he  was 
a  junior  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  long  administrative 
service  during  a  time  of  war  and  reorganisa- 
tion he  was  made  a  civil  K.C.B.  on  20  Dec. 
1858 ;  he  had  previously  been  made  a  rear- 
admiral,  2  Jan.  1858. 

In  1860  Milne  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  West  Indies  and  North  Ameri- 
can station,  which,  during  the  American 
civil  war,  he  exercised  with  great  judgment 
and  tact,  at  a  time  when  the  tension  of 
public  feeling  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic 
especially  called  for  the  exercise  of  these 
qualities.  The  duration  of  his  command 
was  extended  by  a  year,  and  on  25  Feb. 
1864  he  was  nominated  a  military  K.C.B., 
with  authority  to  wear  both  orders.  From 
June  1866  to  December  1868  he  was  senior 
naval  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  from  April 
1869  to  September  1870  was  commander-in- 
chief  in  the  Mediterranean.  During  the  last 
two  months  of  the  time  the  Channel  fleet 
joined  the  Mediterranean  on  the  coast  of 
Portugal,  and  the  two  were  exercised  to- 
gether under  the  command  of  Milne,  who 
Avas  also  desired  to  report  on  the  behaviour 
of  the  Captain  [see  BURGOYNE,  HUGH  TALBOT; 
COLES,  COWPEK  PHIPPS].  On  6  Sept.  he 
inspected  the  ship,  and  commented  on  the 
very  unusual  state  of  things — the  water 
washing  freely  over  the  lee  side  of  the  deck. 
In  the  very  exceptional  circumstances  he 
did  not  think  it  necessary  to  do  more  than 
express  his  dislike  of  this  to  Coles ;  and 
indeed,  in  view  of  the  strong  feeling  that 
had  been  excited  in  favour  of  the  invention, 
it  is  almost  certain  that  the  outcry  would 
have  been  very  great  if  Milne  had  ordered 
the  ship's  sails  to  be  furled,  and  the  ship 
had  in  consequence  weathered  the  gale  in 
safety.  It  would  have  been  said  that  he 
was  prejudiced  against  the  ship,  and  had 
refused  to  give  her  a  fair  trial.  On  the  early 
morning  of  7  Sept.  the  Captain  turned  over 
bodily  and  went  to  the  bottom. 

On  24  May  1871  Milne  was  made  a  G.C.B., 
and  from  1872  to  1876  was  again  first  naval  | 
lord  of  the  admiralty.     On  1  Nov.  1876  he  i 
was  created  a  baronet.      During  his  long  j 
career  he  was  a  member  of  many  commis- 
sions and  committees.     He  was  a  commis- 
sioner for  the  exhibition  of  1851  in  London,  ' 
and  again  for  that  of  1867  in  Paris  ;  in  1879  I 
he  was  chairman  of  Lord  Carnarvon's  com- 
mittee to  inquire  into  the  state  of  defences 
of  our  colonies,  and  in  1881  of  a  commission 
on  the  defence  of  British  possessions  and 
commerce.     In  1887  he  was  chairman  of  a 
committee  of  officers  of  the  navy  and  marines 
for  the  presentation  of  a  'jubilee  offering' 

VOL.  in. — STTP. 


to  the  queen.  The  presentation,  of  silver 
models  of  the  Britannia,  a  first-rate  ship  of 
war  in  1837,  and  of  the  Victoria,  a  first- 
class  battleship  of  1887,  was  actually  made  at 
Windsor  on  22  Nov.  1888.  During  his  later 
years  he  resided  principally  at  Inveresk 
House,  Musselburgh,  and  there  he  died,  in 
consequence  of  a  chill  followed  by  pneu- 
monia, on  29  Dec.  1896.  He  married  in 
1850,  Euphemia,  daughter  of  Archibald 
Cochran  of  Ashkirk,  Roxburghshire,  and  by 
her  (who  died  on  1  Oct.  1889)  left  issue,  be- 
sides two  daughters,  one  son,  Archibald 
Berkeley  Milne,  a  captain  in  the  navy,  who 
succeeded  to  the  baronetcy. 

[O'Bj'rne's  Nav.  Biogr.  Diet. ;  Men  and 
Women  of  the  Time  (1895) ;  Times,  30  Dec. 
1896  ;  Burke's  Peerage  and  Baronetage  ;  Navy 
List..]  J.  K.  L. 

MITCHELL,  ALEXANDER  FERRIER 
(1822-1899),  Scottish  ecclesiastical  historian, 
born  at  Brechin  on  10  Sept.  1822,  was  son  of 
David  Mitchell,  convener  of  local  guilds,  and 
i  his  wife  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  Ferrier 
of  Broadmyre.  After  being  educated  at 
Brechin  grammar  school,  he  proceeded  in 
1837  to  St.  Mary's  College,  St.  Andrews, 
winning  an  entrance  bursary  in  classics. 
He  graduated  M.A.  in  1841,  and  in  1844  was 
licensed  to  preach.  After  acting  as  assistant 
to  the  ministers  at  Meigle  and  Dundee,  he 
was  in  1847  ordained  by  Meigle  presbytery 
to  the  charge  of  Dunnichen.  Adhering  to 
the  established  church  during  the  secession 
movement,  he  became  in  1848  a  member  of 
the  general  assembly.  In  the  same  year, 
when  only  twenty-six,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  St.  Mary's  College, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  into 
Scotland  a  scientific  method  of  teaching 
Hebrew.  As  convener  from  1856  to  1875 
of  the  committee  of  the  mission  to  the  Jews, 
Mitchell  did  much  to  develop  missions  in 
the  Levant,  which  he  visited  himself  in  1857. 
His  main  interests  lay,  however,  in  Scottish 
ecclesiastical  history,  and  in  1868  he  suc- 
ceeded John  Cook  as  professor  of  divinity 
and  ecclesiastical  history  in  St.  Mary's 
College. 

Mitchell  held  his  chair  for  twenty-six 
years,  and  during  that  period  published  a 
number  of  valuable  works  on  Scottish 
ecclesiastical  history.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  Scottish  Historical  and  Text 
Societies,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
general  councils  of  the  Presbyterian  Alliance, 
attending  the  meeting  at  Philadelphia  in 
1880.  In  1885  he  was  elected  moderator  of 
the  church  of  Scotland,  and  the  address  he 
delivered  at  the  close  of  the  session  was 
separately  published  (Edinburgh  and  Lon- 


Mitchell 


178 


Mitchell 


don,  1885,  4to).  In  1894  he  retired  from 
liis  professorship,  and  in  1895  was  presented 
with  his  portrait,  painted  by  Sir  George 
Reid.  He  was  made  D.D.  of  St.  Andrews 
in  1862,  and  honorary  LL.D.  of  Glasgow  in 
1892.  He  divided  his  later  years  between 
his  house  at  Gowan  Park,  near  Brechin,  and 
56  South  Street,  St  Andrews.  He  died  at 
St.  Andrews  on  22  March  1899,  and  was 
buried  in  Brechin  cathedral  churchyard. 
He  married,  in  1852,  the  eldest  daughter  of 
Michael  Johnstone  of  Archbank,  near  Moffat, 
and  was  survived  by  three  sons  and  four 
daughters. 

Mitchell  published :  1.  '  The  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith,'  1866,  8vo ;  3rd  ed.  1867. 
2.  'The  Wedderburns  and  their  Work,' 
1867,  4to.  3.  '  Minutes  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly '  (with  Dr.  John  Struthers),  1874, 
8vo.  4.  '  The  Westminster  Assembly ' 
(Baird  Lectures),  London,  1883,  8vo ;  new 
edit.  Philadelphia,  1895.  5.  'Catechisms  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,'  Edinburgh,  1886, 
8vo.  6.  'The  Scottish  Reformation,'  ed. 
D.  Hay  Fleming,  with  biographical  sketch 
by  Dr.  James  Christie,  London,  1900,  8vo. 
Mitchell  also  edited  for  the  Scottish  Text 
Society  the  '  Richt  Vey  to  Heuine,'  by  John 
Gau  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  in  1888,  and  the  '  Gude 
and  Godlie  Ballatis '  from  the  1567  version 
in  1897.  For  the  Scottish  Historical  Society 
he  edited  in  1892  and  1896  two  volumes  of 
'  The  Records  of  the  Commissions  of  the 
General  Assembly,'  1646-50.  He  also  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Archbishop  Hamilton's 
*  Catechism '  (1882),  and  three  lectures  at 
St.  Giles's,  Edinburgh  (St.  Giles's  Lectures, 
1st  ser.  No.  4,  4th  ser.  No.  1,  and  6th  ser. 
No.  8).  Of  his  numerous  contributions  to 
periodical  literature  and  encyclopaedias  a  list 
of  the  most  important  is  given  in  Dr.  Christie's 
memoir  (pp.  xxvi-xxvii). 

[Mitchell's  Works  in  Brit.  Mus.  Libr. ;  Dr. 
Christie's  biogr.  sketch  prefixed  to  the  Scottish 
Reformation,  1900 ;  A.  K.  H.  Boyd's  Twenty- 
five  Years  of  St.  Andrews,  i.  22,  ii.  221  ;  Mrs. 
Oliphant's  Memoir  of  Principal  Tulloch,  p.  7  ; 
Knight's  Principal  Shairp  and  his  Friends ; 
Who's  Who,  1899;  Times,  23  March  1899; 
English  Hist.  Review,  January  1901.] 

A.  F.  P. 

MITCHELL,  PETER  (1824-1 899),  Cana- 
dian politician,  was  born  of  Scottish  parents 
at  Newcastle  in  the  county  of  Northumber- 
land,New  Brunswick,  on  24  Jan.  1824.  Edu- 
cated at  the  county  grammar  school,  he 
studied  law  and  was  called  to  the  bar  of  the 
province  of  New  Brunswick  in  1848.  He 
practised  his  profession  for  four  years,  and 
then  entered  into  partnership  with  a  Mr. 
Hawe  in  the  business  of  lumbering  and 


shipbuilding.  In  1858  he  was  elected  to  the 
assembly  as  member  for  his  native  county, 
and,  two  years  later,  became  minister  in  the 
cabinet  of  Samuel  Leonard  Tilley  [q.  v.] 
He  was  called  to  the  New  Brunswick  legis- 
lative council  in  1860. 

Mitchell  too^  no  Part  m  the  Charlotte- 
town  conference  of  1864,  whose  object  was 
a  union  of  the  maritime  provinces  only.  But 
when  in  the  same  year  the  larger  scheme  of 
uniting  British  America  arose,  he  attended 
the  meeting  at  Quebec  (10  Oct.)  as  delegate 
of  his  province,  and  assisted  in  drawing  up 
the  basis  of  confederation  known  as  the 
Quebec  resolutions.  On  the  delegates'  return 
the  government  of  (Sir)  Samuel  Leonard 
Tilley  [q.  v.]  submitted  the  plan  to  the 
popular  vote,  and  was  defeated  by  a  large 
majority  (1865).  Albert  Smith  then  formed 
a  cabinet  whose  element  of  cohesion  was 
opposition  to  confederation.  Shortly  after- 
wards Lieutenant-governor  Gordon,  who 
had  himself  opposed  the  measure,  received 
instructions  to  forward  the  movement.  For 
this  purpose  he  called  Mitchell  to  his  assis- 
tance, and  a  line  of  action  was  taken  which, 
however  necessary  in  the  circumstances,  can 
scarcely  be  considered  constitutional  to-day. 
On  8  March  1866  Gordon  addressed  the 
houses  and  declared  in  favour  of  union. 
During  the  negotiations  and  debates  that 
ensued,  so  many  supporters  deserted  the 
ministers  that  they  resigned  in  a  body 
(13  April).  Mitchell  was  thereupon  asked 
to  form  a  cabinet  on  the  basis  of  confedera- 
tion. He  became  himself  premier  and  pre- 
sident of  the  council,  while  Tilley  took  office 
as  provincial  secretary.  Dissolving  the  as- 
sembly, he  forthwith  appealed  to  the  people. 
The  moment  was  well  chosen,  for  the  fenian 
invasion  of  the  frontier  had  demonstrated  the 
need  of  consolidating  British  America.  The 
real  issue  at  the  polls  thus  became  confedera- 
tion or  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
Mitchell  triumphed  by  a  vote  of  nearly  four 
to  one. 

A  short  session  followed,  the  house  sitting 
from  26  June  till  7  July.  The  legislature 
was  content  to  vote  confidence  in  the  mini- 
stry and  leave  their  course  of  action  '  un- 
fettered by  any  expression  of  opinion  other 
than  what  had  been  given  by  the  people 
and  their  representatives.'  In  the  final  con- 
federation conference  which  took  place  at 
Westminster  on  4  Dec.  1866,  the  New  Bruns- 
wick delegates  had,  therefore,  a  free  hand. 
They  made  use  of  it  to  obtain  concessions 
that  gratified  the  province :  a  representation 
of  twelve  members  in  the  dominion  senate 
and  fifteen  in  the  dominion  House  of  Com- 
mons ;  a  reservation  of  export  duties  in 


Mitchell 


'79 


Mivart 


saw  logs,  since  commuted  for  £150,000  a 
year;  a  guarantee  for  the  intercolonial  rail- 
way. Mitchell  was  very  active  in  obtaining 
these.  It  is  observable  also  that  he  favoured 
the  federal  principle  with  Sir  George  Etienne 
Cartier  [q.  v.],  as  against  Sir  John  Alexander 
Macdonald's  avowed  leaning  towards  legis- 
lative union.  The  British  North  America  Act 
received  the  royal  assent  on  29  March  1867. 
On  the  proclamation  of  the  dominion 
(1  July  1867)  Mitchell  was  sworn  of  the 
privy  council  of  Canada,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  cabinet  with  the  portfolio  of 
marine  and  fisheries.  Thereupon  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  Ottawa.  On  25  Oct. 
following  he  was  raised  to  the  senate  by 
proclamation.  He  sat  in  that  body  till 
13  July  1872,  when  he  resigned  in  order  to 
assist  the  administration  in  the  commons. 
Elected  by  his  old  constituency,  he  continued 
to  represent  it  in  the  second,  third,  fifth,  and 
sixth  parliaments.  After  the  Macdonald 
government  fell  (6  Nov.  1873),  he  removed 
to  Montreal  and  assumed  the  editorship  of 
the  '  Herald '  newspaper.  From  that  date 
he  owned  no  party  ties,  though  he  advocated 
liberal  principles  both  in  the  house  and  in 
his  organ.  He  suffered  defeat  in  the  elec- 
tions of  1891  and  1896.  On  1  March  1897 
he  received  an  inspectorship  of  fisheries  for 
the  Atlantic  provinces. 

Mitchell's  six  years  of  ministerial  life  as 
inspector  of  fisheries  were  of  permanent  bene- 
fit to  the  dominion.  To  the  guardianship  of 
two  thousand  miles  of  coast  on  the  Atlantic 
was  immediately  added  the  care  of  the  great 
lakes  and  rivers,  and,  after  1871,  the  Pacific 
coast  from  the  straits  of  Fuca  to  Alaska. 
His  legislation  regulating  such  subjects  as 
navigation,  pilotage,  lighthouses,  quarantine, 
fisheries,  and  the  like,  proceeds  broadly  on 
the  assumption,  since  disputed,  that  the  do- 
minion is  vested  as  well  with  proprietary 
right  in  as  with  legislative  power  over  them. 
His  department  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
important  in  Canada.  The  annual  yield  of  the 
Atlantic  fisheries  alone  rose  from  £4, 186,000 
in  1849  to  £10,250,000  in  1873. 

Mitchell's  reputation  rests  mainly  on  his 
conduct  of  the  fisheries  negotiations  with  the 
United  States.  The  presence  of  American 
fishermen  on  the  British  North  American 
coasts  and  bays  caused  international  com- 
plications in  his  department.  '  The  shortest 
way,'  he  says,  '  to  avoid  fishery  troubles  is 
for  the  United  States  to  cease  trespassing .  .  . 
or  make  a  fair  bargain.'  Otherwise,  he  re- 
commended the  strict  enforcement  of  the 
Canadian  rights.  After  trying  other  means 
with  small  success,  he  in  1869  commissioned 
six  provincial  cruisers  to  protect  the  fisheries. 


The  English  government,  however,  did  not 
acquiesce  except  under  conditions  which 
Mitchell  declined  to  accept.  When  in  1871 
the  Washington  treaty  was  under  discussion 
bet  ween  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
Mitchell's  influence  led  to  the  insertion  of 
articles  whereby  the  Canadian  fisheries  were 
thrown  open  to  the  United  States  for  twelve 
years  in  consideration  of  a  sum  to  be  ascer- 
tained by  an  arbitration  board  (arts,  xviii- 
xxv.)  In  1876  Canada  was  awarded 
£4,500,000.  The  Canadian  right  was  there- 
by clearly  established,  and  its  value  placed 
beyond  question. 

In  July  1899,  as  he  was  leaving  the  parlia- 
mentary buildings,  Ottawa,  he  was  stricken 
by  paralysis.  He  seemed  to  recover,  but  on 

25  Oct.  following  he  was  found  dead  in  his 
rooms  in  the  Windsor  Hotel,  Montreal.     In 
1853    he    married   Mrs.   Gough,   a  widow 
of  St.  John.  New  Brunswick;  she  died  in 
1889. 

Mitchell  was  the  author  of  several  pam- 
phlets, including :  1. '  A  Review  of  President 
Grant's  Message,'  Montreal,  1870,  which 
concerns  the  fisheries ;  and  2.  '  Notes  of  a 
Holiday  Trip,'  Montreal,  1880,  a  reprint  of 
letters  to  the  '  Montreal  Herald '  on  Manitoba 
and  the  north-west  territories. 

[Canadian  Gazette,  London,  2  Nor.  1899; 
Montreal  Star,  25  Oct.  1899;  Toronto  Globe, 

26  Oct.    1899;  Morgan's   Canadian   Men    and 
Women,   pp.   639-40 ;    N.    0.    Cote's  Political 
Appointments,     p.    101  ;    Gemmill's    Canadian 
Parliamentary  Companion,  1883,  p.  142  ;  Gray's 
Confederation,  pp.  30,  50 ;  Dent's  Last   Forty 
Years,  ii.  445  et  seq. ;  Hannay's  Life  of  S.  L. 
Tilley,  pp.  233-349  :    Stewart's  Canada  under ' 
Dufferin,  pp.  179,  240-1  ;  Pope's  Mem.  of  J.  A. 
Macdonald,  i.  329-30,  ii.  14,    105-16;   Pope's 
Confederation  Doc.  pp.  3,  94,  121;  Can.  Sess. 
Pap.  1868  No.   39,  1869  No.  12,  1870  No.  11, 
1871  Nos.  5  and  12;  Hertslet's  Coll.  of  Treaties, 
xiii.  970-86,  1257  ;  Hind's  Fishery  Commission, 
Halifax,  i.    43-4,    ii.   55-6;    U.S.A.  Doc.   and 
Proc.  Halifax  Com.  i.  82-7,  ii.  106-7,  206-17; 
Law  Reports,  1898,  A.  C.  p.  700.]      T.  B.  B. 

MIVART,  ST.  GEORGE  JACKSON 
(1827-1900),  biologist,  third  son  of  James 
Edward  Mivart  (d.  1856),  hotel  proprietor, 
of  Brook  Street,  Grosvenor  Square,  London, 
was  born  on  30  Nov.  1827.  He  received  his 
early  education  at  the  grammar  school, 
Clapham,  under  Charles  Pritchard  [q.  v.], 
and  at  Harrow.  He  subsequently  studied 
at  King's  College,  London,  with  the  view 
of  graduating  at  Oxford,  but,  having  joined 
in  1844  the  Roman  catholic  church,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  St.  Mary's  College,  Oscott.  His 
change  of  faith  is  said  to  have  been 
prompted  by  a  taste  for  Gothic  architecture, 
and  finally  determined  by  a  study  of  Milner's 

N2 


Mivart 


180 


Mivart 


'  End  of  Religious  Controversy.'     Admitted 
on  15  Jan.  1846  student  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  he 
•was  there  called  to  the  bar  on  30  Jan.  1851, 
but  preferred  a  scientific  to  a  forensic  career. 
He  was  member  from  1849  of  the  Royal 
Institution,  and   fellow   from    1858  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  to  whose '  Proceedings '  he 
was  for  more  than  thirty  years  a  frequent 
contributor.     In  1862  he  was  appointed  lec- 
turer on  comparative  anatomy  in  St.  Mary's 
Hospital,  London,  and   elected  (20  March) 
fellow  of  the  Linnean  Society,  of  which  he 
was  secretary  from  1874  to  1880,  and  was 
elected  vice-president  in  1892.     In  1869  he 
was  elected  F.R.S.  in  recognition  of  the  un- 
usual merits  of  his  memoir  '  On  the  Appen- 
dicular  Skeleton  of  the  Primates,'  communi- 
cated through   Professor   Huxley  in  1867 
('Phil.   Trans.'    clvii.    299-430).      Among 
others  of  his  earlier  scientific  papers  may  be 
mentioned  'Notes  on  the  Osteology  of  the 
Insectivora '  ('  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Phy- 
siology,' Cambridge  and  London,  1867-8,  i. 
280-312,  ii.  117-54  ;  translated  in  '  Annales 
des  Sciences  Naturelles,'  Sieme  serie,  'Zoo- 
logie,'tom.viii.  221-84,  ix.  311-72);  '  Appen- 
dicular  Skeleton  of  Simia'    ('Trans.  Zool. 
Soc.'  vol.  vi.,  1866) ;  '  Notes  on  the  Myology 
of  Iguana  Tuberculata '  ('  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.' 
1867,  pp.  766-97) ;  '  Notes  on  the  Myology 
of  Menobranchus   Lateralis'  (ib.   1869,  pp. 
450-66)  ;  '  On  some  Points  in  the  Anatomy 
of  Echidna  Hystrix  '  ('  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.'  vol. 
xxv.  pt.  iii.  [1866],  pp.  379-403) ;  and '  On  the 
Vertebrate  Skeleton'  (ib.  vol.  xxvii.  pt.  iii. 
[1871],  pp.  369-92).     Though  greatly  stimu- 
lated by  Darwin,  Mivart   never  became  a 
Darwinian;  and  in  1871  freely  criticised  the 
great   naturalist's   hypothesis    both   in   the 
'  Quarterly  Review  '  (vol.  cxxxi.  p.  47)  and 
in  a  substantive  essay  '  On  the  Genesis  of 
Species '  (London,  8vo) ;  an  assertion  of  the 
right  of  private  judgment  which  led  to  an 
estrangement  from  both  Darwin  and  Huxley. 
Three   subsequent   works :    1.    '  Lessons   in 
Elementary  Anatomy,'  London,  1873,  8vo. 

2.  '  Man    and    Apes,'  London,   1873,   8vo. 

3.  '  The  Common  Frog,'  London,  1874,  8vo, 
established  his  reputation  as   a  specialist. 
He  was  already  known  as  an  attractive  lec- 
turer at  the  Zoological   Gardens   and   the 
London  Institution,  and  in  1874  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor   of  biology  at  the  short- 
lived Roman  catholic    University  College, 
Kensington.     During  the    decade   1870-80 
he    enriched    the    '  Transactions '    of    the 
Zoological  Society  (vols.  viii.  and  x.)  with 
several  important  papers,  viz. :  1.  '  On  the 
Axial  Skeleton  of  the  Ostrich ; '  2.  '  On  the 
Axial  Skeleton  of  the  Struthionidse  ; '  3.  '  On 
the  Axial    Skeleton  of   the  Pelecanidae ; ' 


4. '  Notes  on  the  Fins  of  Elasmobranchs ;  with 
Considerations  on  the  Nature  and  Homo- 
logues  of  Vertebrate  Limbs.'  To  the  '  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica '  (9th  edit.)  he  con- 
tributed the  articles  '  Ape '  (reproduced  in 
substance  in  Flower  and  Lydekker's  '  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Mammals,'  1891), 
'  Reptiles  '  (anatomy),  and  '  Skeleton.'  In 
1879  he  was  president  of  the  biological  sec- 
tion of  the  British  Association  at  Sheffield, 
and  delivered  an  address  on  Buffbn,  which 
was  included  in  his  '  Essays  and  Criticisms,' 
London,  1892,  ii.  193.  In  1881  appeared  his 
elaborate  monograph,  '  The  Cat :  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Back-boned  Ani- 
mals, especially  Mammals'  (London,  8vo), 
which  for  fulness  and  accuracy  of  detail 
and  lucidity  of  exposition  is  worthy  to  rank 
with  Huxley's  '  Crayfish.'  Subsequent 
studies  in  the  anatomy  of  the  ^Eluroid, 
Arctoid,  and  Cynoid  carnivora  appeared  in 
the  '  Proceedings'  of  the  Zoological  Society 
1882,  1885,  and  1890.  His  researches  on 
the  last  group  bore  fruit  in  '  Dogs,  Jackals, 
Wolves,  and  Foxes ;  a  monograph  of  the 
Canidse/  London,  1890,  4to.  Other  papers 
in  the  '  Proceedings '  of  the  same  society 
(1895)  laid  the  basis  of  his  'Monograph  of 
the  Lories,  or  Brush-tongued  Parrots  com- 
posing the  Family  Loridse,'  London,  1896, 
4to.  Mivart  received  in  1876  the  degree  of 
Ph.D.  from  the  pope,  and  in  1884  that  of 
M.D.  from  the  university  of  Louvain,  in 
which  he  was  professor  of  '  the  philosophy 
of  natural  history  '  from  1890  to  1893. 

Despite  his  rejection  of  Darwinism,  Mivart 
always  professed  himself  an  evolutionist.  As 
such,  however,  he  can  be  ranked  with  no 
school.  He  never  wavered  in  maintaining  an 
essential  disparity  between  organic  and  inor- 
ganic matter,  and  between  human  reason  and 
the  highest  faculties  of  the  brutes.  Natural 
selection  he  relegated  to  an  extremely  sub- 
ordinate place,  and  attributed  the  formation 
of  specific  characters  to  a  principle  of  indi- 
viduation,  which  he  postulated  as  the  essence 
of  life  (see  Essays  and  Criticisms,  ii.  377-9,  and 
I  The  Origin  of  Human  Reason,  London,  1889, 
pp.  298-303).  Evolution  thus  understood  he 
attempted  by  a  theory  of  derivative  creation 
to  reconcile  with  the  catholic  faith,  between 
which  and  modern  thought  he  aspired  to 
play  the  part  of  interpreter  (see  his  paper, 
'  One  Point  in  Controversy  with  the  Agnos- 
tics,' in  Essays  on  Religion  and  Literature, 
ed.  Manning,  3rd  ser.  London,  1874,  8vo). 
In  November  1874  he  joined  the  Meta- 
physical Society,  in  which,  as  in  the  wider 
arena  of  the  monthly  reviews,  he  opposed  a 
neo-scholastic  realism  to  the  prevalent  ag- 
nosticism. In  1876  he  collected  his  philo- 


Mivart 


181 


Molteno 


sophical  articles  under  the  title  '  Lessons 
from  Nature  as  manifested  in  Mind  and 
Matter,'  London,  8vo.  '  Nature  and  Thought,' 
an  attempt  to  refute  Berkeley  in  Berkeley's 
own  method  of  dialogue,  appeared  in  1882 
and  other  works  (all  London,8vo)  in  the  fol- 
lowing order :  '  A  Philosophical  Catechism  ' 
(1884),  '  On  Truth :  a  Systematic  Inquiry ' 
(1889),  'The  Helpful  Science'  (1895),  and 
*  The  Groundwork  of  Science :  a  Study  of 
Epistemology '  (1898).  In  these  treatises 
he  laboured  to  re-establish  philosophy  upon 
a  pre-Cartesian  basis,  with  only  such  modi- 
fications of  form  as  were  imperatively  de- 
manded by  the  problems  of  the  age.  But 
this  attempt  to  refurbish  the  scholastic 
armoury  of  his  church  was  combined  with  a 
theological  liberalism  which  eventually 
brought  him  into  collision  with  her.  His 
neo-catholicism  was  adumbrated  in  '  Con- 
temporary Evolution,'  London,  1876  (a  re- 
print of  articles  in  the  '  Contemporary  Re- 
view ' ),  and  more  explicitly  formulated  in  a 
series  of  papers  in  the  '  Nineteenth  Century,' 
viz. :  1.  '  Modern  Catholics  and  Scientific 
Freedom'  (July  1885);  2.  'The  Catholic 
Church  and  Biblical  Criticism '  (July  1887) ; 
3.  '  Catholicity  and  Reason '  (December 
1887);  4.  'Sins  of  Belief  and  Disbelief 
(October  1888);  5.  'Happiness  in  Hell' 
(December  1892),  which,  with  two  explana- 
tory papers  (February  and  April  1893),  was 
placed  on  the  Index  Librorum  Prohibitorum, 
21  July  1893  ;  and  6.  '  The  Continuity  of  Ca- 
tholicism '  (January  1900).  The  last  article, 
with  another  entitled  '  Some  Recent  Apolo- 
gists,' which  appeared  contemporaneously  in 
the  '  Fortnightly  Review,'  brought  his  ortho- 
doxy formally  into  question  and  led  to  his 
excommunication  by  Cardinal  Vaughan 
(18  Jan.)  An  article,  '  Scripture  and  Roman 
Catholicism,'  which  appeared  in  the  '  Nine- 
teenth Century'  in  the  following  March, 
completed  his  repudiation  of  ecclesiastical 
authority.  He  died  of  diabetes  at  his  resi- 
dence, 77  Inverness  Terrace,  London,  W.,  on 
1  April  following.  He  was  married.  His 
son,  Dr.  F.  St.  George  Mivart,  is  a  medical 
inspector  of  the  local  government  board. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Mivart  did  not 
confine  himself  strictly  to  scientific  work,  in 
which  his  real  strength  lay.  In  mastery  of 
anatomical  detail  he  had  few  rivals,  and  per- 
haps no  superior,  among  his  contemporaries; 
but  his  eminence  in  this  department  was  not 
gained  without  a  degree  of  preoccupation 
which  left  him  scanty  leisure  for  the  study 
of  the  delicate  and  controversial  questions 
on  which  he  attempted  to  arbitrate. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  above,  Mivart 
was  the  author  of:  1.  '  Introduction  Generate 


a  1'Etude  de  la  Nature.  Cours  profess^  a 
1'Universite  de  Lou  vain,'  Louvain,  Paris, 
1891.  2.  'Birds:  the  Elements  of  Orni- 
thology,' London,  1892,  8vo.  3.  'Types  of 
Animal  Life,'  Londo«  1893,  8vo.  4.  '  An 
Introduction  to  the  Elements  of  Science,' 
London,  1894, 8vo.  5.  '  Castle  and  Manor : 
a  Tale  of  our  Time,'  London,  1900,  8vo. 
For  his  uncollected  papers  not  specified 
above  see  the  Zoological  Society's  '  Trans- 
actions '  and  '  Proceedings '  from  1864  (with 
which  compare  '  Zoological  Record '  and 
'  Zoologist,'  3rd  ser.  viii.  281) ;  '  Transactions 
of  the  Linnean  Society,'  2nd  ser.  (Zool.), 
i.  513 :  '  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,' 
1888,  No.  263 ;  '  Popular  Science  Review,' 
viii.  Ill,  ix.  366,  xiv.  372,  xv.  225;  '  Con- 
temporary Review,'  April  1875,  May,  July, 
September,  October  1879,  January,  February, 
April  1880,  May  1887 ;  '  Fortnightly  Review,' 
January,  April  1886,  September  1895,  May 
1896 ;  '  Nineteenth  Century,'  August,  De- 
cember 1893,  August  1895,  January,  Decem- 
ber 1897,  August  1899  ;  '  Dublin  Review,' 
October  1876,  October  1891. 

[Royal  Society  Year  Book,  1901,  pp.  227- 
233  ;  Lincoln's  Inn  Adm.  Reg. ;  Gent.  Mag.  1856, 
i.  213;  Law  List,  1852;  Owen's  Life  of  Pro- 
fessor Owen  ;  Darwin's  Life  of  Darwin  ;  Huxley's 
Life  of  Huxley ;  Button's  '  The  Metaphysical 
Society'  in  Nineteenth  Century,  August  1885; 
Mivart's  'Reminiscences  of  Professor  Huxley' 
in  Nineteenth  Century,  December  1897;  Minerva 
Jahrbuch,  1891 ;  Men  and  Women  of  the  Time, 
1895;  Times,  12,  13,  15,  22,  27,  29  Jan.,  2,  3, 
4  April  1900;  Tablet,  7  April  1900  ;  Nature, 
12  April  1900.]  J.  M.  E. 

MOLTENO,    SIR    JOHN     CHARLES 

(1814-1886),  South  African  statesman,  the 
son  of  John  Molteno,  deputy  controller  of 
the  legacy  office,  Somerset  House,  and  of 
Caroline  Bower,  his  wife,  was  born  on  5  June 
1814  in  his  father's  house  in  London.  The 
family  was  of  Milanese  extraction,  but  had 
long  been  domiciled  in  England.  Losing 
his  father  at  an  early  age,  he  was  educated 
at  Ewell,  and  after  a  short  experience  in  the 
office  of  a  city  shipbrokerhe  sailed  for  South 
Africa  in  1831  to  take  up  duties  in  the  public 
library  at  Cape  Town.  In  1837,  when  twenty- 
three  years  of  age,  he  started  a  commercial 
business  of  his  own,  and  was  for  the  next  ten 
years  engaged  in  a  spirited  endeavour  to  open 
up  new  markets  for  colonial  produce  ;  but  a 
succession  of  adverse  circumstances  proved 
fatal,  and  in  1841  he  abandoned  his  Cape 
Town  business  and  devoted  himself  to  de- 
veloping the  wool  trade  on  a  property  which 
he  had  acquired  in  Beaufort  West.  From 
this  date  till  1852  he  lived  an  isolated  life  in 
the  great  Karoo,  forming  an  intimate  ac- 


Molteno 


182 


Molteno 


quaintance  with  the  life  and  characteristics 
of  the  frontier  colonists,  especially  those  of 
Dutch  blood. 

He  took  part  as  a  burgher  and  com- 
mandant in  the  Kaffir  war  of  1846,  and 
formed  a  strong  opinion  of  the  unsuitability 
of  British  troops  and  British  regular  officers 
for  such  warfare.  The  dictatorial  tone 
adopted  towards  the  colonists,  together  with 
the  incapacity  displayed  by  the  queen's 
officers,  was  a  strong  factor  in  determining 
his  future  attitude  towards  the  intervention 
of  the  home  government  in  military  matters. 

In  1852  he  returned  to  mercantile  pur- 
suits, and  founded  the  firm  of  Alport  &  Co., 
which  he  combined  with  a  large  banking 
business,  and  he  1'apidly  grew  to  be  one  of 
the  wealthiest  and  most  influential  citizens 
in  the  Beaufort  district.  In  1854  repre- 
sentative institutions  were  introduced  in  the 
Cape  Colony,  and  Molteno  became  the  first 
member  for  Beaufort  in  the  legislative 
assembly,  and  by  his  skill  in  debate  and 
profound  knowledge  of  the  needs  of  the 
country  soon  raised  himself  to  the  front  rank. 
During  the  governorship  of  Sir  George  Grey 
[q.  v.  Suppl.]  he  was  generally  found  in  sym- 
pathy and  support  with  him,  but  on  the  ap- 
pointment of  Sir  Philip  Wodehouse  [q.  v. 
Suppl.]  in  1862  he  was  driven  into  a  strong 
policy  of  opposition.  The  leading  cry  among 
Cape  politicians  was  for  responsible  govern- 
ment, and  for  many  years  Molteno  took  the 
foremost  place  in  the  battle.  When,  with  the 
approval  of  the  secretary  of  the  colonies, 
Lord  Kimberley,  it  was  conceded  in  1872  by 
Sir  Henry  Barkly  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  the  new 
governor,  Molteno  was  by  common  consent 
designated  as  the  first  Cape  premier. 

The  first  years  of  his  administration  were 
marked  by  great  prosperity,  by  a  vast  in- 
crease in  railroad  communication,  and  by 
the  rehabilitation  of  the  colonial  finances. 
The  acquisition  of  the  diamond  fields  had  a 
considerable  share  in  this,  but  the  main 
credit  may  fairly  be  attributed  to  the  ad- 
ministrative and  financial  capacity  of  Mol- 
teno, and  to  the  confidence  that  he  inspired. 

This  peaceful  epoch  was  not  of  long  dura- 
tion. Lord  Carnarvon  was  resolved  to  force 
on  his  policy  of  South  African  confederation. 
Molteno  was  not  opposed  to  confederation  in 
itself,  but  insisted  that  it  must  come  gra- 
dually from  within  and  not  from  without, 
and  that  at  the  present  time  it  would  impose 
unduly  onerous  burdens  on  the  Cape  Colony. 
Lord  Carnarvon  was  unfortunate  in  his 
choice  of  James  Anthony  Froude[q.  v.  Suppl.] 
the  historian,  whom  he  sent  out  as  an  un- 
official representative  of  the  home  govern- 
ment in  1875.  Failing  to  obtain  Molteno's 


assistance,  Froude  started  an  unconstitu- 
tional agitation  throughout  South  Africa 
which,  by  stirring  up  the  race  antagonism 
between  English  and  Dutch,  sowed  the  seeds 
of  future  calamities.  Molteno  and  his  col- 
leagues procured  the  rejection  of  a  scheme  for 
a  conference  on  the  subject  of  confederation, 
and  the  Cape  parliament  refused  to  allow  him 
even  to  discuss  the  subject  with  the  home 
government  when  he  was  in  England  during 
the  following  year. 

In  April  1877  Sir  Henry  Bartle  Edward 
Frere  [q.  v.]  succeeded  Sir  Henry  Barkly  at 
the  Cape.  He  came  out  as  the  special  exponent 
of  Lord  Carnarvon's  views,  and  it  was  not 
long  before  he  came  into  conflict  with  Molteno. 
The  latter  was  a  thorough-going  exponent 
of  colonial  rights,  and  prepared  to  insist  on 
them  to  their  fullest  extent.  Sir  Bartle  had 
no  experience  of  self-governing  colonies.  It 
would  have  been  difficult  under  any  cir- 
cumstances for  the  two  to  work  in  har- 
mony ;  Frere's  preconceived  notions  on  con- 
federation and  native  policy  rendered  it 
impossible.  The  war  with  the  Galekas  in 
1877-8  brought  matters  to  a  crisis.  The 
governor  contended  that  the  commander-in- 
chief  at  the  Cape  was  the  only  person  who 
could  command  the  colonial  troops;  Molteno 
insisted  that,  though  the  governor,  as  such, 
had  power  over  the  colonial  forces,  it  could 
only  be  exercised  with  and  by  the  advice  of 
his  responsible  ministers.  The  ministers 
were  unyielding,  and  on  6  Feb.  1878  Frere 
took  the  strong  step  of  dismissing  them, 
under  circumstances  which  showed  little 
consideration  for  Molteno's  long  services. 

Molteno  had  reckoned  on  the  support  of 
his  parliamentary  majority,  which  had  never 
failed  him  hitherto,  but  in  the  debate  which 
followed  his  dismissal  the  legislative  assem- 
bly supported  his  successor,  (Sir)  Gordon 
Sprigg.  Deeply  chagrined,  and  feeling 
helpless  before  Sir  Bartle  Frere's  policy,  to 
which  he  was  opposed  in  every  respect,  he 
retired  from  public  life.  In  1881,  after 
Frere's  recall,  Molteno  entered  for  a  short 
time  Mr.  Scanlen's  administration  as  colonial 
secretary,  but  in  August  1882  he  finally 
withdrew  from  politics,  receiving  the  decora- 
tion of  a  K.C.M.G.,  and  followed  by  widely 
expressed  appreciations  of  his  past  services. 
After  a  short  sojourn  in  England  he  re- 
turned to  the  Cape  and  died  at  Claremont 
on  1  Sept.  1886. 

Sir  John  Molteno  was  a  man  of  com- 
manding presence  and  of  great  physical 
strength.  In  private  life  he  was  of  most 
simple  and  unostentatious  habits.  He  was 
thoroughly  representative  of  the  early  Eng- 
lish settlers  at  the  Cape,  and  enjoyed  the 


Momerie 


183 


Monck 


full  confidence  of  the  Dutch.  His  ideas 
were  formed  before  the  days  of  imperialism, 
and  the  interests  of  the  Cape  ranked  first 
with  him,  but  in  his  efforts  to  secure  the 
annexation  of  Damaraland  he  showed  better 
statesmanship  than  Lord  Carnarvon. 

There  is  a  bust  photograph  of  Molteno, 
about  life  size,  in  the  houses  of  parliament, 
Cape  Town. 

He  was  three  times  married:  first,  to 
Maria  Hewitson  ;  secondly,  in  1841,  to 
Elizabeth  Maria,  a  daughter  of  Hercules 
Crosse  Jarvis,  by  whom  he  left  issue ; 
thirdly,  to  Sobella  Maria,  the  daughter  of 
Major  Blenkins,  C.B.,  who  survived  him, 
and  by  whom  he  left  issue. 

[Life  and  Times  of  Sir  John  Molteno  by  his 
son,  Percy  A.  Molteno  (1899).  and  the  authorities 
there  quoted;  Martineau's  Life  of  Sir  Bartle 
Frera.]  J.  B.  A. 

MOMERIE,  ALFRED  WILLIAMS 
(1848-1900),  divine,  born  in  London  on 
22  March  1848,  was  the  only  child  of  Isaac 
Vale  Mummery  (1812-1892),  a  well-known 
congregational  minister,  by  his  wife,  a 
daughter  of  Thomas  George  Williams  of 
Hackney.  He  was  descended  from  a  French 
family  of  Huguenot  refugees,  and  early  in 
life  resumed  the  original  form  of  its  surname 
— Momerie.  He  was  educated  at  the  City 
of  London  School  and  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity, where  he  won  the  Horsliehill  and 
Miller  scholarship  with  the  medal  and  Bruce 
prize  for  metaphysics,  and  graduated  M.A. 
in  1875  and  D.Sc.'  in  1876.  From  Edinburgh 
he  proceeded  to  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  was  admitted  on  17  March 
1875  and  was  senior  in  the  moral  science 
tripos  in  1877,  graduating  B.A.  in  1878  and 
M.A.  in  1881.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in 
1878,  and  priest  in  1879,  as  curate  of  Leigh 
in  Lancashire.  On  5  Nov.  1879  he  was 
elected  fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  and  in 
1880  he  was  appointed  professor  of  logic  and 
mental  philosophy  at  King's  College,  London. 
In  1883  be  was  chosen  morning  preacher  at 
the  Foundling  Hospital. 

Between  1881  and  1890  he  published 
numerous  books  and  collections  of  sermons 
on  the  philosophy  of  Christianity,  which  at- 
tained considerable  vogue.  Their  style  was 
brilliant,  their  views  latitudinarian.  Like 
his  predecessor,  Frederick  Denison  Maurice, 
Momerie  found  himself  obliged  to  sever  his 
connection  with  King's  College  in  1891,  and 
in  the  same  year  he  resigned  the  Foundling 
preachership  also.  With  the  permission  of 
the  bishop  of  London  he  subsequently 
preached  on  Sundays  at  the  Portman  rooms. 
He  died  in  London  on  6  Dec.  1900,  at 
14  Chilworth  Street.  In  1896  he  married 


Ada  Louisa,  the  widow  of  Charles  E.  Herne. 
In  1887  he  received  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  Edinburgh  University. 

Momerie's  chief  works  are  :  1.  '  Perr 
sonality  the  Beginning  and  End  of  Meta- 
physics,' London,  1879,  8vo  ;  4th  edit.  1889. 
2.  '  The  Origin  of  Evil,  and  other  Sermons,' 
London,  1881,  8vo;  6th  edit.  Edinburgh, 
1890,  8vo.  3.  '  Defects  of  Modern  Chris- 
tianity, and  other  Sermons,'  Edinburgh, 
1882,  8vo  ;  2nd  edit.  1885.  4.  « The  Basis  of 
Religion.'  Edinburgh,  1883,  8vo  ;  2nd  edit. 
1886.  This  work  was  a  criticism  of  (Sir) 
John  Robert  Seeley's  '  Natural  Religion.' 
5.  'Agnosticism  and  other  Sermons,'  Edin- 
burgh, 1884,  8vo;  2nd  edit,  1887.  6. 
'  Preaching  and  Hearing,  and  other  Ser- 
mons,'Edinburgh,  1886, 8vo;  3rd  edit.  1890. 
7.  '  Inspiration  and  other  Sermons,'  Edin- 
burgh, 1889,  8vo;  2nd  edit.  1890.  8.  '  Church 
and  Creed  :  Sermons  preached  in  the  Chapel 
of  the  Foundling  Hospital,'  London,  1890, 
8vo.  9.  '  The  Religion  of  the  Future,  and 
other  Essays,' Edinburgh,  1893, 8vo.  10.  'The 
English  Church  and  the  Romish  Schism,' 
2nd  edit.  Edinburgh,  1896,  8vo. 

[Times,  8  Dec.  1900  ;  Who's  Who,  1901  ;  The 
Eagle,  xxii.  244-6  ;  Crockford's  Clerical  Direc- 
tory; Alliboue's  Diet,  of  English  Lit.]  E.I.  C. 

MONCK,  SIR  CHARLES  STANLEY, 
j  fourth  VISCOUNT  MONCK  in  the  Irish  peer- 
age, and  first  BARON  MONCK  in  the  peerage 
of  the  United  Kingdom  (1819-1894),  first 
governor-general  of  the  dominion  of  Canada, 
was  born  at  Templemore,  in  the  county  of 
Tipperary,  on  10  Oct.  1819,  being  the  eldest 
son  of  Charles  Joseph  Kelly  Monck,  third 
Viscount  Monck  of  Ballytrammon,  by  Brid- 
get, youngest  daughter  of  John  Willington 
of  Killoskehane  in  the  county  of  Tipperary. 
Educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  he  gra- 
duated B.A.  at  the  summer  commencements 
of  1841,  and  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  at 
King's  Inn  in  June  of  the  same  year.  On 
20  April  1849  he  succeeded  as  fourth  vis- 
count in  the  Irish  peerage. 

In  1848  he  unsuccessfully  contested  the 
county  of  Wicklow  in  the  liberal  interest, 
but  four  years  later  entered  the  House  of 
Commons  as  member  for  Portsmouth  (July 
1852);  On  the  resignation  or  Lord  Aber- 
deen's ministry  in  1855  he  became  a  lord  of 
the  treasury  in  Lord  Palmerston's  govern- 
ment (7  March  1855).  His  term  of  office 
lasted  three  years,  until  March  1858,  when 
the  Earl  of  Derby  formed  a  ministry.  Monck 
was  defeated  at  Portsmouth  in  the  general 
election  of  1859. 

On  28  Oct.  1861  he  was  appointed  by 
Lord  Palmerston  captain-general  and  gover- 


Monck 


184 


Moncreiff 


nor-in-chief  of  Canada,  and  governor-general 
of  British  North  America.  Scarcely  had  he 
entered  on  his  duties  in  the  month  following 
when  there  came  the  news  of  the  '  Trent 
atfair,'  which  for  a  time  threatened  to  em- 
broil England  and  the  United  States  in  a 
war.  Diplomacy,  however,  dispelled  the 
cloud,  and  the  local  irritation  was  calmed  by 
Monck's  patience  and  firmness.  A  more 
serious  trouble  arose  in  1864,  when  certain 
confederates,  having  found  refuge  in  Canada 
during  the  American  civil  war,  plotted  to 
turn  their  asylum  into  a  basis  for  petty 
attacks  on  the  United  States,  e.g.  seizing 
vessels  on  the  lakes,  attacking  defenceless 
ports,  breaking  open  prisons  as  at  Detroit, 
robbing  banks  as  at  St.  Albans.  By  patrol- 
ling his  frontier  from  point  to  point,  and 
setting  small  armed  craft  on  the  lakes,  Monck 
diligently  guarded  his  long  boundary  line  of 
two  thousand  miles,  kept  the  peace  between 
the  nations,  and  received  the  approbation  of 
the  imperial  authorities  (1864).  But  his 
exertions  were  not  so  highly  appreciated  in 
the  United  States.  Immediately  after  the 
'  St.  Albans  affair,'  General  Dix  put  forth  a 
proclamation  threatening  reprisals  (4  Dec. 
1864).  Next  year  the  Republic  denounced 
the  reciprocity  treaty  of  1854  for  other  than 
commercial  reasons,  and  suffered,  if  she  did 
not  encourage,  the  attempts  of  the  Fenians 
against  British  North  America.  Once  more 
the  militia  were  called  forth  and  the  frontier 
patrolled.  At  the  Niagara  peninsula  some 
nine  hundred  Fenian  marauders  made  an  in- 
road into  Canadian  territory  and  were  re- 
pulsed with  considerable  loss  by  the  militia 
on  2  June  1866.  Difficulties  with  the  United 
States  continued  during  the  greater  part  of 
Monck's  term  of  office,  but  his  government 
also  synchronised  with  the  formation  of  the 
federated  dominion  of  Canada. 

In  1864  Monck  had  welcomed  a  propo- 
sition emanating  from  George  Brown  [q.  v. 
Sup  pi.],  for  the  introduction  into  Canada  of  a 
federal  constitution  (memorandum  of  Lord 
Monck,  15  June  1864).  The  governor  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  conferences  on  the 
subject  held  at  Charlottetown  and  Quebec 
(1864),  and  in  the  conduct  of  the  Quebec 
resolutions,  which  embodied  the  federal  con- 
stitution, through  the  local  houses  of  par- 
liament (1865).  He  likewise  brought  his 
influence  to  bear  in  favour  of  union  on  the 
lieutenant-governors  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
New  Brunswick.  In  the  autumn  of  1866  he 
came  to  England,  as  well  to  assist  at  the 
Westminster  conference  as  to  advise  the 
imperial  authorities,  Sir  John  Michel  admi- 
nistering affairs  in  his  absence.  On  4  June 
following  his  appointment  was  renewed 


1  under  30  Viet.  cap.  3,  and  his  title  declared 

'.  to  be  Governor-general  of  the  Dominion  of 

Canada.     In  accordance  with  the  terms  of 

Queen  Victoria's  proclamation  he  took  the 

oath  of  office   and   constituted    the    privy 

council  of  Canada  on  1  July  1867.     Having 

!  thus  inaugurated  the  federation  successfully, 

j  the  governor-general  resigned  office  on  13 

i  Nov.  1868.     He  left  Canada  the  next  day. 

On  12  July  1866  he  was  created  a  peer  of 

the  United  Kingdom  as   Baron  Monck  of 

I  Bally trammon  in  the  county  of  Wexford. 

[  He  received  the  honour  of  the  grand  cross 

i  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George  on  23  June, 

and  was  called  to  the  privy  council  on  7  Aug. 

1869.   Trinity  College,  Dublin,  bestowed  on 

him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1870. 

After  his  return  to  Ireland,  where  he  had 
been  a  commissioner  of  charitable  donations 
and  bequests  in  1851,  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  Church  Temporalities  and 
National  Education  commissions  (187 1).  He 
continued  to  administer  the  former  till  1881. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  chosen,  with 
Mr.  Justice  O'Hagan  and  Mr.  Litton,  to 
carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  new  Irish 
Land  Acts,  and  sat  on  the  commission  until 
1884.  From  1874  to  1892  he  held  the  office 
of  lord-lieutenant  and  custos  rotulorum  in 
and  for  the  county  of  Dublin.  He  died 
on  29  Nov.  1894.  On  22  July  1844  Monck 
married  his  cousin,  Elizabeth  Louisa  Mary 
(d.  16  June  1892),  fourth  daughter  of  Henry 
Stanley  Monck,  earl  of  Rathdowne.  By  her 
he  had  issue  two  sons,  of  whom  the  elder, 
i  Henry  Power,  succeeded  to  the  peerage,  and 
I  two  daughters. 

[Taylor's  Port,  of  Brit.  Arner.  i.  1-14;  Dent's 
Can.  Port.  Gall.  iv.  162-3;  Foster's  Peerage, 
p.  470:  Burke's  Peerage,  p.  1025 ;  Cat.  of 
Grad.  Dublin  Univ.;  Hansard,  vols.  cxxxvii. 
cxlviii. ;  J.  E.  Cote"s  Pol  Appoint,  i.  30-4  ;  Johns 
Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.  Neur.  of  the  Likes,  16th 
j  ser.  Nos.  1-4,  137-65  ;  Miss  Frances  Monck's 
j  My  Canadinn  Leaves,  1891,  p.  225;  Somer- 
vi  lie's  Fenian  Invasion  of  Can.  pp.  103-4 ; 
Denison's  Fenian  Raid  at  Fort  Erie  (pamph.) 
1866;  Le  Caron's  Twenty-five  Years  in  the 
Secret.  Service,  pp.  30-5  :  Consolidated  Statutes 
of  Canada,  Upper  Canada,  Lower  Canada,  1859 ; 
N.  0.  Cote's  Political  Appointments,  p.  5  ;  Pope's 
Mem.  of  Sir  J.  A.  Macdonald,  i.  299-303,  319, 
ii.  416;  Ann.  Reg.  1894,  pt.  ii.  p.  207; 
Haydn's  Book  of  Dignities,  1890 ;  Hopkins's 
Canada;  Appleton's  Annual  Encvcl.  i.  358-9,  ii. 
52.]  T.  B.  B. 

MONCREIFF,   JAMES,    first    BARON 

MOSTCREIFF  OF  TFLLIBOLE  (1811-1895),  lord 

justice-clerk  of  Scotland,  son  of  Sir  James 
Well  wood  Moncreiff  [q.  v.],  baronet,  and  Ann, 
daughter  of  George  Robertson,  R .  N . ,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  on  29  Nov.  1811 .  He  was  edu- 


, 


Moncreiff 


Moncreiff 


cated  at  the  high  school  and  university  of 
Edinburgh.  Naturally  quick  and  intelligent, 
he  carried  off  the  principal  honours  at  both 
institutions,  including  the  medal  in  '  Chris- 
topher North's  class  of  moral  philosophy  in  I 
1828.  He  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar  in 
1833,  where  in  a  few  years  he  gathered  a  large 
practice.  But,  partly  from  natural  bent  and 
early  training,  he  pursued  politics  with  a 
keener  activity  even  than  that  with  which  he 
followed  law.  In  the  forensic  arena  he  was 
in  the  thick  of  the  church  disruption  fight,  as 
he  was  engaged  as  counsel  in  the  leading  con- 
flicts of  that  exciting  time — the  Lethendy, 
the  Marnoch,  the  Auchterarder,  and  the  Cul-  j 
salmond  cases.  With  his  father  and  his  elder 
brother,  Sir  Henry  Wellwood  Moncreiff 
[q.  v.],  he  came  out  with  the  seceders.  At 
this  period  he  became  one  of  the  first  con- 
tributors to  the  '  North  British  Review,' 
which  was  started  in  the  interest  of  the  dis- 
senters in  1844. 

Moncreiff  first  entered  the  House  of  Com- 
mons as  M.P.  for  the  Leith  Burghs,  which  he 
represented  from  April  1851  to  April  1859, 
when  he  retired  because  he  was  averse  to 
dividing  the  liberal  party  in  the  constituency. 
In  April  1859,  with  Adam  Black  [q.  v.], 
he  was  elected  one  of  the  members  for  the 
city  of  Edinburgh,  and  re-elected  in  1865. 
In  1868  he  resigned  his  seat,  and  was  elected 
for  the  representation  of  Glasgow  and  Aber- 
deen universities.  In  February  1850  Mon- 
creiff was  appointed  solicitor-general  for  Scot- 
land in  Lord  John  Russell's  administration, 
and  in  April  1851  he  succeeded  Andrew  l\u- 
therfurd  [q.  v.]  as  lord  advocate.  In  February  j 
1852  he  went  out  of  office  on  the  resignation 
of  the  Russell  ministry  on  their  defeat  over 
the  militia  bill,  but  came  in  again  with  Lord 
Aberdeen's  coalition  government  in  Decem- 
ber 1852.  Among  the  measures  introduced 
and  carried  by  the  lord  advocate  were  an  act 
to  abolish  religious  tests  in  the  Scottish  uni-  j 
versities,  acts  to  amend  the  law  of  entail,  to 
amend  the  bankruptcy  laws,  to  diminish  the 
number  of  sheriffs,  and  to  amend  the  law  of 
evidence.  In  February  1854  he  introduced 
a  bill  to  establish  a  uniform  system  of 
valuation  and  rating  in  Scotland,  and  an 
education  bill  for  Scotland,  which  was  re- 
jected. On  this  occasion  Spencer  Horatio 
Walpole  [q.  v.]  said  his  speech  was  '  as 
beautiful  in  language  as  it  was  clear  and 
perspicuous  in  its  statements.'  When  the 
coalition  ministry  was  defeated  in  February 
1855,  and  Lord  Palmerston  succeeded, 
Moncreiff  was  retained  as  lord  advocate, 
and  on  23  March  he  reintroduced  his  edu- 
cation bill,  which  was  passed,  but  thrown 
out  by  the  Lords,  as  it  was  the  following 


year.  Moncreiff  was  also  responsible  for 
the  important  bankers'  act  in  1856.  On 
the  fall  of  Kars,  the  lord  advocate  was  put 
up  to  reply  on  behalf  of  the  government  to 
the  attack  of  Lord  John  Manners  [q.  v.], 
and  in  1859  he  was  selected  by  the 
government  to  compliment  Mr.  Speaker 
Denison  on  his  re-election  to  the  chair  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  Excepting  the 
year  of  the  Derby-Disraeli  administration 
(February  1858-June  1859),  Moncreiff  was 
lord-advocate  till  July  1866.  His  only  other 
year  of  office  was  from  December  1868  to 
October  1869,  when  he  succeeded  James 
Patten  [q.  v.]  as  lord  justice-clerk.  From 
1858  to"  1869  he  was  dean  of  the  faculty 
of  advocates — the  premier  position  at  the 
Scottish  bar. 

During  his  long  career  in  parliament  Mon- 
creiff guided  the  passing  of  over  a  hundred 
acts  of  parliament,  and  his  name  will  ever  be 
associated  with  the  reform  of  legal  procedure 
and  mercantile  law.  As  lord  advocate  he 
was  engaged  as  public  prosecutor  in  many  im- 
portant cases,  notably  the  trials  of  Madeline 
Smith,  Wielobycki,  and  the  directors  of  the 
Western  bank.  In  1856  he  defended  the 
'  Scotsman '  in  the  libel  action  raised  by  Mr. 
Duncan  McLaren  [q.  v.],  one  of  the  members 
for  the  city  of  Edinburgh.  In  January  1857 
he  was  presented  with  the  freedom  of  his 
native  city  for  the  part  he  took  in  regard  to 
the  Municipal  Extension  Act.  In  1859  he 
became  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  first  rifle 
volunteer  corps  in  Scotland — that  of  the  city 
of  Edinburgh.  In  1860  he  benefited  Edin- 
burgh by  passing  the  annuity  tax  bill — a 
subject  in  which,  as  a  free  churchman,  he 
took  the  keenest  interest — and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  benefited  Scotland  by  carrying 
the  important  bill  relating  to  burgh  and  paro- 
chial schools.  In  1861  he  was  engaged  as 
leading  counsel  in  the  defence  of  Sir  William 
Johnston,  one  of  the  directors  of  the  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow  bank,  and  in  1863—1  he 
was  counsel  in  the  famous  Yelverton  case. 

For  nineteen  years  Lord  Moncreiff  occu- 
pied the  judicial  bench,  presiding  over  the 
trials  in  the  justiciary  court  of  Chantrellf 
(1878),  the  Citv  of  Glasgow  bank  directors 
(1878),  the  dynamitards  (1883),  and  the 
crofters  (1886).  Extra-judicially  he  was  oc- 
cupied in  many  other  matters.  Asa  lecturer 
he  was  in  great  request,  and  delivered  nu- 
merous orations  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow 
on  subjects  of  literary,  scientific,  and  politi- 
cal interest  to  the  Philosophical  Institution, 
Royal  Society,  Juridical  Society,  Scots  Law 
Society,  and  other  bodies.  Moncreiff  also  pul>- 
lished  anonymously  in  1871  a  novel  entitled 
'  A  Visit  to  my  Discontented  Cousin,'  which 


Monier-Williams         186         Monier-Williams 


was  reprinted,  with  additions,  from '  Eraser's 
Magazine.'  He  was  also  a  frequent  contri- 
butor to  the  '  Edinburgh  Review.'  In  1858 
he  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Edin- 
burgh University  :  from  1868  to  1871  he  was 
rector  of  Glasgow  University,  from  which  he 
received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1879,  and  in 
1869  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  privy 
council.  On  17  May  1871  he  was  created  a 
baronet ;  on  1  Jan.  1874  he  was  made  a  baron 
of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  in  1878  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  royal  commissioner  under  the  En- 
dowed Institutions  (Scotland)  Act,  and  in 
1883  he  succeeded  his  brother  as  eleventh 
baronet  of  Tullibole.  In  September  1888  he 
resigned  the  position  of  lord  justice-clerk,  and 
took  up  the  preparation  of  his  '  Memorials,' 
which  are  yet  to  be  published.  On  these  he 
was  engaged  till  his  death  on  27  April  1895. 
There  is  a  portrait  of  Moncreiff,  painted  by 
Sir  George  Reid,  P.R.S.A.,  on  the  wall  of 
the  parliament  house  in  Edinburgh. 

Lord  Moncreiff  married,  on  12  Sept.  1834, 
Isabella,  only  daughter  of  Robert  Bell,  pro- 
curator of  the  church  of  Scotland,  and 
sheriff  of  Berwickshire  and  Haddingtonshire, 
and  by  her  (who  died  on  19  Dec.  1881)  he 
had  five  sons  and  two  daughters.  His  eldest 
son,  Henry  James,  now  Baron  Moncreiff,  sat 
since  1888,  under  the  title  of  Lord  Well  wood, 
as  a  lord  of  session,  an  office  which,  as  Lord 
Moncreiff,  he  still  retains. 

[Scotsman,  29  April  1 89o ;  Addison's  Glasgow 
Graduates ;  Scottish  Law  Review,  June  1895 
(with  portrait) ;  Burke's  Peerage ;  Men  of  the 
Time.]  G.  S-H. 

MONIER-WILLIAMS,  SIR  MOXIER 
(1819-1899),  orientalist,  was  the  third  of 
the  four  sons  of  Colonel  Monier  Williams, 
R.E.,  surveyor-general,  Bombay  presidency, 
and  of  his  wife,  Hannah  Sophia,  daughter  of 
Thomas  Brown  of  the  East  India  Company's 
civil  service,  reporter-general  of  external 
commerce  in  Bengal.  Born  at  Bombay  in 
1819,  he  came  to  England  in  1822,  where  he 
was  educated  at  private  schools  at  Chelsea 
and  Brighton,  and  afterwards  at  King's  Col- 
lege School,  London.  He  matriculated  at 
Oxford  in  March  1837,  but  did  not  go  into 
residence  at  Balliol  College  till  Michaelmas 
1838.  In  the  following  year  he  rowed  in 
his  college  eight  at  the  head  of  the  river. 
Having  received  a  nomination  to  a  writer- 
ship  in  the  East  India  Company's  civil  ser- 
vice in  November  1839,  he  passed  his  exami- 
nation at  the  East  India  House  in  December. 
He  then  left  Oxford  and  went  into  residence 
at  the  East  India  Company's  college,  Hail  ey- 
bury,  in  January  1840,  whence  he  passed  out 
head  of  his  year.  He  was  about  to  proceed 
to  the  east  when  the  news  arrived  that  his 


youngest  brother  had  been  killed  in  the 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  relieve  the  be- 
leaguered fort  of  Kahun  in  Sindh.  This 
entirely  changed  the  course  of  his  career ; 
for,  yielding  to  the  urgent  desire  of  his 
widowed  mother  that  he  should  now  not 
leave  the  country,  he  decided  to  relinquish 
his  appointment  and  remain  in  England. 
He  therefore  returned  to  Oxford  in  May 
1841 ;  but  as  Balliol  was  full,  and  no  pro- 
vision existed  in  those  days  for  out-college 
residence,  he  joined  University  College.  He 
now  entered  upon  the  study  of  Sanskrit 
under  Professor  Horace  Hayman  Wilson 
[q.  v.],  and  gained  the  Boden  scholarship  in 
1843.  Graduating  B.A.  in  the  following 
year,  he  was  appointed  to  the  professorship 
of  Sanskrit,  Persian,  and  Hindustani,  at 
Haileybury.  This  office  he  held  for  about 
fifteen  years,  till  the  college  was  closed 
after  the  Indian  mutiny  in  1858,  and  the 
teaching  staff  was  pensioned  off.  After 
spending  two  or  three  years  at  Cheltenham, 
where  he  held  an  appointment  at  the  college, 
he  was  elected  Boden  professor  of  Sanskrit 
in  the  university  of  Oxford  by  convocation 
in  December  1860,  when  Professor  Max 
Miiller  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  was  his  opponent. 

In  the  early  seventies  Monier  Williams 
conceived  the  plan  of  founding  at  Oxford  an 
institution  which  should  be  a  focus  for  the 
concentration  and  dissemination  of  correct 
information  about  Indian  literature  and  cul- 
j  ture.     This  project  he  first  brought  before 
i  congregation  at  Oxford  in  May  1875.     With 
a  view  to  enlisting  the  sympathies  of  the 
;  leading  native  princes  in  his  scheme,  he  un- 
dertook three  journeys  to   India   in   1875, 
1876,  and  1883  ;  and  his  persevering  efforts 
were  so  far  crowned  with  success  that  he 
collected  a  fund   which   finally   amounted 
j  to  nearly  34,000/.     By  rare  tenacity  of  pur- 
j  pose  he  succeeded  in   overcoming  all   the 
|  great  difficulties  in  his  way,  and  the  Indian 
|  Institute   at  last  became  an   accomplished 
I  fact.     The  foundation-stone  was  laid  by  the 
!  Prince  of  Wales  in  1883.     The  building  was 
j  erected  in  three  instalments,  the  first  being 
:  finished  in  1884,  and  the  last  in  1896,  when 
]  the  institute  was  formally  opened  by  Lord 
I  George  Hamilton,  the  secretary  of  state  for 
I  India.     Monier  Williams  subsequently  pre- 
sented to  the  library  of  the  institute  a  valua- 
ble collection  of  oriental  manuscripts  and 
books  to  the  number  of  about  three  thousand. 
By  his  sister's  desire,  and  at  her  own  expense, 
an  excellent  portrait  of  him  was  painted  in 
|  oils  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Ouless,  R.A.,  in  1880, 
i  and  was  presented  by  her  to  the  institute. 

Monier  Williams  was  a  fellow  of  Balliol 
College   from    1882  to   1888;  was  elected 


Monier-Williams         187 


Monsell 


an  honorary  fellow  of  University  College 
in  1892,  and  was  keeper  and  perpetual 
curator  of  the  Indian  Institute.  He  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  Oxford 
in  1875,  of  LL.D.  from  Calcutta,  and  of 
Ph.D.  from  Gottingen.  He  was  created  a 
K.C.I. E.  in  1887,  when  he  assumed  the 
additional  surname  of  Monier. 

Failing  health  obliged  Sir  Monier  to  re- 
linquish in  1887  his  active  professorial 
duties,  which  had  become  very  onerous 
owing  to  the  institution  of  the  honour 
school  of  oriental  studies  at  Oxford  in  1886. 
He  ceased  to  reside  in  the  university,  spend- 
ing the  winter  months  of  every  year  in  the 
south  of  France.  The  last  years  of  his  life 
he  devoted  chiefly  to  the  completion  of  the 
second  edition  of  his  '  Sanskrit-English  Dic- 
tionary.' He  gave  the  final  touches  to  the 
last  proof-sheet  of  this  work  only  a  few 
days  before  his  death.  He  died  at  Cannes 
on  11  April  1899.  His  remains  were  brought 
back  to  England  and  interred  in  the  village 
churchyard  at  Chessington,  Surrey.  In  1848 
Monier  Williams  married  Julia,  daughter  of 
the  Rev.  F.  J.  Faithful],  rector  of  Hatfield, 
and  had  by  her  a  family  of  six  sons  and  one* 
daughter. 

Monier-Williams's  activity  as  a  scholar 
was  directed  mainly  towards  the  practical 
side  of  Sanskrit  studies,  and  to  the  diffusion 
in  England  of  a  knowledge  of  Indian  re- 
ligions. Taking  little  interest  in  the  oldest 
phase  of  Indian  literature,  represented  by 
the  Vedas,  he  devoted  himself  almost  ex-  I 
clusively  to  the  study  of  the  later  period,  or  j 
that  of  classical  Sanskrit.  The  three  texts 
of  which  he  published  editions  are  Kali- 
dasa's  plays  '  Vikramorvasi'  (1849)  and 
'Sakuntala'(1853;  2nd  ed.  1876),  besides 
the  '  Nalopakhyana,  or  Episode  of  Nala ' 
(2nd  ed.  1879),  from  the  '  Malmbharata.' 
He  further  wrote  several  works  relating  to 
the  language  of  ancient  India,  a  '  Sanskrit 
Grammar  '  (1846),  which  reached  a  fourth 
edition  in  1876,  an  '  English-Sanskrit  Dic- 
tionary '  (1851),  a  'Sanskrit  Manual  for 
Composition  '  (1862),  and  a  large  '  Sanskrit- 
English  Dictionary '  (1872 ;  2nd  ed.  1899). 
Monier-Williams  was  also  a  successful 
translator  of  Sanskrit.  His  rendering  of 
'  Sakuntala '  in  prose  and  verse  (1853) 
reached  a  sixth  edition  in  1894,  and  his 
'  Indian  Wisdom '  (1875),  which  consists 
chiefly  of  translated  specimens  of  Sanskrit 
literature,  appeared  in  a  fourth  and  enlarged 
edition  in  1893.  Shortly  before  and  after 
the  beginning  of  his  career  as  Boden  pro- 
fessor, he  wrote  some  Hindustani  manuals. 
One  of  these  was  '  An  Easy  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  Hindustani'  (1858),  and  an- 


other his  'Practical  Hindustani  Grammar ' 
(1862). 

Ever  since  his  inaugural  lecture  at  Oxford 
on  '  The  Study  of  Sanskrit  in  relation  to 
Missionary  Work  in  India'  (1861),  Monier- 
Williams  was  a  frequent  advocate  of  the 
claims  of  missionary  enterprise  in  India. 
This  interest  led  him  to  devote  much  of  his 
time  to  writing  books  meant  to  diffuse  a 
knowledge  of  Indian  religions  in  England. 
Most  of  them  have  enjoyed  a  considerable 
popularity.  These  works  are  entitled  '  Hin- 
duism '  (1877),  'Modern  India  and  the 
Indians '(1878), 'Religious Life  and  Thought 
in  India'  (1883),  'Buddhism'  (1889),  and 
'Brahmanism'(1891). 

[Personal  knowledge  and  information  sup- 
plied by  members  of  the  family,  especially  Mr. 
C.  Williams,  an  elder  brother  of  Sir  M.  Monier- 
Williams.]  A.  A.  M. 

MONK-BRETTON,  BARON.  [See  DOD- 
SON,  JOHN  GEORGE,  1825-1897.] 

MONSELL,  WILLIAM,  BARON  EMLY 
(1812-1894),  politician,  born  on  21  Sept. 
1812,  was  the  only  son  of  William  Monsell 
(d.  1822)  of  Tervoe,  co.  Limerick,  who 
married  in  1810  Olivia,  second  daughter  of 
Sir  John  Allen  Johnson  WTalsh  of  Bally- 
kilcavan,  Queen's  county.  He  was  educated 
at  Winchester  College  from  1826  to  1830, 
and  among  his  schoolfellows  were  Roundell 
Palmer  (afterwards  Earl  of  Selborne)  and 
W.  G.  Ward  (SELBORNE,  Memorials,  n.  ii. 
411).  On  10  March  1831  he  matriculated 
from  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  but  left  the 
university  without  taking  a  degree. 

At  the  general  election  in  August  1847 
Monsell  was  returned  to  parliament  for  the 
county  of  Limerick,  and  represented  it,  as  a 
moderate  liberal,  without  a  break  until 
1874.  He  joined  the  Roman  catholic  church 
in  1850,  and  throughout  his  parliamentary 
career  spoke  as  the  leading  representative  of 
its  hierarchy.  As  a  resident  and  concilia- 
tory landlord  he  was  popular  with  his 
tenantry,  and  in  the  House  of  Commons  he 
promoted  the  cause  of  agricultural  reform. 
His  prominence  in  parliament  is  shown  by 
his  selection  to  propose  the  re-election  of 
Speaker  Denison  (Hansard,  February  1866, 
pp.  4-7  ;  DENISON,  Diary,  pp.  184-5). 

Monsell  filled  many  offices.  He  was 
clerk  of  the  ordnance  from  1852  until  the 
office  was  abolished  in  February  1857,  and 
from  that  date  to  September  1857  he  was 
president  of  the  board  of  health.  On 
13  Aug.  1855  he  was  created  a  privy  coun- 
cillor. For  a  few  months  (March  to  July 
1866)  he  was  vice-president  of  the  board  of 
trade,  and  from  1866  to  1868  he  acted  as 


Montagu 


188 


Montagu 


paymaster-general.  He  served  as  under- 
secretary for  the  colonies  from  February 
1868  to  the  close  of  1870,  and  as  postmaster- 
general  from  January  1871  to  November 
1873.  On  12  Jan.  1874  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Emly.  His  name  is 
identified  with  the  abortive  scheme  for  the 
'  establishment  of  an  Irish  national  uni- 
versity upon  a  federal  basis,'  which  Glad- 
stone brought  forward  in  1873.  The  pam- 
phlets published  by  Gladstone  in  1874-5 
against  Vaticanism  met  with  his  disapproval 
(PimcELL,  A.  P.  de  Lisle,  ii.  54-65). 

With  the  rise  of  the  land  league  Monsell 
lost  his  popularity.  He  opposed  the  move- 
ment for  home  rule,  and  he  was  accordingly 
removed  from  the  chairmanship  of  the 
board  of  poor-law  guardians.  He  had 
been  high  sheriff  of  Limerick  in  1835,  and 
he  was  made  lord-lieutenant  of  the  county 
in  1871.  He  was  also  vice-chancellor  of 
the  royal  university  of  Ireland. 

Lord  Emly  died  at  Tervoe  on  20  April 
1894,  and  was  buried  in  the  family  vault  at 
Kilkeedy.  He  married,  on  11  Aug.  1836, 
Anna  Maria  Charlotte  Wyndham  Quin, 
only  daughter  of  the  second  earl  of  Dun- 
raven.  She  died  at  St.  Leonard's,  Sussex, 
on  7  Jan.  1855  without  leaving  issue.  In 
1857  he  married  Bertha,  youngest  daughter 
of  the  Comte  de  Montigny.  She  died  on 
4  Nov.  1890,  leaving  one  son,  who  succeeded 
to  the  peerage,  and  one  daughter. 

Monsell  contributed  to  the  '  Home  and 
Foreign  Review.'  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Cardinal  Newman  (PTTRCELL, 
Manning,  ii.  312-20),  was  closely  associated 
with  Montalembert  and  his  party,  and  was 
'  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  liberal  Catholi- 
cism and  political  reform.'  He  published 
in  1860  '  A  Lecture  on  the  Roman  ques- 
tion.' 

[Burke's  Peerage;  Men  of  the  Time,  13th 
edit. ;  Foster's  Alumni  Oxon. ;  Baines's  Forty 
Years  at  the  Post  Office,  i.  218;  Gent.  Mag. 
1855,  i.  329;  Times,  21  April  1894,  p.  7;  Ann. 
Reg.  1894.  p.  159;  Tablet,  28  April  1894,  pp. 
661-2 ;  Ward's  W.  G.  Ward  and  the  Catholic 
Revival,  pp.  143-4,  185-6,  205,  224-8,  243, 
268-70;  Ward's  W.  G.  Ward  and  the  Oxford 
Movement,  p.  5.]  W.  P.  C. 

MONTAGU,  JOHN  (1797-1853),  colo- 
nial official,  born  on  21  Aug.  1797,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Lieutenant-colonel  Edward 
Montagu  (1755-1799)  [q.v.]  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cheam  in  Surrey  and  at  Parson's 
Green,  near  Knight  sbridge.  On  10  Feb. 
1814  he  was  appointed,  without  purchase,  to 
an  ensigncy  in  the  52nd  foot.  He  was  pre- 
sent at  Waterloo,  and  on  9  Nov.  1815  was  pro- 
moted to  a  lieutenancy  by  purchase ;  he  also 


bought  his  company  in  the  64th  foot  in  No- 
vember 1822,  exchanging  into  the  40th  foot 
on  7  Aug.  1823.  In  the  same  year  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Van  Diemen's  Land  (now  Tas- 
mania) with  the  lieutenant-governor,  (Sir) 
George  Arthur  [q.  v.],  and  on  his  arrival  in 
May  1824  was  nominated  his  private  secre- 
tary. This  post  he  retained  until  1827, 
holding  his  captaincy  on  half-pay.  In  1826 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  which  had  hitherto 
been  attached  to  New  South  Wales,  was 
constituted  a  separate  colony,  and  Montagu 
became  clerk  of  the  executive  and  legisla- 
tive councils.  This  office  he  held  until  1829, 
when  his  military  duties  recalled  him  to 
England.  In  1830  Sir  George  Murray 
(1772-1846)  [q.v.],  secretary  of  state  for 
the  colonies,  offered  to  reappoint  him  on 
condition  of  his  quitting  the  army.  He  ac- 
cordingly sold  out  on  10  Sept.  and  returned 
to  Van  Diemen's  Land.  In  1832  he  took 
charge  for  a  year  of  the  colonial  treasury, 
and  in  1834  he  was  nominated  colonial  secre- 
tary. In  October  1836  Arthur  relinquished 
the  government  to  Sir  John  Franklin  [q.  v.], 
under  whom  Montagu  retained  his  office. 
From  February  1839  to  March  1841  he 
was  absent  on  a  visit  to  England,  and 
on  his  return  he  found  himself  involved  in 
differences  with  the  governor.  He  behaved 
to  Franklin  in  a  somewhat  arbitrary  man- 
ner, insisting  on  the  dismissal  of  several 
government  officials,  although  the  governor 
was  not  convinced  of  their  culpability. 
Finally  Franklin  reinstated  one  of  these 
officers,  and  Montagu  in  consequence  ceased 
to  co-operate  cordially  in  the  work  of  ad- 
ministration, openly  charged  him  with  suffer- 
ing his  wife  to  influence  his  judgment,  and 
finally  declared  himself  unable  to  rely  upon 
the  accuracy  of  the  governor's  statements. 
On  25  Jan.  1842  Montagu  was  suspended 
from  office.  He  sought  a  reconciliation,  and 
Franklin,  in  his  despatch  to  Lord  Stanley 
[see  STANLEY,  EDWARD  GEORGE  GEOFFREY 
SMITH,  fourteenth  EARL  OF  DERBY],  with 
great  generosity,  spoke  highly  of  his  ability, 
and  recommended  him  for  other  employment. 
Colonial  sympathy  was  largely  on  Montagu's 
side,  and  Stanley,  after  investigation,  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  Franklin  was  not 
justified  in  his  action,  and  that  Montagu's 
dismissal  was  unmerited. 

In  1843  Montagu  was  nominated  colonial 
secretary  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  post 
which  he  retained  until  death.  He  arrived 
at  the  Cape  and  entered  on  office  on  23  April. 
Shortly  after  his  arrival  he  submitted  to  the 
governor,  Sir  George  Thomas  Napier  [q.  v.l, 
a  project  for  improving  the  financial  condi- 
tion of  the  colony.  Napier  recognised  its 


Montgomery 


189 


Montgomery 


merits,  and  it  was  carried  into  effect  under  [  governor-general's  bodyguard  during  a  part 
Montagu's  superintendence.  The  condition  !  of  the  time  when  Richard  Colley  (Marquis 
of  the  colony  showed  immediate  improve-  ,  Wellesley)  [q.  v.]  was  governor-general ;  he 
ment,  and  the  passage  of  time  showed  the  was  created  a  baronet  on  3  Oct.  1808,  and 
amelioration  to  be  permanent.  He  also  !  married  Sarah  Mercer  (d.  185-4),  daughter  of 
realised  the  importance  of  encouraging  im-  Leslie  Grove  of  Grove  Hall,  co.  Donegal, 
migration,  and  by  a  system  of  bounties  The  Montgomery  family  were  a  branch  of 
nearly  seventeen  hundred  settlers  were  the  Scottish  Montgomeries,  of  whom  the 
brought  into  the  colony  in  three  years,  j  Earl  of  Eglintoun  is  the  head,  and  had 
During  the  government  of  Sir  Peregrine  settled  in  Ireland  in  co.  Donegal. 
Maitland  [q.  v.],  Montagu  distinguished  him-  The  subject  of  this  article  was  educated  at 
<elf  by  his  able  conduct  of  the  financial  ,  Eton  and  at  the  East  India  College,  Hailey- 
arrangements  necessitated  by  the  Kaffir  !  bury,  to  which  institution  he  was  nominated 
war.  He  also  rendered  the  colony  signal  !  as  a  student  on  1  Aug.  1821.  He  did  not, 
service  by  promoting  the  construction  of  however,  go  out  to  India  until  1825,  having 
good  roads  across  the  mountain  passes  into  •  been  permitted  to  leave  Haileybury  early  in 
the  interior.  They  were  chiefly  made  by  1822  for  the  purpose  of  serving  as  assistant 
convict  labour,  and  Montagu  was  successful  private  secretary  on  thestaffof  Lord  Welles- 
in  introducing  a  new  system,  by  which  the  i  ley,  who  was  at  that  time  lord-lieutenant  of 
condition  of  the  criminals  was  much  im-  \  Ireland.  There  seems  at  one  time  to  have  been 


proved.  The  road  carried  over  Cradock's 
Kloof  was  named  Montagu  Pass,  and  is  now 
part  of  the  great  trunk  line  between  the 
western  and  eastern  districts.  The  scene  of 


an  intention  that  the  young  student  should 
give  up  his  Indian  writership  and  remain  on 
Lord  Wellesley's  staff,  on  the  chance  of  the 
latter  being  able  to  provide  for  him  in  the 


another  great  engineering  feat  at  Bain's  |  public  service  in  England  ;  but  on  the  ad- 
Kloof,  in  the  mountain  range  which  separates  vice  of  Sir  John  Malcolm  [q.  v.],  a  friend  of 
Worcester  and  the  districts  beyond  from  j  his  father,  who  went  over  to  Dublin  for  the 
the  Cape  division,  was  designated  Montagu  purpose  of  combating  the  idea,  the  intention 
Rocks.  was  abandoned,  and  early  in  1824  Mont- 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Kaffir  war  in  De-  j  gomery  returned  to  Haileybury,  passing 
cember  1850  the  governor,  Sir  Harry  George  through  college  at  the  end  of  that  year. 
Wakelyn  Smith  [q.  v.l,  was  besieged  in  Fort  j  In  1825  he  proceeded  to  India,  reaching 
Cox.  Montagu  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  :  Madras  on  3  Nov.  In  those  days  it  was  the 
to  raise  levies,  and  rendered  the  governor  \  custom  for  the  young  civil  servants  to  re- 
assistance  of  the  greatest  importance.  On  main  for  two  years  at  the  presidency  town, 
'1  May  1851  he  was  compelled  to  leave  Cape  prosecuting  their  studies  in  the  native  Ian- 
Colony  owing  to  ill-health  brought  on  by  i  guages.  Montgomery  was  therefore  not  ap- 
overwork.  He  died  in  London  on  4  Nov.  •  pointed  to  the  public  service  until  16  Jan. 
1853,  and  was  buried  in  Brompton  cemetery  1827,  when  he  was  gazetted  assistant  to  the 
on  8  Nov.  In  April  1823  he  married  Jessy,  principal  collector  and  magistrate  of  Nel- 
daughter  of  Major-general  Edward  Vaughan  lore.  On  31  Jan.  1830  he  succeeded  his  father 
Worseley.  Montagu's  transfer  from  Tas-  as  second  baronet.  He  subsequently  served 
mania  to  the  Cape  seriously  injured  his  in  various  grades  of  the  revenue  department 
private  fortune.  He  left  his  family  im-  :  in  the  districts  of  Tanjore,  Salem,  Tinne- 
poverished,  and  on  23  Oct.  1854  his  wife  velly,  and  Bellary,  completing  his  revenue 


received  a  civil-list  pension  of  300/. 


service  in  the  provinces  as  collector  of  Tan- 


[Newman's  Biogr.  Memoir  of  John  Montagu  jore.  In  all  these  districts  he  had  made  his 
(with  portrait),  1855  ;  Fenton's  Hist,  of  Tas-  j  mark  as  an  able  and  careful  administrator, 
mania,  1884.  pp.  134,  139-40,  142,  158-9 ;  and  the  result  was  that  in  1843  he  was  sent 
Franklin's  Narrative  of  some  Passages  in  the  on  a  special  commission  to  the  Rajahmundry 

(now  called  the  Godavery)  district  to  inquire 
into  the  causes  of  its  impoverished  condition 


History  of  Van  Dieman's  Land  during  the  Last 
Three  Years  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  Administra- 


tion, privately  printed,  1845;  West's  Hist,  of    and  to  8UgRest  a  remedy.   It  was  upon  his  re- 

•roD»*ioM»rt      T  mm/ismt^n       IQ^O     i      OO£    7  .    T'Vi^oTo  -i        •  i  »  i.  *       • 

commendation,  based  upon  his  experience  in 
Tanjore,  that  Captain  (afterwards  Sir  Ar- 
thur) Cotton  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  was  deputed  to 
Rajahmundry  to  investigate  the  question  of 


Tasmania,  Launeeston,  1852,  i.  225-7;  Theal's 
Hist,  of  South  Africa.]  E.  I.  C. 

MONTGOMERY,  SIR  HENRY  CON- 
YMiUAM,  second  baronet    (1803-1878), 


Madras  civil  servant,  was  the  eldest  son  of  utilising  the  waters  of  the  Godavery  for  the 
Sir  Henry  Conyngham  Montgomery  (d.  purpose  of  irrigating  the  delta  of  that  river,  as 
1830).  The  father  served  in  India  for  many  had  been  done  in  Tanjore  ami  Trichinopolyin 
years  as  a  cavalry  officer,  commanding  the  ;  the  case  of  the  Cavery  and  Coleroon  rivers. 


Montgomery 


190 


Moon 


Montgomery's  report  and  recommenda- 
tions on  the  condition  of  the  Rajahmundry 
district  elicited  high  commendation  from 
the  government  of  Madras,  and  two  years 
later  he  was  selected  by  the  Marquis  of 
Tweeddale  [see  GEORGE  HAY,  eighth  MAR- 
QUIS OF  TWEEDDALE]  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the 
government  secretariat.  He  served  as  secre- 
tary to  government  in  the  revenue  and 
public  works  departments  until  1850,  when 
he  was  promoted  to  the  chief  secretaryship. 
In  1855  he  was  appointed  by  the  court  of 
directors  a  member  of  the  governor's  council, 
which  post  he  held  until  1857,  when,  his 
health  failing,  he  returned  to  England,  and 
in  the  course  of  that  year  resigned  his 
appointment  and  retired  from  the  Indian 
civil  service.  In  the  following  year,  on 
the  establishment  of  the  council  of  India 
in  London,  Montgomery  was  appointed  to 
be  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  new  coun- 
cil, and  this  position  he  retained  until  1876, 
when  he  finally  retired  from  official  life. 
On  the  occasion  of  his  retirement  he  was 
appointed,  at  the  recommendation  of  the 
Marquis  of  Salisbury,  then  secretary  of  state 
for  India,  to  be  a  member  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil, an  honour  which  is  very  rarely  conferred 
upon  Indian  civil  servants. 

Montgomery's  official  career  was  eminently 
successful.  He  was  not  a  brilliant  man, 
but  he  was  an  extremely  useful  public 
servant.  As  a  very  young  man  he  was 
remarked  for  the  carefulness  and  accuracy 
of  his  \vork.  When  he  became  the  head  of  a 
district,  he  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest 
district  officers  in  the  presidency  to  which  he 
belonged.  He  certainly  had  the  advantage 
of  possessing  influential  friends.  Lord  Wel- 
lesley  had  formed  a  high  opinion  of  him 
when  he  worked  in  Dublin  in  the  lord- 
lieutenant's  private  office,  and  did  not  fail 
to  exert  his  influence  on  his  behalf.  Sir 
John  Malcolm  twas  also  akind  friend  to  him. 
But  he  fully  justified  their  recommendations. 
By  his  report  upon  the  Rajahmundry  dis- 
trict, and  by  the  recommendations  which  he 
made  for  improving  its  condition,  he  ren- 
dered a  service  to  the  state,  the  benefits  of 
which  still  remain.  In  the  higher  posts 
which  he  subsequently  filled  in  Madras,  as 
secretary  and  chief  secretary  to  government 
and  member  of  council,  he  fully  maintained 
his  previous  reputation.  By  the  successive 
governors  under  whom  he  served  in  the 
secretariat  and  in  council,  the  Marquis  of 
Tweeddale,  Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  and  Lord 
Harris,  he  was  trusted  as  a  wise  and  con- 
scientious adviser.  During  his  long  service 
in  the  Indian  council,  extending  over 
eighteen  years,  he  was  highly  esteemed 


both  by  successive  secretaries  of  state  and  by 
his  colleagues  in  the  council.  His  minutes, 
when  lie  found  himself  called  upon  to  dis- 
sent from  the  decisions  of  the  secretary  of 
state  or  of  a  majority  of  the  council,  were 
models  of  independent  but  courteous 
criticism.  He  retained  to  the  last  a  keen 
interest  in  the  presidency  in  which  the 
whole  of  his  Indian  service  had  been 
passed.  Indeed,  it  has  been  sometimes 
thought  that  he  carried  beyond  due  limits 
his  advocacy  of  the  claims  of  his  old  presi- 
dency, as  in  the  case  of  the  Madras  harbour 
project,  which  was  sanctioned  by  the 
India  office,  mainly  at  his  instance,  but  has 
been  a  heavy  burden  upon  the  Indian 
revenues  without  compensating  results.  On 
political  questions  concerning  the  south  of 
India  he  was  a  high  authority.  When  the  na- 
wab  of  the  Carnatic  died  in  1858,  Montgomery 
supported  Lord  Harris  in  advocating  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  titular  nawabship  as  a  mis- 
chievous remnant  of  a  state  of  things  which, 
for  political  reasons,  it  was  inexpedient  to 
maintain.  But  he  was  not  opposed  in  prin- 
ciple to  the  maintenance  of  native  dynasties. 
In  1863  he  wrote  a  cogent  minute  dissenting 
from  the  refusal  of  the  secretary  of  state  in 
council  to  restore  to  the  rajah  of  Mysore  the 
administrations  of  the  territories  of  that 
state.  The  policy  which  on  this  occasion 
Montgomery  opposed  had  been  supported 
by  two  successive  governors-general,  the 
Marquis  of  Dalhousie  and  Earl  Canning, 
but  was  subsequently  reversed. 

Montgomery  died  suddenly  in  London  on 
24  June  1878.  In  appearance  he  was  sin- 
gularly handsome,  although  small  in  stature. 
In  manner  he  was  invariably  courteous, 
and  his  courtesy  was  the  outcome  of  a  kindly 
nature.  He  possessed  in  a  conspicuous 
degree  the  rare  virtue  of  readiness  to  admit 
error  when  he  found  that  he  had  misjudged 
another.  He  married,  on  3  March  1827, 
Leonora,  daughter  of  General  Richard  Pigot, 
who  survived  him,  dying  on  16  June  1889. 
He  left  no  children,  and  was  succeeded  as 
third  baronet  by  his  brother,  Admiral  Sir 
Alexander  Leslie  Montgomery  (1807-1888) 

[Personal  knowledge,  from  1846  to  Sir  Henry's 
death  in  1878  ;  private  papers,  lent  by  the  pre- 
sent baronet,  Sir  Hugh  Montgomery,  including 
letters  from  the  Marquis  Wellesley,  from  the 
eighth  Marquis  of  Tweeddale,  from  the  first 
Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  and  from  the  late  Lord 
Harris ;  official  papers  and  parliamentary  re- 
turns at  the  India  Office.]  A.  J.  A. 

MOON,  WILLIAM  (1818-1894),  in- 
ventor of  the  embossed  type  known  as 
Moon's  type  for  the  blind,  was  descended 
from  an  old  Sussex  family  seated  at  Rother- 


Moon 


Moon 


field ;  but  he  was  born  at  Horsemonden, 
Kent,  on  18  Dec.  1818.  He  was  the  son  of 
James  Moon  of  Horsemonden,  by  his  wife, 
Mary  Funnell  Moon.  During  his  child- 
hood his  parents  removed  to  Brighton,  but 
William  remained  for  some  time  at  Horse- 
monden.  At  the  age  of  four  he  lost  the 
sight  of  one  eye  through  scarlet  fever,  and 
the  other  eye  was  seriously  affected.  He 
was  educated  in  London,  and  when  about 
eighteen  years  old  he  settled  at  Brighton 
with  his  widowed  mother.  He  was  study-  j 
ing  with  the  intention  of  taking  holy  orders ; 
but  the  sight  of  the  remaining  eye  gra- 
dually failed,  in  spite  of  several  surgical 
operations.  In  1840  he  became  totally  blind. 
He  had  previously  made  himself  acquainted 
with  various  systems  of  embossed  type,  and 
now  began  to  teach  several  blind  children, 
who  were  formed  with  some  deaf  mutes  into 
a  day  school  in  Egremont  Place,  Brighton. 
In  Frere's  system  [see  FKEEE,  JAMES 
HATLEY],  and  the  others  previously  used 
for  teaching  the  blind,  contractions  are 
very  extensively  used ;  Moon,  after  some 
years'  teaching,  judged  this  system  to  be  too 
complicated  for  the  vast  majority  of  blind 
persons,  especially  the  aged,  and  accordingly 
constructed  a  system  of  his  own  in  1845. 
He  employed  simplified  forms  of  the  Roman 
capitals,  almost  entirely  discarding  contrac- 
tions: and  after  he  had  constructed  his 
alphabet  he  found  that  all  the  twenty-six 
letters  are  only  nine  placed  in  varying  posi- 
tions. By  the  help  of  friends  interested  in 
the  blind,  type  was  procured,  and  Moon 
began  a  monthly  magazine.  His  first  pub- 
lication, '  The  Last  Days  of  Polycarp,'  ap- 
peared on  1  June  1847 ;  '  The  Last  Hours  of 
Cranmer '  and  devotional  works  followed. 
Next  he  began  to  prepare  the  entire  Bible, 
discontinuing  the  monthly  issues  for  a  time. 
As  his  supply  of  type  was  insufficient  for  so 
extensive  an  undertaking,  he  tried  stereo- 
typing, and  after  much  experimenting  suc- 
ceeded in  the  invention  of  a  process  by  which 
he  could  produce  a  satisfactory  plate  at  less 
than  one-sixth  of  the  ordinary  price.  He 
put  his  process  into  use  in  September  1848, 
and  the  stereotyper  then  engaged  was  em- 
ployed on  the  work  till  Moon's  death,  and 
is  still  (1901).  The  publications  have  always 
been  sold  under  cost  price,  the  deficiency 
being  made  up  by  contributions  from  the 
charitable  public.  In  1852,  when  the  greater 
part  of  the  Bible  was  still  unprinted,  a  formal 
report  was  published,  with  a  defence  of 
Moon's  system  against  objectors,  who  had 
sneered  at  the  cost  and  bulk  of  his  publica- 
tions ;  he  argued  that  the  Frere  and  other 
systems  depending  upon  contractions  com- 


plicated the  notation  so  far  that  the  books 
were  useless  to  the  majority  of  the  blind. 
He  soon  extended  his  system  to  foreign  lan- 
guages, beginning  with  Irish  and  Chinese ; 
the  principal  languages  of  Europe  were  next 
employed,  and  before  his  death  the  Lord's 
Prayer  or  some  other  portion  of  Scripture 
was  embossed  in  476  languages  and  dialects, 
for  all  of  which  the  original  nine  characters 
are  found  sufficient.  The  'ox-ploughing' 
succession  of  lines  is  adopted.  The  works 
printed  in  foreign  languages  are  almost  en- 
tirely portions  of  the  Bible;  in  English  a 
large  selection  is  available,  including  very 
many  devotional  works,  some  scientific  trea- 
tises, and  selections  from  Shakespeare,  Mil- 
ton, Burns,  Scott,  Longfellow,  and  other 
standard  authors. 

Moon  met  with  a  girl  born  blind,  who 
supposed  that  horses  stood  upright  and 
walked  with  two  legs :  this  suggested  to 
him  embossed '  Pictures  for  the  Blind,'  teach- 
ing them  by  the  touch  to  realise  the  forms 
of  common  objects.  He  also  issued  em- 
bossed diagrams  for  Euclid,  music,  and 
maps,  both  geographical  and  astronomical. 
He  was  made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Geogra- 
phical Society  in  1852,  a  fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Arts  in  1859,  and  in  1871  the  university 
of  Philadelphia  created  him  LL.D.  He 
warmly  advocated  home  teaching  societies 
for  the  blind,  which  by  his  efforts  were 
founded  in  many  places  ;  and  lending  libra- 
ries of  Moon's  books  exist  in  eighty  towns  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  in  Paris,  Turin,  and 
various  cities  of  the  United  States  and 
the  British  colonies.  In  furtherance  of  these 
objects  he  often  travelled  through  Scotland, 
Ireland,  and  the  continent ;  in  1882  he  visited 
the  United  States.  He  received  great  help, 
especially  in  the  matter  of  lending  libraries, 
from  Sir  Charles  Lowther,  with  whom  he 
became  intimate  in  1855,  and  who  remained 
his  closest  friend,  dying  only  a  few  days 
after  him.  On  4  Sept.  1856  Sir  Charles  laid 
the  foundation-stone  of  a  new  building  at 
104  Queen's  Road,  near  the  Brighton  rail- 
way station ;  in  these  premises,  since  con- 
siderably enlarged,  the  entire  production  of 
the  embossed  books  is  still  carried  on. 

In  1885  Moon  spent  several  months  in 
Sweden.  As  the  jubilee  of  his  work  ap- 
proached, a  movement  for  a  testimonial  to 
him  was  originated  in  Scotland ;  and  on 
16  April  1890  he  was  presented  with  a 
chiming  clock,  purse  of  260/.,  and  an  illu- 
minated address.  His  devotion  to  evange- 
listic work,  of  which  the  publishing  was  only 
a  portion,  brought  on  a  slight  paralytic  stroke 
in  the  autumn  of  1892,  after  which  his  ac- 
tivity was  necessarily  lessened.  He  died  sud- 


Moore 


192 


Morgan 


denly  on  10  Oct.  1894,  and  was  buried  on 
the  16th  in  the  extramural  cemetery  at 
Brighton,  many  of  his  blind  pupils  attending 
the  funeral  and  singing  over  the  grave. 
Some  years  before  his  death  he  had  made 
over  the  freehold  site  of  his  premises  to 
trustees  for  the  continuance  of  his  work  in 
publishing  embossed  books  for  the  blind. 

Moon  was  twice  married — in  1843  to  Mary 
Ann  Caudle,  daughter  of  a  Brighton  sur- 
geon, who  died  in  1864;  and  in  1866  to 
Anna  Maria  Elsdale,  a  granddaughter  of 
William  Leeves  [q.  v.],  the  composer  of 
'  Auld  Robin  Gray.'  By  the  first  marriage 
he  had  a  son,  who  was  of  great  assistance  to 
him  in  arranging  his  type§  to  foreign  lan- 
guages, and  is  now  a  physician  in  Phila- 
delphia; and  a  daughter,  who  now  super- 
intends the  undertaking  that  Moon  inaugu- 
rated. 

Moon  wrote :  1.  '  A  Memoir  of  Harriet 
Pollard,  Blind  Vocalist,'  1860.  2.  « Blind- 
ness, its  Consequences  and  Ameliorations,' 
1868.  3.  '  Light  for  the  Blind,'  1873.  He 
composed  a  set  of  twelve  tunes  to  devotional 
poetry,  which  were  printed  both  in  his  em- 
bossed type  and  in  ordinary  music  notation. 

[Rutherford's  William  Moon  and  his  Work 
for  the  Blind.  1898  (with  portraits);  Brighton 
Herald,  13  and  20  Oct.  1894;  Illustrated  Lon- 
don News,  20  Oct.  1894  (with  portrait) ;  Record, 
3  June  1859  ;  information  from  Miss  Moon,  who 
has  kindly  revised  this  article.]  H.  D. 

MOORE,  HENRY  (1831-1896),  marine 
painter,  born  at  York  on  7  March  1831,  was 
the  second  son  of  the  portrait  painter,  Wil- 
liam Moore  (1790-1851)  [q.  v.],  by  his  second 
wife  Sarah  Collingham,  and  the  tenth 
child  and  ninth  son  of  the  whole  family 
of  fourteen.  Albert  Joseph  Moore  [q.  v.] 
was  his  brother.  Henry  was  educated  at 
York  and  was  taught  painting  by  his  father. 
He  entered  the  Royal  Academy  schools  in 
1853,  and  exhibited  his  first  picture,  '  Glen 
Clunie,  Braemar,'  at  the  Royal  Academy  in 
the  same  year.  He  was  a  constant  exhibitoi 
at  the  Royal  Academy  from  that  time 
onwards.  He  exhibited  at  the  Portland 
Gallery  from  1855  to  1860,  and  at  the 
British  Institution  from  1855  to  1865.  It 
was  also  in  1855  that  he  sent  the  first  of 
many  contributions  to  the  gallery  of  the 
Society  of  British  Artists  in  Suffolk  Street. 
He  was  a  member  of  that  society  from  1867 
to  1875.  He  was  also  a  constant  contri- 
butor, both  in  oils  and  water-colours,  to  the 
Dudley  Gallery  from  1865  to  1882.  He 
became  an  associate  of  the  Old  Water-colour 
Society  in  1876,  and  a  full  member  in  1880, 
He  contributed  in  later  years  to  the  Grosvenor 


Gallery  and  the  New  Gallery.  He  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy 
on  4  June  1885,  and  an  academician  on 
4  May  1893. 

Almost  all  his  early  pictures  were  land- 
scapes, painted  in  many  parts  of  England, 
or,  about  1856,  in  Switzerland.  It  was 
towards  1870  that  he  began  to  devote  him- 
self almost  exclusively  to  the  marine  subjects 
in  which  the  best  work  of  his  maturity  was 
done.  He  had  a  profound  and  scientific 
knowledge  of  wave-form,  acquired  at  the 
cost  of  exposure  in  all  weathers,  and  he  was 
generally  content  to  paint  the  sea  itself  with- 
out introducing  ships  or  human -figures.  He 
made  his  studies  chiefly  in  the  English 
Channel.  He  was  a  fine  colourist,  and  held 
the  foremost  rank  among  English  marine 
painters  of  his  day.  Among  the  most  re- 
markable of  his  Academy  pictures  are  '  A 
White  Calm'  (1858),  'The  Launch  of  the 
Lifeboat'  (1876),  now  in  the  Walker  Art 
Gallery,  Liverpool, '  Cat's-paws  off  the  Land,' 
which  was  bought  out  of  the  funds  of  the 
Chautrey  Bequest  in  1885,  and  is  now  at 
Millbank, '  The  Clearness  after  Rain'  (1887), 
which  won  for  the  painter  the  grand  prix 
and  legion  of  honour  at  the  Paris  Exhibi- 
tion of  1889,  '  A  Breezy  Day  in  the  Channel ' 
(1888), '  Shine  and  Shower'  (1889), « Summer 
at  Sea'  (1893),  and  '  Britannia's  Realm.'  An 
exhibition  of  ninety  pictures  by  Moore,  en- 
titled '  Afloat  and  Ashore,'  was  held  by  the 
Fine  Art  Society  in  1887.  The  total  number 
of  pictures  exhibited  by  Moore  was  not  far 
short  of  six  hundred.  Shortly  before  his 
death  an  exhibition  was  held  at  York  of  the 
works  of  the  father,  William  Moore,  and  his 
five  artist  sons,  Edwin,  William  (still  living), 
John  Collingham,  Henry, and  Albert  Joseph. 

Moore  lived  for  many  years  at  Hampstead, 
but  died  at  Margate  on  22  June  1895.  He 
married  in  1860  Mary  (d.  1890),  daughter  of 
Robert  Bollans  of  York.  He  had  two  daugh- 
ters by  this  marriage. 

[Daily  Graphic,  24  June  1895;  Times, 
24  June  1895;  Athenaeum,  29  June  1895; 
private  information.]  C.  D. 

MOORE,  JOHN  BRAMLEY  (1800- 
1886),  chairman  of  Liverpool  Docks.  [See 
BEA.MLEY-MOOKE.] 

MORGAN,  SIR  GEORGE  OSBORNE 

(1826-1897),  first  baronet,  lawyer  and  poli- 
tician, was  eldest  son  of  Morgan  Morgan,  for 
thirty-one  years  vicar  of  Conway,  Carnar- 
vonshire, by  Fanny  Nonnen,  daughter  of 
John  Nonnen  of  Liseberg,  Gothenburg,  who 
was  descended  on  the  mother's  side  from  the 
Huguenot  family  of  De  Lorent.  His  younger 
brother  was  John  Edward  Morgan,  M.D., 


Morgan 


193 


Morgan 


professor  of  medicine  at  Owens  College,  Man- 
chester (d.  4  Sept.  1892),  and  his  youngest 
brother,  the  Rev.  Henry  Arthur  Morgan, 
D.D.,  is  master  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge. 
George  Osborne  Morgan,  who  derived  his 
name  of  Osborne  from  the  marriage  in  1764 
of  Egbert  Nonnen,  his  great-grandfather, 
with  Anne  Osborne  of  Burnage,  Cheshire, 
was  born  at  Gothenburg  in  Sweden  on 
8  May  1826,  during  the  temporary  occu- 
pancy by  his  father  of  the  post  of  chaplain 
there.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  after  spending 
some  time  at  the  Friars'  school,  Bangor,  he 
entered  Shrewsbury  School  under  Dr.  Ken- 
nedy [see  KENNEDY,  BENJAMIN  HALL],  who 
said  of  him  that  he  had  never  known  a  boy 
'  with  such  a  vast  amount  of  undigested  in- 
formation.' His  father  had  intended  him 
for  Cambridge  and  the  church,  but  he  pre- 
ferred Oxford  and  matriculated  from  Balliol 
on  30  Nov.  1843.  He  then  returned  to 
Shrewsbury,  and  while  still  a  schoolboy 
performed  the  extraordinary  feat  of  obtain- 
ing the  Craven  scholarship  at  Oxford 
(16  March  1844),  afterwards  going  back 
again  to  school.  In  the  following  autumn 
he  stood  for  a  scholarship  at  Balliol.  He 
was  awarded  an  exhibition,  the  two  scholar- 
ships being  won  by  Henry  John  Stephen 
Smith  [q.v.]  and  Sir  Alexander  Grant  (1826- 
1884)  [q.  v.],  and  he  then  went  into  resi- 
dence. In  1846  he  was  proxime  accessit  for 
the  Ireland  scholarship,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  won  the  Newdigate  prize  for  Eng- 
lish verse,  the  subject  being  '  Settlers  in 
Australia.'  When  he  became  under- secre- 
tary for  the  colonies  in  1886,  this  poem 
was  republished  by  the  '  Melbourne  Argus,' 
and  enjoyed  considerable  popularity  in  Aus- 
tralia. In  1847  he  migrated  as  a  scholar  to 
Worcester,  and  from  that  college  obtained 
a  first  class  in  the  school  of  literce  humaniores 
in  the  Michaelmas  term  of  the  same  year, 
graduating  B.A.  in  1848.  He  obtained  the 
chancellor's  English  essay  prize  in  1850 
upon  the  theme  '  The  Ancients  and  Moderns 
compared  in  regard  to  the  Administration 
of  Justice,'  and  was  elected  Stowell  civil 
law  fellow  of  University  College.  He  ob- 
tained the  Eldon  law  scholarship  in  1851. 
He  had  now  determined  upon  the  bar  as 
a  profession,  having  been  admitted  a  student 
of  Lincoln's  Inn  on  6  June  1850.  While 
at  Balliol  his  principal  friend  was  (Sir)  Alex- 
ander Grant.  At  the  dinner  at  Balliol  on 
the  occasion  of  the  opening  of  the  new  hall 
(16  Jan.  1877)  Osborne  Morgan,  in  respond- 
ing for  the  bar,  acknowledged  the  debt  he 
owed  to  Jowett's  influence  [see  JOWETT,  BEN- 
JAMIN, Suppl.]  During  his  short  residence 
as  civil  law  fellow  at  University  he  took  pri- 

VOL.  III. — STJP. 


vate  pupils,  among  them  Viscount  Peel,  Sir 
M.  E.  Grant  Duff",  and  Lord-justice  Chitty. 
His  most  intimate  friends  at  this  period, 
which  was  marked  by  vehement  religious 
controversies,  were  the  opponents  of  trac- 
tarianism,  such  as  Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley 
[q.  v.],  William  Young  Sellar  [q.  v.],  and 
Arthur  Hugh  Clough  [q.  v.]  He  figures  in 
Clough's  poem  '  The  Bothie '  as  Lindsay. 

In  1851  Morgan  left  Oxford.  The  present 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  had  offered  him  the 
vice-presidency  of  Kneller  Hall,  a  training 
college  for  teachers  then  recently  established 
at  Twickenham,  but  he  was  resolutely  bent 
upon  the  bar,  and  entered  as  a  pupil  in  the 
chambers  of  equity  counsel  in  Lincoln's  Inn. 
Meanwhile  he  contributed  political  leading 
articles  to  the  '  Morning  Chronicle,'  and 
after  the  staff  of  that  newspaper  founded 
the  '  Saturday  Review  '  he  wrote  very  occa- 
sionally for  the  new  periodical.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  on  6  June 
1853,  and  practised  as  an  equity  draughts- 
man and  conveyancer.  He  rapidly  acquired 
a  practice,  and  received  a  number  of  pupils 
to  read  in  his  chambers,  among  them  Mr. 
Justice  Byrne,  Sir  C.  P.  Ilbert,  and  Sir 
Robert  Herbert.  In  1858  he  published 
'  Chancery  Acts  and  Orders,  being  a  Collec- 
tion of  Statutes  and  General  Orders  re- 
cently passed.'  This,  with  slight  variations 
in  the  title,  ran  through  six  editions,  the 
second  being  published  in  1860,  and  the 
last  in  1885.  He  also  became  one  of  the 
four  joint  editors  of  '  the  New  Reports,' 
which  contained  cases  decided  in  the  courts 
of  equity  and  common  law  between  Novem- 
ber 1862  and  August  1865,  the  first  of  the 
six  volumes  appearing  in  March  1863. 
Among  the  reporters  associated  with  him  in 
this  series  were  Lord-chancellor  Herschell, 
the  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  (the 
Right  Hon. W.  C.  Gully),  Lord  Davey,  Lord- 
justice  Bowen,  Lord-justice  Rigby,  and 
others. 

In  1861  Morgan  published  a  sympathetic 
lecture  on  the  Italian  revolution  of  1860. 
He  had  already  begun  his  political  career  by 
holding  meetings  in  his  chambers  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  for  the  promotion  of  church  dis- 
establishment and  the  abolition  of  university 
tests.  Although  a  clergyman's  son,  he  had 
been  led  to  form  opinions  unfavourable  to 

I  the  establishment  in  consequence  of  abuses 
witnessed  by  him  in  the  Welsh  church. 
He  became  intimate  with  Edward  Miall 

|  [q.  v.],  the  leader  of  the  militant  noncon- 
formists. His  opinions  on  these  subjects 

,  and  his  nationality  designated  him  for  a 
Welsh  seat  in  parliament,  and  in  1859  he 

!  accepted  an  invitation  to  stand  for  Carnarvon 


Morgan 


194 


Morgan 


borough,  but  withdrew  in  order  to  avoid 
division  in  the  liberal  party.  A  similar  in- 
cident took  place  in  1867  in  connection  with 
Denbigh  borough.  In  1868,  on  Miall's  re- 
commendation, he  was  invited  to  stand  for 
Denbighshire.  He  was  returned  as  junior 
colleague  to  Sir  Watkin  Williams  Wynn  on 
24  Nov.  1868.  His  maiden  speech,  deli- 
vered on  15  March  1869,  was  in  support  of 
the  second  reading  of  the  university  tests 
abolition  bill.  It  struck  the  attention  of 
Bright,  and  led  to  a  friendship  maintained 
throughout  the  rest  of  his  life.  On  6  July 
Osborne  Morgan  seconded  Henry  Richard's 
resolution  upon  the  subject  of  evictions  of 
liberal  tenants  by  Welsh  landlords  during 
the  recent  elections.  During  this  session  too 
he  first  addressed  himself  to  a  question  which 
long  occupied  his  energies,  that  of  the  law 
affecting  married  women's  property  (14  April 
1869),  and  he  supported  by  a  speech  the 
second  reading  of  Sir  Wilfrid  Lawson's  per- 
missive prohibitory  liquor  bill  (12  May). 
On  10  Feb.  1870  he  first  introduced  the 
measure  with  which  his  name  was  long  asso- 
ciated, the  burials  bill  permitting  any  Chris- 
tian service  in  a  parish  churchyard,  and  on 
the  same  day  he  obtained  the  leave  of  the 
house  to  introduce  the  places  of  worship  (sites) 
bill,  facilitating  the  acquisition  of  land  for 
religious  purposes.  From  this  bill,  as  intro- 
duced in  1870,  W.  E.  Forster  borrowed  the 
clauses  of  the  Elementary  Education  Act  of 
that  year  empowering  school  boards  to 
acquire  land  compulsorily.  The  places  of 
worship  (sites)  bill  did  not  become  law 
till  1873.  In  1871  and  1872  he  seconded 
Sir  Roundell  Palmer's  resolutions  in  favour 
of  the  creation  of  a  general  school  of  law, 
which  led  to  the  institution  of  examina- 
tions by  the  inns  of  court  before  calling 
students  of  law  to  the  bar.  He  had  been 
appointed  a  queen's  counsel  on  23  June 
1869,  and  elected  a  bencher  of  Lincoln's  Inn 
in  the  Michaelmas  term  following.  In  1890 
he  became  treasurer.  His  profession  led 
him  to  take  much  interest  in  the  reform  of  | 
the  land  laws.  During  the  session  of  1878 
he  acted  as  chairman  of  the  select  committee 
on  land  titles  and  transfer,  and  drafted 
its  report  dated  24  June  1879.  He  also 
contributed  an  article  upon  the  same  subject 
to  the  'Fortnightly  Review'  for  December 
1879,  and  in  1880  reprinted  it  as  a  pamphlet 
under  the  title  '  Land  Law  Reform  in  Eng- 
land.' On  all  topics  directly  associated  with 
law,  such  as  the  biils  for  the  reconstitution 
of  the  courts  of  judicature  (1873  and  1875), 
he  frequently  addressed  the  house.  He  sup- 
ported the  measure  for  the  reform  of  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  (1877), 


Mr.  (now  Sir  George)  Trevelyan's  resolution 
for  the  extension  of  the  suffrage  to  the 
counties  (1879),  and  the  Welsh  Sunday 
closing  bill,  which  became  law  in  1881. 
For  ten  successive  sessions  he  introduced 
the  burials  bill,  sometimes  carrying  it 
through  the  House  of  Commons  by  consider- 
able majorities,  but  it  was  not  finally  passed 
by  the  House  of  Lords  till  1880. 

On  the  accession  of  Gladstone  to  power 
in  that  year  Osborne  Morgan  became  a 
member  of  the  ministry  as  judge-advocate- 
general,  and  retired  from  the  bar.  He  was 
also  nominated  a  privy  councillor.  Upon 
the  introduction  by  him  on  28  March  1881 
of  the  annual  army  discipline  &c.  bill,  he 
provided  for  the  abolition  of  the  punishment 
of  flogging,  and  carried  it  in  spite  of  a  strong 
opposition.  He  had  sole  charge  of  the 
married  women's  property  bill,  1882,  a 
bill  which,  bristling  with  legal  difficulties, 
required  exceptionally  skilful  handling  in 
its  passage  through  the  House  of  Commons. 
It  became  law  the  same  session.  He  took 
a  warm  interest  in  Welsh  intermediate  and 
higher  education.  On  14  March  1884  he 
supported  by  a  speech  Mr.  (now  Lord) 
Rendel's  motion  in  favour  of  placing  Aber- 
ystwythi  College, '  in  respect  of  state  recogni- 
tion and  support,  on  an  equal  footing  with 
the  colleges  at  Cardiff  and  Bangor.'  He 
was  anxious  to  improve  the  education  of 
women,  and  took  part  in  the  foundation  of 
a  women's  hostel  at  Bangor  College.  An 
'  Osborne  Morgan  exhibition'  was  founded 
in  the  University  College  of  North  Wales 
after  his  death  to  commemorate  his  services. 
After  the  redistribution  of  the  constitu- 
encies in  1885  Osborne  Morgan,  as  sitting 
member,  had  the  natural  right  of  choice 
between  East  and  West  Denbighshire.  West 
Denbighshire  was  held  to  be  a  safe  liberal 
seat,  whereas  East  Denbighshire  was  the 
centre  of  the  influence  of  the  Wynn  family. 
With  characteristic  courage  and  self-sacrifice 
he  chose  the  constituency  which  no  liberal 
but  himself  could  hope  to  contest  with  any 
prospect  of  success.  In  the  result  he  won 
the  election  by  393  votes,  and  the  Wynn 
family  was  deposed  from  the  representation 
of  the  county  for  the  first  time  for  182 
years.  This  service  was  rewarded,  on 
Gladstone's  accession  to  office  in  February 
1886,  by  the  appointment  of  Osborne  Morgan 
as  parliamentary  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies.  As  his  chief,  Lord  Granville,  sat 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  the  labour  of  repre- 
senting the  department  in  parliament  chiefly 
fell  upon  Osborne  Morgan.  His  tenure  of 
office  lasted  only  six  months,  but  it  was 
marked  by  exceptional  activity.  The  distress ' 


Morgan 


195 


Morley 


which  he  experienced  at  a  narrative  of 
sufferings  endured  by  Welsh  settlers  in 
Patagonia,  as  well  as  by  other  emigrants  to 
Canada,  led  to  his  foundation  of  the  emi- 
gration inquiry  office,  still  a  useful  govern- 
ment institution.  A  glance  at  the  index  to 
Hansard  for  this  session  shows  the  number 
and  variety  of  the  questions  connected  with 
his  department  which  engaged  his  attention. 
The  strain  proved  excessive,  and  a  stubborn 
contest  for  East  Denbighshire  with  his 
former  opponent,  Sir  W.  W.  Wynn,  which 
Osborne  Morgan  won  by  the  narrow  majo- 
rity of  only  twenty-six  (7  July  1886),  led  to 
a  severe  illness,  from  which  he  never  quite 
recovered.  But  his  apparently  inexhaus- 
tible energy  showed  itself  throughout  the 
sessions  of  1887-92.  During  three  months 
of  1888,  and  the  sessions  of  1889-92,  and  in 
the  parliament  of  1892-5  he  was  alternately 
chairman  of  the  standing  committees  on 
law  and  trade. 

In  July  1892  he  again  won  East  Debigh- 
shire,  this  time  by  the  substantial  majority 
of  765  against  his  former  opponent.  But  he 
felt  his  health  unequal  to  the  resumption  of 
office,  and  accepted  Gladstone's  offer  of  a 
baronetcy.  Nevertheless,  his  activity  in  the 
house  continued,  especially  on  all  matters 
affecting  Wales,  and  he  was  unanimously 
chosen  leader  of  the  Welsh  party.  He 
died  on  25  Aug.  1897,  and  was  buried  in 
the  churchyard  of  Llantysilio  near  Llan- 
gollen.  His  last  public  appearance,  a  week 
before  his  death,  was  at  an  eistedfodd  at 
Chirk,  at  which  he  delivered  a  speech  on  the 
effects  of  music  upon  character. 

Osborne  Morgan  was,  physically  as  well 
as  mentally,  a  Celt.  He  had  a  Celt's  ardent 
and  imaginative  disposition.  His  Newdigate 
prize,  his  passion  for  Tennyson's  verse,  and 
his  temperament  combined  to  fasten  upon 
him  at  Oxford  the  name  of  '  the  poet.'  His 
ambition  to  develop  Welsh  education  was 
part  of  a  larger  ambition  of  endowing  Wales 
with  the  qualifications  to  stand  by  the  side 
of '  the  predominant  partner '  as  a  nationality 
with  a  character  and  aims  of  its  own. 
His  Celtic  sympathies  threw  him,  at  the 
outset  of  his  career  in  parliament,  into  the 
cause  of  Irish  disestablishment,  and  at  its 
close  into  that  of  Irish  home  rule.  Yet  he 
had  been  '  brought  up  to  look  with  equal 
horror  on  democracy  and  dissent.'  The 
change  came  with  Oxford,  and  through  the 
group  of  liberal  thinkersAvhom  he  there  made 
his  friends. 

Like  many  of  Kennedy's  pupils,  Osborne 
Morgan  wrote  elegant  Greek  verse,  as  is 
attested  by  two  compositions  published  in 
the  'Sabrinse  Corolla,'  1890,  pp.  76,  363. 


He  retained  to  the  last  his  fondness  for  his 
school,  of  which  he  became  a  governor,  and 
for  classical  literature,  and  in  the  year  of  his 
death  (1897)  published,  with  a  dedication  to 
Gladstone,  a  translation  into  English  hexa- 
meter verse,  perhaps  a  reminiscence  of 
dough's  influence,  of  the  '  Eclogues  of 
Virgil,' which  was  very  favourably  received. 
He  contributed  various  articles  on  current 
topics  to  the  '  Contemporary,' '  Fortnightly,' 
and  '  Nineteenth  Century '  Reviews.  He 
was  an  excellent  raconteur  and  brilliant 
conversationalist.  He  married  in  1856 
Emily,  daughter  of  Leopold  Reiss  of  Eccles, 
Lancashire,  who  survives  him.  He  left  no 
issue. 

A  portrait  is  in  the  possession  of  his 
widow,  painted  by  Edgar  Hanley  and  exhi- 
bited at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1882.  Two 
engraved  portraits  were  published  by  Morris 
&  Co.  in  1869  and  1897  respectively. 

[Historical  Register  of  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford, 1888;  Foster's  Alumni  Oxonienses,  1715- 
1886;  Lincoln's  Inn  Admissions,  1896;  Han- 
sard's Parliamentary  Debates  ;  Daily  News  and 
Manchester  Guardian,  27  Aug.  1897  ;  Professor 
Lewis  Campbell  '  On  some  Liberal  Movements 
of  the  last  Half  Century '  in  the  Fortnightly 
Eeview  for  March  1900 ;  private  information.] 

I.  S.  L. 

MORLEY,  WILLIAM  HOOK  (1815- 
1860),  orientalist  and  lawyer,  born  in  1815, 
second  son  of  George  Morley  of  the  Inner 
Temple,  distinguished  himself  in  1838  by 
discovering  a  missing  manuscript  of  Rashldu- 
dln  Jam'ia  Tawarikh  (see  ELLIOT'S  History 
of  India,  iii.  10,  and  R.A.S.J.  for  1839,  vi. 
orig.  ser. )  He  entered  the  Middle  Temple  on 
12  Jan.  1838,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1840 
and  in  1846,  and  in  1849-50  published  a 
valuable  digest  of  cases  decided  in  the 
Supreme  Courts  of  India  (London,  2  vols. 
8vo ;  new  ser.  vol.  i.  only,  1852).  He  was 
a  trustee  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  and 
during  the  last  year  of  his  life  also  librarian ; 
he  published  a  '  Catalogue  of  the  Historical 
Manuscripts  in  the  Arabic  and  Persian  Lan- 
guages'  in  the  possession  of  the  society 
(London,  1854, 8vo).  In  1856  he  published 
a  splendid  folio,  being  a  description  of  a 
planispheric  astrolabe  constructed  for  Shah 
Sultan  Husain  Safavi.  He  also  edited  in 
1848,  for  the  Society  for  publishing  Oriental 
texts,  Mir  Khwand's  '  History  of  the  Ata- 
beks  of  Syria  and  Persia,'  with  a  description 
of  Atabek  coins  by  William  Sandys  Vaux 
[q.  v.] 

His  latter  days  were  clouded  by  domestic 
distress,  owing  to  the  death  of  his  wife.  He 
died  at  35  Brompton  Square,  London,  on 
21  May  1860. 

02 


Morris 


196 


Morris 


[Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ;  Royal  Asiatic  Society's 
Journal,  vol.  xviii.  orig.  ser.  vi. ;  Annual  Report 
of  May  1861,  and  Proceedings  of  the  Numis- 
matic Society  of  21  June  1860;  Numismatic 
Chronicle,  xx.  34  ;  Boase's  Modern  English  Bio- 
graphy.] H.  B-B. 

MORRIS,  RICHARD  (1833-1894),Eng- 
lish  scholar  and  philologist,  was  born  at  Ber- 
mondsey  on  8  Sept.  1 833,  of  Welsh  paren- 
tage.     He  was  trained  for  an  elementary  i 
schoolmaster  at  St.  John's  College,  Battersea, 
but  his  education  was  for  the  most  part  self-  ! 
acquired.     In  1869  he  was  appointed  Win-  | 
Chester  lecturer  on  English  language  and 
literature  in  King's  College  school.    In  1871  I 
he  was  ordained,  and  served  for  two  years 
as   curate   of  Christ   Church,  Camberwell. 
From  1875  to  1888  he  was  head-master  of  i 
the  Royal  Masonic  Institution  for  Boys  at  | 
Wood   Green,  and  afterwards  for   a  short 
time  master  of  the  old  grammar  school  of 
Dedham  in  Essex.     His  diploma  of  LL.D. 
came   from   Lambeth,  being  given   him  in  ' 
1870  by  Archbishop  Tait.     The  university 
of  Oxford  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary 
degree  of  M.  A.  on  28  May  1874. 

As  early  as  1857  Morris  showed  the  bent  ' 
of  his  mind  by  publishing  a  little  book  on 
'  The  Etymology  of  Local  Names.'  He  was 
one  of  the  first  to  join  as  an  active  member 
the  Chaucer,  Early  English,  and  Philological 
societies,  founded  by  his  lifelong  friend, 
Dr.  F.  J.  Furnivall.  None  of  his  colleagues 
surpassed  him  in  the  devotion  which  he  ex- 
pended upon  editing  the  oldest  remains  of 
our  national  literature  from  the  original 
manuscript  sources,  on  the  same  scientific 
principles  as  adopted  by  classical  scholars. 
Between  1862  and  1880  he  brought  out  no 
less  than  twelve  volumes  for  the  Early  Eng- 
lish Text  Society,  of  which  may  be  specially  ! 
mentioned  three  series  of  'Homilies'  (1868 
seq.)  and  two  of '  Alliterative  Poems'  (1864).  i 
In  1866  he  edited  Chaucer  for  the  '  Aldine 
Poets '  (2nd  edit.  1891).  This  was  the  first 
edition  to  be  based  upon  manuscripts  since 
that  of  Thomas  Tyrwhitt  [q.  v.],  and  re- 
mained the  standard  one  until  it  was  super- 
seded by  Professor  Skeat's  edition  (1894-7). 
In  1869  he  edited  Spenser  for  ,Macmillan's 
*  Globe '  edition,  again  using  manuscripts  as 
well  as  the  original  editions.  In  1867  he 
published  at  the  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford, 
'  Specimens  of  Early  English,'  which  has 
been  augmented  in  subsequent  editions  by 
Professor  Skeat.  These  are  books  for  scholars  j 
and  students.  But  Morris's  long  experience 
as  a  schoolmaster  induced  him  to  undertake 
a  series  of  educational  works,  which  have 
contributed  largely  to  place  the  teaching  of 
English  upon  a  sound  basis.  The  first  of 


these  was  '  Historical  Outlines  of  English 
Accidence '  (1872),  which,  after  passing 
through  some  twenty  editions,wasthoroughly 
revised  after  his  death  by  Mr.  Henry  Brad- 
ley and  Dr.  L.  Kellner.  Two  years  later 
(1874)  he  brought  out '  Elementary  Lessons 
in  Historical  English  Grammar ; '  and  in 
the  same  year  a  primer"  of  '  English  Gram- 
mar.' From  both  of  these  tens  of  thousands 
of  boys  and  girls  have  learnt  their  earliest 
knowledge  of  their  own  tongue,  which  they 
will  never  need  to  unlearn. 

Scarcely  had  Morris  struck  out  this  remu- 
nerative line  of  authorship  when  he  delibe- 
rately turned  aside  to  devote  the  remainder 
of  his  life  to  what  is  probably  the  least 
appreciated  of  all  the  branches  of  philology 
— the  study  of  Pali,  the  sacred  language  of 
Buddhism.  In  this  case  the  stimulus  came 
from  his  intimacy  with  Professor  Rhys 
Davids,  the  founder  of  the  Pali  Text  Society. 
For  that  society  he  edited,  between  1882 
and  1888,  four  texts,  being  more  than  any 
other  contributor  down  to  that  time.  But 
he  did  not  confine  himself  to  editing.  His 
familiarity  with  the  development  of  early 
English  caused  him  to  take  a  special  inte- 
rest in  the  corresponding  position  of  Pali, 
as  standing  midway  between  the  ancient 
Sanskrit  and  the  modern  vernaculars,  and 
as  branching  out  into  various  dialects  known 
as  Prakrits.  These  relations  of,  Pali  he 
expounded  in  a  series  of  letters  to  the 
'  Academy,'  which  are  valuable  not  only  for 
their  lexicographical  facts,  but  also  as  illus- 
trating the  historical  growth  of  the  languages 
of  India.  The  very  last  work  he  was  able 
to  complete  was  a  paper  on  this  subject, 
read  before  the  International  Congress  of 
Orientalists  in  London  in  September  1892. 
Unfortunately  he  could  not  himself  correct 
the  proofs  of  this  paper  as  printed  in  the 
'  Transactions.' 

For  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  Morris 
was  prostrated  by  an  incurable  and  dis- 
tressing illness,  which  he  bore  with  charac- 
teristic fortitude,  preserving  his  cheerfulness 
and  his  love  of  a  good  story  to  the  last. 
He  retired  to  the  railway-side  hamlet  of 
Harold  Wood  in  Essex,  and  there  he  died 
on  12  May  1894.  He  was  buried  at  Horn- 
church,  within  which  parish  Harold  Wood 
is  included.  In  1893  Gladstone  had  con- 
ferred upon  him  a  pension  of  loOl.  on  the 
civil  list ;  and  on  2  June  1896  new  pensions 
of  25£.  each  were  created  in  favour  of  his 
three  daughters.  The  greater  part  of  his 
valuable  philological  library  was  acquired 
by  the  bookseller,  Mr.  David  Nutt. 

[Personal  knowledge;  private  information.] 

J.  S.  C. 


Morris 


197 


Morris 


MORRIS,  WILLIAM  (1834-1896), 
poet,  artist,  manufacturer,  and  socialist,  was 
the  eldest  son  and  third  child  of  William 
Morris,  a  partner  in  the  firm  of  Sanderson  & 
Co.,  bill  brokers  in  the  City  of  London,  and 
of  Emma  Shelton,  daughter  of  Joseph  Shel- 
ton,  a  teacher  of  music  in  Worcester,  and 
son  of  John  Shelton,  proctor  in  the  consistory 
court  of  that  city.  He  was  born  on  24  March 
1834,  at  Elm  House,  Clay  Hill,  Waltharn- 
stow,  his  father's  suburban  residence.  In 
1840  the  family  removed  to  Woodford  Hall 
(now  known  as  Mrs.  Gladstone's  Convalescent 
Home),  the  park  of  which  was  conterminous 
with  Epping  Forest.  As  a  boy,  therefore, 
Morris  had  the  free  daily  range  of  that 
unique  tract  of  country,  then  little  changed 
since  mediaeval  or  even  since  prehistoric 
times;  and  these  surroundings  fostered  his 
natural  keenness  of  eye  and  romantic  bent  of 
temper.  He  learned  to  read  very  young, 
and  never  remembered  a  time  when  he  could 
not  read,  but  was  not  notably  precocious 
otherwise.  His  earlier  education  was  at  a 
small  private  school  in  the  neighbourhood ; 
from  January  1848  until  December  1851  he 
was  at  Marlborough  College,  and  then  lived 
for  nearly  a  year  as  a  private  pupil  with  the 
Rev.  F.  B.  Guy,  afterwards  canon  of  St. 
Albans,  and  then  assistant  master  at  the 
Forest  School,  Walthamstow.  He  matricu- 
lated at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  in  June 
1852,  and  went  into  residence  in  January 
1853. 

Morris  went  up  to  Oxford  with  an  unusual 
amount  of  varied  knowledge  and  a  character 
already  strongly  marked  and  well  developed. 
Love  of  the  middle  ages  was  born  in  him, 
and  was  reinforced  by  the  wave  of  Anglo- 
catholicism  which  had  just  spread  over 
England,  and  which  had  come  as  a  highly 
stimulating  influence  on  families  brought  up, 
like  his,  in  a  somewhat  stagnant  evangeli- 
calism. Already  as  a  boy  he  had  acquired  a 
singularly  minute  knowledge  of  trees,  flowers, 
and  birds.  At  Marlborough  he  had,  with 
the  aid  of  the  school  library  and  all  the 
specimens  of  ancient  building  within  reach, 
made  himself  a  good  antiquary,  '  knowing,' 
as  he  afterwards  said, '  most  of  what  was  to  be 
known  about  English  Gothic ; '  and  Savernake 
Forest  and  the  Wiltshire  downs  made  a 
background  in  complete  harmony  with  his 
growing  sense  of  romance  and  love  of  beauty. 
At  Oxford  he  at  once  formed  a  close  friend- 
ship with  Edward  Burne-Jones  [q.  v.  Suppl.], 
who  had  entered  at  Exeter  together  with  him, 
and  had  brought,  from  the  very  different 
surroundings  of  middle-class  life  in  Birming- 
ham, an  enthusiasm,  a  knowledge,  and  a  high 
idealism,  which  at  all  points  confirmed  and 


supplemented  his  own.  Until  Morris's  death 
the  two  men  lived  in  the  closest  intimacy, 
not  only  of  daily  intercourse  but  of  thought 
and  work.  They  were  the  two  foremost 
figures  in  a  group  of  undergraduates,  chiefly 
Birmingham  schoolfellows  of  Burne-Jones, 
which  was  perhaps  more  remarkable  than 
any  which  Oxford  has  produced  since. 

At  Exeter  Morris  read  only  for  a  pass 
degree,  and  mixed  little  in  the  general  life 
of  the  college.  But  he  was  an  incessant, 
swift,  and  omnivorous  reader,  and  his  pro- 
digious memory  enabled  him  in  those  few 
years  to  lay  up  an  enormous  store  of  know- 
ledge. Religious  perplexities,  under  which, 
in  1854,  he  was  on  the  point  of  joining  the 
Roman  communion,  passed  over  soon  after- 
wards; ecclesiastical  history  and  Anglican 
theology  were  in  turn  mastered  and  put 
aside,  and  their  influence  was  gradually  re- 
placed by  an  artistic  and  social  enthusiasm 
in  which  Carlyle,  Ruskin,  and  Kingsley  were 
the  chief  modern  leaders  whom  he  followed. 
WThen  he  came  of  age  in  1855  he  still 
cherished  a  fancy  of  devoting  his  considerable 
fortune  to  the  foundation  of  a  monastery  in 
which  he  and  his  friends  might  combine  an 
ascetic  life  with  the  organised  production  of 
religious  art.  This  ideal  became  gradually 
enlarged  and  secularised,  but  remained,  in 
one  form  or  another,  his  ideal  throughout 
life. 

In  the  autumn  of  1854  Morris  had  made 
his  first  visit  to  northern  France,  and  in  the 
long  vacation  of  1855  he  repeated  the  tour 
in  company  with  Burne-Jones  and  William 
Fulford,  another  member  of  the  undergra- 
duate circle,  who  were  now  known  among 
themselves  as  '  the  Brotherhood.'  During 
this  tour,  under  the  added  impulse  of  his 
boundless  enthusiasm  for  French  Gothic,  he 
definitely  renounced  the  purpose  of  taking 
orders  with  which  he  had  gone  to  Oxford, 
and  made  up  his  mind  to  be  an  architect. 
As  soon  as  he  had  passed  his  final  schools 
that  winter,  he  articled  himself  as  a  pupil  to 
George  Edmund  Street  [q.  v.J,  already  one 
of  the  most  prominent  architects  of  the 
revived  English  Gothic,  who  then  had  his 
headquarters  in  Oxford  as  architect  to  the 
diocese.  The  articles  were  signed  on  25  Jan. 
1856.  In  Street's  office  Morris  formed  an 
intimate  and  lifelong  friendship  with  the 
senior  clerk,  Philip  Webb  [q.  v.],  which  had 
an  important  influence  over  the  development 
taken  by  English  domestic  architecture 
during  the  next  generation.  He  worked  in 
Street's  office  for  the  rest  of  that  year,  first 
at  Oxford,  and  afterwards  in  London  when 
Street  removed  thither  in  the  autumn .  Mean- 
while Burne-Jones  had  left  Oxford  without 


Morris 


198 


Morris 


taking  a  degree  in  order  to  begin  life  as  a 
painter  in  London.  The  influence  of  Rossetti 
was  immensely  strong  on  both ;  and  when 
Morris  also  came  to  London  and  shared  rooms 
with  Burne-Jones,  Rossetti  succeeded  in  con- 
vincing him  that  he  too  ought  to  be  a  painter. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  year  he  quitted 
Street's  office,  took  a  studio  for  himself  and 
Burne-Jones  at  17  Red  Lion  Square,  Hoi- 
born,  and  plunged  at  the  beginning  of  1857 
into  a  new  life. 

He  had  already  proved  his  powers  in  ima- 
ginative literature.  The  faculty  of  story- 
telling he  had  possessed  even  as  a  schoolboy ; 
and  at  Oxford  he  had  found  that  story- 
writing  came  to  him  just  as  easily.  About 
the  same  time  he  had  begun  to  write  lyrical 
poetry ;  his  first  attempts  being  marked 
(together  with  many  mannerisms  and  im- 
maturities) by  an  originality  and  power  rare 
in  any  beginner.  '  The  Willow  and  the  Red 
Cliff,'  the  first  piece  of  verse  he  ever  wrote, 
has,  except  for  a  few  echoes  of  Tennysonian 
phrase,  nothing  in  it  that  is  not  wholly 
Morris's  own,  and  shows  a  directness  of 
spiritual  vision  comparable  to  that  of  Blake. 
To  this  and  the  other  pieces  belonging  to  the 
same  year,  Chatterton  may  offer  the  nearest 
English  parallel;  and  neither  Keats  nor 
Tennyson  (Morris's  two  master  poets  among 
the  moderns)  had  shown  a  more  certain 
voice  in  their  first  essays  in  poetry. 

Morris  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the 
celebrated  'Oxford  and  Cambridge  Magazine,' 
which  was  conducted  and  written  by  the 
members  of  the   brotherhood   and  some   of 
their  friends,  and  paid  for  by  him,  during  the 
twelve  months  of  1856.     He  contributed  to 
it  eight  prose  tales  (of  which  '  The  Hollow 
Land  '  is  the  most  remarkable),  one  or  two 
essays  and  reviews,  and  five  poems,  including 
the   'Summer  Dawn,'  which   many  critics 
would  place  among  the  first  rank  of  lyrics  of 
the  imagination.     When  he  began  life  as  a 
painter  he    did  not    abandon  poetry,  and 
during  1857   wrote,    besides   a   number  of 
pieces  which  he  afterwards  destroyed,  and 
others  of  which  only  fragments  survive,  most 
of  the  poems  published  by  him  in  March 
1858  in  the  volume  entitled  '  The  Defence  of 
Guenevere  and  other  Poems.'    Poetry,  how- 
ever, was  now  only  his  relaxation  (as  in  a 
sense  it  always  afterwards  continued  to  be), 
and  his  regular  work  was  drawing,  painting 
in  oil  and  water-colour,  modelling,  illumi- 
nating, and  designing.    During  the  last  three 
months  of  1857  he  was  working,  together 
with  Rossetti,  Burne-Jones,  Hughes,  Pollen, 
Prinsep,  and  Stanhope,   on  the  celebrated 
tempera  decorations  of  the  walls  and  roof  of 
the  newly  built  debating  hall  of  the  Oxford 


Union  Society.  He  painted  one  of  the  ten 
bays  of  the  walls,  and  designed,  and  exe- 
cuted with  some  help  from  friends,  the  orna- 
mentation of  the  whole  roof.  While  en- 
gaged on  this  work  at  Oxford  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  lady  whom  he  after- 
wards (26  April  1859)  married,  Miss  Jane 
Burden. 

For  several  years  after  his  marriage  Morris 
was  absorbed  in  two  intimately  connected 
occupations  :  the  building  and  decoration  of 
a  house  for  himself,  and  the  foundation  of  a 
firm  of  decorators  who   were   also  artists, 
with  the  view  of  reinstating  decoration,  down 
to  its  smallest  details,  as  one  of  the  fine  arts. 
Meanwhile  he  was  practising  less  and  less 
the   specific  form   of  decoration  known  as 
painting ;  the  latest   of    the   few   pictures 
painted  by  him  do  not  go  beyond  1862.    The 
house  he  made  for  himself  was  the  first 
serious  attempt  made  in  this  country  in  the 
present  age  to  apply  art  throughout  to  the 
practical  objects  of  common  life.     It  was 
built,  from  designs  jointly  framed  by  Morris 
and  Webb  (the  latter  being  the  responsible 
architect),   at   Upton   in  Kent ;   it  is  still 
extant,  though  in  greatly  changed  surround- 
ings, with  a  considerable  amount  of  its  de- 
coration, under  its   original  name  of  Red 
House,  given  to   it  when  the   use   of  red 
brick  without  stucco  was  a  startling  novelty 
in  domestic  architecture.     Its  requirements, 
and  the  problems  it  suggested,  had  a  large 
share  in  leading  to  the  formation,  in  April 
1861,  of  the  firm  of  Morris,  Marshall,  Faulk- 
ner, &   Co.,  manufacturers  and  decorators, 
and  to  the  whole  of  Morris's  subsequent  pro- 
fessional life.  Rossetti,  Burue-Jones,  Madox 
Brown,  and   Webb  were  Morris's  partners 
in  the  firm,  together  with  C.  J.  Faulkner 
and  P.  P.  Marshall,  the  former  of  whom  was 
a  member  of  the  Oxford  Brotherhood,  and 
the  latter  a  friend  of  Brown  and  Rossetti. 
The  decoration  of  churches  was  from  the 
first  an  important  part  of  the  business.     On 
its  non-ecclesiastical  side  it  gradually  was 
extended  to  include,  besides  painted  windows 
and  mural  decoration,  furniture,  metal,  and 
glass  wares,  cloth  and  paper  wall-hangings, 
embroideries,    jewellery,     printed    cottons, 
woven  and  knotted   carpets,  silk  damasks, 
and  tapestries.     The   first  headquarters  of 
the  firm  were  at  8  Red  Lion  Square.     The 
work  shown  by  it  at  the  Exhibition  of  1862 
attracted  much   notice,  and  within   a   few 
years  it  was  doing  a  pretty  large  business. 
In  the  autumn   of    1864  a   severe   illness 
obliged  Morris  to  choose  between  giving  up 
his  home  in  Kent  and  giving  up  his  work  in 
London.     With  great  reluctance  he  did  the 
former,   and  in   1865    established   himself, 


Morris 


i99 


Morris 


under  the  same  roof  with  his  workshops,  in 
Queen  Square,  Bloomsbury. 

During  the  five  years  (1860-5)  at  Red 
House,  poetry  had  been  almost  laid  aside  in 
the  pressure  of  other  occupation.  The  un- 
finished drafts  of  a  cycle  of  lyrico-drainatic 
poems  called  '  Scenes  from  the  Fall  of  Troy ' 
are  the  only  surviving  product  of  that 
period.  But  on  his  return  to  London  lie  re- 
sumed the  writing  of  poetry  in  a  completely 
new  manner  and  with  extraordinary  copious- 
ness. The  general  scheme  of  the  '  Earthly 
Paradise  '  had  been  already  framed  by  him  ; 
and  in  1866  he  began  the  composition  of  a 
series  of  narrative  poems  for  this  work, 
which  he  continued  for  about  four  years  to 
pour  forth  incessantly.  One  of  the  earliest 
written,  the  '  Story  of  the  Golden  Fleece,' 
outgrew  its  limits  so  much  that  it  became  a 
substantive  epic  of  over  ten  thousand  lines. 
It  was  separately  published,  under  the  title 
of  '  The  Life  and  Death  of  Jason,'  in  June 
186",  and  gave  Morris  a  recognised  position 
in  the  foremost  rank  of  modern  poets.  The 
three  volumes  of  the  '  Earthly  Paradise,'  suc- 
cessively published  in  1868-70,  contained 
twenty-five  more  narrative  poems,  connected 
with  one  another  by  a  framework  of  intricate 
skill  and  singular  fitness  and  beauty.  Several 
more  are  still  extant  in  manuscript,  and 
others  again  were  destroyed  by  their  author ; 
but  those  actually  published  (including  the 
'  Jason ')  extend  to  over  fifty  thousand  lines. 
In  this  fluent  copiousness  of  narration,  as 
well  as  in  choice  and  use  of  metres,  and  in 
other  subtler  qualities,  Morris  went  for  his 
model  to  Chaucer,  whom  he  professed  as  his 
chief  master  in  poetry. 

This  torrent  of  production  did  not  lead 
him  to  slacken  in  his  work  as  a  decorative 
manufacturer,  to  which  at  the  beginning  of 
1870  he  began  to  add  that  of  producing  il- 
luminated manuscripts  on  paper  and  vellum, 
executed  in  many  different  styles,  but  all  of 
unapproached  beauty  among  modern  work. 
About  the  same  time  he  had  made  his  first 
acquaintance  with  the  Icelandic  Sagas  in 
the  original,  and  begun  to  translate  them 
into  English.  One  of  these  translations,  that 
of  the  '  Volsuuga-saga,'  was  published  under 
the  joint  names  of  Morris  and  his  Icelandic 
tutor,  E.  Magnusson,  in  May  1870.  In  the 
previous  month  he  had  sat  to  Watts  for  the 
portrait,  now  presented  by  the  painter  to  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery,  which  represents 
Morris  at  the  prime  of  his  vigour  and  the 
height  of  his  powers. 

The  completion  of  the '  Earthly  Paradise  ' 
was  followed  by  a  pause  in  Morris's  poetical 
activity.  In  the  summer  of  1871  he  made  a 
journey  through  Iceland,  the  effects  of 


which  upon  his  mind  may  be  traced  in  much 
of  his  later  work.  In  the  same  year  he  ac- 
quired what  became  his  permanent  country 
home,  Kelmscott  Manor  House,  a  small  but 
very  beautiful  and  wholly  undisfigured 
building  of  the  early  seventeenth  century  on 
the  banks  of  the  Thames  near  Lechlade. 
Round  this  house  that  'love  of  the  earth 
and  worship  of  it,'  which  was  his  deepest 
instinct,  centred  for  all  the  rest  of  his  life. 

For  several  years  about  this  time  there 
may  be  traced  in  all  Morris's  work  a  rest- 
lessness due  to  the  constant  search  after  fresh 
methods  of  artistic  expression,  and  the  grow- 
ing feeling  that,  inasmuch  as  true  art  is  co- 
extensive with  life,  the  true  practice  of  art 
involves  at  every  point  questions  belonging 
to  the  province  of  moral,  social,  and  political 
doctrine.  A  prose  novel  of  modern  English 
life,  begun  in  the  spring  of  1871  and  never 
completed,  was  one  of  these  essays  in  fresh 
methods.  Another  was  the  poem  of  '  Love 
is  Enough,'  begun  after  Morris's  return  from 
Iceland,  and  published  at  the  end  of  1872 :  a 
singular  and  imperfectly  successful  attempt 
to  revive,  under  modern  conditions,  the 
dramatic  method  of  the  later  middle  ages, 
and  the  Middle-English  alliterative  verse 
which  had  been  driven  out  of  use  by  foreign 
metres  in  the  fifteenth  century.  For  the 
next  two  years  his  leisure  was  mainly  oc- 
cupied by  work  as  a  scribe  and  illuminator ; 
to  this  period  belong,  among  other  works, 
the  two  exquisite  manuscripts  of  Fitzgerald's 
'  Omar  Khayyam  '  belonging  to  Lady  Burne- 
Jones  and  Mrs.  J.  F.  Homer.  Towards  the 
end  of  1874  the  dissolution  of  the  firm  of 
Morris,  Marshall,  Faulkner,  &  Co.  became 
necessary  for  various  reasons,  and  questions 
which  arose  as  to  the  claims  of  the  outgoing 
partners  led  to  a  period  of  much  difficulty 
and  trouble.  The  effect  on  Morris  after  the 
first  shock  was  a  bracing  one ;  and  if  the  first 
period  of  his  life  had  ended  with  the  comple- 
tion of  the  '  Earthly  Paradise,'  a  second  now 
opened  which,  without  the  irrecoverable 
romance  of  youth,  was  as  copious  in  achieve- 
ment upon  a  much  wider  field. 

The  first  products  of  this  new  period  were 
in  literature.  He  had  been  for  some  time 
engaged  in  the  production  of  a  magnificent 
folio  manuscript  of  the  '^Eneid,'  and  in  the 
course  of  that  work  had  begun  to  translate 
the  poem  into  English  verse.  The  manu- 
script was  finally  laid  aside  for  the  trans- 
lation, and  the  'yEneids  of  Virgil '  was  pub- 
lished in  November  1875.  It  had  been 
preceded  earlier  in  the  year  by  a  volume  of 
translations  from  the  Icelandic  under  the 
title  of '  Three  Northern  Love  Stories/  and 
was  followed  almost  at  once  by  the  com- 


Morris 


200 


Morris 


position  of  bis  longest  poem,  the  epic  of 
'Sigurd  the  Volsung  and  the  Fall  of  the 
Niblungs.'  This  was  published  at  the  end 
of  1876.  Morris  himself  thought  it  his 
highest,  if  not  his  best,  work  in  poetry.  In 
it  the  influence  of  the  north  is  seen  at  its 
height,  and  for  the  time  has  expelled,  or 
driven  below  the  surface,  his  romantic 
medievalism  and  all  traces  of  the  Chaucerian 
manner.  Here  as  elsewhere  he  owed  little 
to  English  predecessors  or  contemporaries. 
His  inspiration  was  drawn  directly  from  the 
northern  epics  of  the  tenth  to  twelfth  cen- 
turies, where  it  did  not  derive  from  models 
still  more  ancient  and  more  universal ;  and 
the  '  Sigurd '  is  at  once  the  most  largely 
and  powerfully  modelled  of  all  Morris's 
poetical  works,  and  the  poem  which  ap- 
proximates most  nearly  to  the  Homeric 
spirit  and  manner  of  all  European  posms 
since  the  '  Iliad  '  and  '  Odyssey.' 

During  the  period  of  the  composition  of 
'  Sigurd  the  Volsung '  Morris  had  taken  up, 
with  his  customary  vehement  thoroughness, 
the  practical  art  of  dyeing  as  a  necessary 
adjunct  of  his  manufacturing  business.  He 
spent  much  of  his  time  at  Staffordshire  dye  j 
works  in  mastering  all  the  processes  of  that 
art  and  making  experiments  in  the  revival 
of  old  or  discovery  of  new  methods.  One 
result  of  these  experiments  was  to  reinstate 
indigo-dyeing  as  a  practical  industry,  and 
generally  to  renew  the  use  of  those  vege- 
table dyes  which  had  been  driven  almost 
out  of  use  by  the  anilines.  Dyeing  of  wools, 
silks,  and  cottons  was  the  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  what  he  had  much  at  heart,  the 
production  of  woven  and  printed  stuff',  of 
the  highest  excellence  ;  and  the  period 
(1875-6)  of  incessant  work  at  the  dye-vat 
was  followed  by  a  period  during  which 
(1877-8)  he  was  absorbed  in  the  production 
of  textiles,  and  more  especially  in  the  re- 
vival of  carpet-weaving  as  a  fine  art.  Amid 
these  manifold  labours  he  was  also  taking 
more  and  more  part  in  public  affairs.  From 
1876  onwards  be  was  an  officer  and  one  of 
the  most  active  members  of  the  Eastern 
Question  Association.  In  1877  he  founded 
the  Society  for  the  Protection  of  Ancient 
Buildings.  In  1879  he  became  treasurer  of 
the  National  Liberal  League.  In  these 
years  he  began  the  practice  of  giving  lec- 
tures and  addresses  (at  first  chiefly  to  work- 
ing designers  and  art  students), "which  re- 
mained afterwards  one  of  his  main  occupa- 
tions. The  work  of  the  firm,  partly  in 
consequence  of  the  new  departures  now 
taken,  partly  from  a  wider  knowledge  and 
greater  appreciation  of  its  products,  was 
steadily  expanding.  The  premises  at  Queen 


Square  had  already  become  too  small  for  it. 
Morris  and  his  family  had  been  driven  out 
in  1872  that  the  whole  house  might  be 
utilised  for  workrooms  (he  then  lived  first 
at  Turnham  Green,  and  from  1878  for  the 
rest  of  his  life  on  the  Upper  Mall  of  Ham- 
mersmith), and  in  1881  the  establishment 
was  removed  to  large  premises  at  Merton 
Abbey  near  Wimbledon,  a  sale-room  and 
counting-bouse  having  been  already  set  up 
in  Oxford  Street  in  the  West  End  of  London. 

Since  the  completion  of  the  '  Sigurd,' 
Morris's  production  in  creative  literature 
had  almost  ceased.  Only  a  few  months 
after  its  publication  he  had  declined  to  be 
put  in  nomination  for  the  professorship  of 
poetry  at  Oxford,  and  since  then  his  life  had 
been  more  and  more  that  of  a  manufacturer 
and  a  man  keenly  interested  in  public  affairs, 
and  less  that  of  a  man  of  letters  and  artist. 
In  188:?  a  combination  of  convergent  causes 
profoundly  altered  his  political  attachments 
and  his  attitude  towards  politics.  His  en- 
thusiasm for  liberalism,  after  many  severe 
checks  from  the  whiggery  of  his  party 
leaders,  had  been  cbnverted  into  open  dis- 
gust by  the  Irish  coercive  legislation  of  1881 
and  the  timidity  or  aversion  with  which  the 
liberal  government  regarded  his  favourite 
projects  of  social  reform.  Looking  back  in 
his  forty-ninth  year  over  what  he  had  done 
and  what  he  had  failed  to  do,  and  looking 
to  the  future  in  the  light  of  the  past,  he 
found  himself  forced  reluctantly  to  the  con- 
clusion that  hitherto  he  had  not  gone  to  the 
root  of  the  matter ;  that,  art  being  a  func- 
tion of  life,  sound  art  was  impossible  except 
where  life  was  organised  under  sound  con- 
ditions ;  that  the  tendency  of  what  is  called 
civilisation  since  the  great  industrial  revo- 
lution had  been  to  dehumanise  life ;  and  that 
the  only  hope  for  the  future  was,  if  that 
were  yet  possible,  to  reconstitute  society  on 
a  new  basis. 

The  Democratic  Federation — a  league  of 
London  working  men's  radical   clubs  with 
leanings  towards   state-socialism — was   the 
only  organisation  at  hand  which  seemed  to 
Morris,  from  this  point  of  view,  to   be  at 
work  in  the  right  direction.     In  the  belief 
that  better  conditions  of  life  for  the  working 
class — which  substantially  included  the  ob- 
jects towards   which   that   body  worked — 
were  the   necessary  first  step  towrards   all 
further  progress,  and  that  they  could  be  at- 
tained by  properly  organised  action  on  the 
|  part  of  the  working  class  itself,  Morris  joined 
!  the  federation  in  January  1 883.  He  had  a  few 
!  daysbefore  been  elected  an  honorary  fellow  of 
I  Exeter  College,  Oxford.     The  doctrine  of  the 
j  federation  rapidly  developed  within  that  year 


Morris 


201 


Morris 


into  professed  socialism,  and  Morris  led 
rather  than  followed  in  this  change.  He 
supported  the  federation  largely  with  money, 
and  devoted  himself  almost  wholly  to  writing, 
speaking,  and  organising  in  its  service.  In 
1884  jealousies  among  the  leaders  and  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  with  regard  to  policy 
led  to  a  disruption  of  the  federation.  The 
seceders  organised  themselves  as  a  separate 
body  under  the  name  of  the  Socialist  league, 
and  Morris,  much  against  his  will,  was 
forced  into  a  leadership  of  this  group,  among 
whom  he  was  conspicuous  alike  by  means, 
education,  and  character.  To  the  service  of 
the  league  he  gave  himself  up  with  even 
more  complete  devotion,  managing  and 
financing  their  journal,  the  '  Commonweal,' 
preaching  socialism  among  the  working  class 
in  most  of  the  industrial  centres  of  Great 
Britain,  and  addressing  street  meetings  re- 
gularly with  the  view  of  organising  dis- 
content towards  a  social  revolution.  In 
connection  with  one  of  these  meetings  in 
East  London  he  was  arrested  in  September  ! 
1885,  but  discharged  without  trial.  During 
this  period  he  wrote  much  in  the  'Com- 
monweal,' and  also  published  many  socialist 
tracts  and  pamphlets,  both  prose  and  verse,  j 
Xot  until  the  spring  of  1886  did  he  begin  to  | 
find  time  for  literature  other  than  that  of 
direct  socialism.  He  then  took  up  a  task, 
or  rather  to  him  a  recreation,  delightful  in  | 
itself  and  the  more  pleasant  by  contrast 
with  his  political  work,  the  translation  of 
the  'Odyssey'  into  English  verse.  His  ! 
'  Odyssey  '  was  published  in  1887,  as  was  a 
volume  of  essays  and  addresses  entitled '  The 
Aims  of  Art.'  In  1888  followed  a  second 
volume  of  addresses,  called '  Signs  of  Change,' 
and  the  most  remarkable  of  his  prose 
writings,  'A  Dream  of  John  Ball,'  a  work  of 
singular  elevation  and  beauty,  which  may  i 
be  classed  either  as  a  romance  or  as  a  study 
in  the  philosophy  of  history.  In  the  same 
year  he  had  taken  his  head  managers  into 
partnership,  and  thus  relieved  himself  from 
much  of  the  routine  work  of  his  manufac- 
turing business. 

Increased    leisure,    and     the    conviction  j 
(finally  confirmed  by  the  events  of  13  Nov. 
1887  in  Trafalgar   Square)  that   no   social  ! 
revolution  was  now  practicable,  and  that  the  I 
true  work  of  socialists  lay  in  education  to-  i 
wards  revolution   by  influence  on  opinion, 
were  leading  Morris  by  this  time,  on  the  one 
hand  towards  a  more  passive  socialism,  and 
on    the  other  towards   the   resumption   of 
other  and  older  interests.     The  ideal  human 
life  of  the  future  lay  far  beyond  reach  ;  he 
now  once  more  reverted  to  that  of  a  remote 
or    fabulous    past,    in    a     series    of    prose 


romances  which  he  went  on  writing  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  The  first  of  these, 
'  The  House  of  the  Wolfings '  (1889),  is  a 
story  in  which  a  romantic  and  supernatural 
element  is  combined  with  a  semi-historical 
setting,  of  life  in  a  Teutonic  community  of 
Central  Europe  in  the  time  of  the  later 
Roman  empire.  It  was  followed  by  '  The 
Roots  of  the  Mountains  '  (1890),  a  story  of 
somewhat  similar  method,  but  of  a  less  de- 
fined place  and  time.  The  former  of  these 
stories  is  in  a  vehicle  of  mixed  prose  and 
verse  used  with  remarkable  skill,  which  he 
did  not  repeat,  although  the  subsequent 
romances  include  passages  of  lyrical  verse. 
Next  came  'The  Story  of  the  Glittering 
Plain'  (1890),  'The  Wood  beyond  the 
World '  (1894),  '  Child  Christopher '  (1895), 
and  '  The  Well  at  the  World's  End  '  (1896), 
the  longest  and  most  elaborate  of  his  ro- 
mances. '  The  Water  of  the  Wondrous 
Isles '  and  '  The  Story  of  the  Sundering 
Flood,'  the  last  two  of  the  series,  were  only 
published  after  his  death  (1897,  1898). 
Midway  between  these  romances  and  the 
literature  of  socialism  is  the  romantic  pas- 
toral of  'News  from  Nowhere,'  describing 
the  England  of  some  remote  future  under 
realised  communism,  which  appeared  in  the 
'  Commonweal '  in  1890,  and  was  published 
as  a  book  in  1891. 

The  socialist  league  had  since  1887  been 
dwindling  in  numbers  and  losing  coherence : 
its  control  passed  in  1889  into  the  hands  of 
a  group  of  anarchists,  and  in  1890  Morris 
formally  withdrew  from  it.  He  had  already 
become  absorbed  in  a  new  work,  that  of  re- 
viving the  art  of  printing  as  it  had  flourished 
in  the  later  years  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  Kelmscott  Press  was  started  by  him  at 
Hammersmith  during  1890.  He  designed 
for  it  three  founts  of  type  and  an  immense 
number  of  ornamental  letters  and  borders, 
and  superintended  all  the  details  of  printing 
and  production.  In  1893  he  also  became 
his  own  publisher.  One  of  the  earliest  of 
the  Kelmscott  Press  books  was  a  volume  of 
his  own  shorter  poems,  chiefly  lyrics  and 
ballads,  entitled  '  Poems  by  the  Way ' 
(1891),  the  greater  number  of  which  were 
now  published  for  the  first  time.  Fifty- 
three  books  in  all  were  issued  from  the  Press 
between  April  1891  and  March  1898,  when 
it  was  wound  up  by  Morris's  executors. 
They  fall  broadly  under  three  heads :  (1) 
Morris's  own  works  ;  (2)  reprints  of  English 
classics,  mediaeval  and  modern,  beginning 
with  that  of  Caxton's  '  Golden  Legend ' 
(1892),  and  ending  with  the  Chaucer  of 
1896,  which  competent  judges  have  pro- 
nounced the  finest  printed  book  ever  pro- 


Morris 


202 


Morris 


duced  :  (3)  various  smaller  books,  originals 
or  translations,  including  a  series  of  stories 
translated  by  Morris  from  mediaeval 
French.  These,  with  a  full  account  of  the 
inception  and  working  of  the  Kelmscott 
Press,  are  set  forth  in  a  history  of  the  Press 
by  Morris's  secretary,  Mr.  S.  C.  Cockerell, 
which  was  the  last  book  issued  from  it 
(1898). 

During  these  years  Morris  also  took  an 
active  part  in  various  movements  towards 
organising  guilds  of  designers  and  decora- 
tive workmen,  and  continued  to  write  and 
speak  on  behalf  of  the  principles  of  socialism 
with  no  loss  of  conviction  or  enthusiasm. 
He  also  formed,  with  special  relation  to  his 
work  as  a  printer,  a  collection  of  early 
printed  books,  and,  a  little  later,  another  of 
illuminated  manuscripts  of  the  twelfth  to 
the  fifteenth  centuries ;  both  of  these  were 
at  his  death  among  the  choicest  collections 
existing  in  private  ownership.  On  the  death 
of  Tennyson  in  1894  the  question  of  Morris's 
succession  to  the  laureateship  was  enter- 
tained by  the  government,  but  was  laid  aside 
on  an  expression  being  obtained  from  him  of 
his  own  disinclination  for  such  an  office. 
In  1895  his  health  began  to  give  way  under 
the  strain  of  a  crowded  and  exhausting  life. 
When  the  magnificent  Kelmscott  Chaucer 
was  finished  in  June  1896  he  had  sunk  into 
very  feeble  health,  and  he  died  at  Hammer- 
smith on  3  Oct.  in  that  year.  His  widow 
and  two  daughters  survived  him. 

Morris  was  a  singular  instance  of  a  man 
of  immense  industry  and  force  of  character, 
whose  whole  life,  through  a  long  period  of 
manifold  activity  and  multiform  production, 
was  guided  by  a  very  few  simple  ideas.  His 
rapid  movements  from  one  form  of  produc- 
tive energy  to  another  often  gave  occasion  for 
perplexity  to  his  friends  as  well  as  for  satire 
from  his  opponents.  But  in  fact  all  these 
varying  energies  were  directed  towards  a 
single  object,  the  re-integration  of  human 
life ;  and  he  practised  so  many  arts  because 
to  him  art  was  a  single  thing.  Just  so  his 
work,  in  whatever  field,  while  it  expressed 
his  own  ideas  with  complete  sincerity,  bears 
an  aspect  of  mediaevalism,  because  it  was 
all  produced  in  relation  to  a  single  doctrine: 
that  civilisation  had  ever  since  the  break-up 
of  the  middle  ages  been,  upon  the  whole,  on 
a  wrong  course,  and  that  in  the  specific  arts 
as  well  as  in  the  general  conduct  of  life  it 
was  necessary  to  go  back  to  the  middle  ages, 
not  with  the  view  of  remaining  at  the  point 
which  had  been  then  reached,  but  of  start- 
ing afresh  from  that  point  and  tracing  out 
the  path  that  had  been  missed.  So  long  as 
any  human  industry  existed  which  had  once 


been  exercised  as  an  art  in  the  full  sense, 
and  had  now  become  mechanical  or  com- 
mercial, so  long  Morris  would  instinctively 
have  passed  from  one  to  another,  tracing 
back  each  to  its  source,  and  attempting  to 
reconstitute  each  as  a  real  art  so  far  as  the 
conditions  of  the  modern  world  permitted. 
When  he  became  a  socialist,  it  was  because 
he  had  realised  that  these  existing  conditions 
were  stronger  than  any  individual  genius  or 
any  private  co-operation,  and  that  towards  a 
new  birth  of  art  a  new  kind  of  life  was 
necessary.  To  gain  the  whole  he  was  will- 
ing for  a  time  to  give  up  the  parts.  When 
convinced  by  experience  that  the  whole  was 
for  his  own  generation  unattainable,  he  re- 
sumed his  work  on  specific  arts,  to  use  his 
own  words,  '  because  he  could  not  help  it, 
and  would  be  miserable  if  he  were  not  doing 
it.' 

The  fame  of  Morris  during  his  life  was 
probably  somewhat  obscured  by  the  variety 
of  his  accomplishments.  In  all  his  work 
after  he  reached  mature  life  there  is  a 
marked  absence  of  extravagance,  of  display, 
of  superficial  cleverness  or  effectiveness,  and 
an  equally  marked  sense  of  composition  and 
subordination.  Thus  his  poetry  is  singularly 
devoid  of  striking  lines  or  phrases,  and  his 
wall-papers  and  chintzes  only  reveal  their 
full  excellence  by  the  lastingness  of  the  satis- 
faction they  give.  His  genius  as  a  pattern- 
designer  is  allowed  by  all  qualified  judges  to 
have  been  unequalled.  This,  if  anything, 
he  himself  regarded  as  his  specific  profes- 
sion ;  it  was  under  the  designation  of  '  de- 
signer '  that  he  enrolled  himself  in  the 
socialist  ranks  and  claimed  a  position  as  one 
of  the  working  class.  And  it  is  the  quality 
of  design  which,  together  with  a  certain  fluent 
ease,  distinguishes  his  work  in  literature  as 
well  as  in  industrial  art.  It  is  yet  too  early  to 
forecast  what  permanent  place  he  may  hold 
among  English  poets.  '  The  Defence  of  Guene- 
vere'  had  a  deep  influence  on  a  very  limited 
audience.  W7ith  '  Jason '  and  the  '  Earthly 
Paradise'  he  attained  a  wide  popularity: 
and  these  poems,  appearing  as  they  did  at  a 
time  when  the  poetic  art  in  England  seemed 
narrowing  into  mere  labour  on  a  thrice- 
ploughed  field,  not  only  gave  a  new  scope, 
range,  and  flexibility  to  English  rhymed 
verse,  but  recovered  for  narrative  poetry  a 
place  among  the  foremost  kinds  of  the  art. 
A  certain  diffuseness  of  style  may  seem  to  be 
against  their  permanent  life,  so  far  as  it  is 
not  compensated  by  a  uniform  wholesome- 
ness  and  sweetness  which  indeed  marks  all 
Morris's  work.  In  '  Sigurd  the  Volsung ' 
Morris  appears  to  have  aimed  higher  than  in 
his  other  poems,  but  not  to  have  reached  his 


Morrison 


203 


Morrison 


aim  with  the  same  certainty ;  and  his  own 
return  afterwards  from  epic  to  romance  may 
indicate  that  the  latter  was  the  ground  on 
which  he  was  most  at  home.  The  prose 
romances  of  his  later  years  have  so  far  proved 
less  popular  in  themselves  than  in  the  dilu- 
tions they  have  suggested  to  other  writers. 
Here  as  elsewhere  Morris's  great  effect  was 
to  stimulate  the  artistic  sense  and  initiate 
movements.  So  likewise  it  was  with  his 
political  and  social  work.  Much  of  it  was 
not  practical  in  the  ordinary  sense ;  but  it 
was  based  on  principles  and  directed  towards 
ideals  which  have  had  a  wide  and  profound 
influence  over  thought  and  practice. 

In  person  Morris  was  rather  below  the 
middle  height,  deep-chested  and  powerfully 
made,  with  a  head  of  singular  beauty.  The 
portrait  by  Watts  has  been  already  men- 
tioned. An  '  Adoration  of  the  Kings,' 
painted  by  Burne-Jones  in  1861,  and  now 
belonging'  to  Mr.  G.  F.  Bodley,  A.R.A., 
contains  an  excellent  portrait  of  him  as  a 
young  man  (the  kneeling  king  in  the  centre 
of  the  composition)  ;  and  there  is  another 
head  of  him,  also  a  very  good  likeness;  in  the 
altar-piece  of  Llandaff  Cathedral,  painted  by 
Rossetti  about  the  same  time. 

[Life  of  William  Morris,  by  J.  W.  Mackail, 
1809;  William  Morris,  his  Art,  his  Writings, 
and  his  Public  Life,  by  Aymer  Vallance,  1897  ; 
A  Description  of  the  Kelmscott  Press,  &c.,  by 
S.  C.  Cockerel!,  1898;  The  Books  of  William 
Morris,  by  H.  Buxton  Forman,  C.B.,  1897 ; 
private  information.]  J.  W.  M. 

MORRISON,  ALFRED  (1821-1897), 
collector  of  works  of  art  and  autographs, 
second  son  of  James  Morrison  (1790-1857) 
[q.  v.],  founder  of  the  firm  of  Morrison,  Dillon, 
&  Co.,  Fore  Street, London,  was  born  in  1821, 
and  received  from  his  father  a  large  fortune. 
He  was  high  sheriff'  for  Wiltshire  in  1857. 
He  was  a  devoted  and  discriminating  collec- 
tor. His  houses  at  Fonthill  and  Carlton 
House  Terrace,  London,  were  full  of  rich 
Persian  carpets,  fine  examples  of  Chinese 
porcelain,  Greek  gems  and  gold  work,  and 
miniatures,  but  he  specially  interested  him- 
self to  seek  out  artistic  craftsmen  in  all 
countries,  and  employed  them  for  years  in 
the  slow  and  careful  production  of  master- 
pieces of  cameo-cutting,  inlaying  of  metals, 
and  enamelled  glass.  In  this  manner  he 
became  the  possessor,  and,  in  a  way,  the 
originator,  of  many  remarkable  specimens, 
which  he  was  proud  to  believe  equalled  any- 
thing produced  during  the  most  famous 
periods  of  artistic  excellence.  Between  1860 
and  1878  he  formed  an  extensive  collection 
of  engravings,  of  which  a  part  was  described 
in  a  printed '  Annotated  Catalogue  and  Index 


to  Portraits  by  M.  Holloway '  (1868,  large 
8vo).  His  collection  of  pictures  was  small 
but  choice,  and  included  the  finest  Clouet 
out  of  France  and  the  best  Goya  outside  Spain. 

The  chief  occupation  of  the  last  thirty 
years  of  his  life  was  the  accumulation  of  an 
extraordinary  collection  of  autographs  and 
letters,  perhaps  never  rivalled  by  any  private 
person,  no  less  remarkable  for  its  extent  than 
for  its  completeness  and  historical  and 
literary  interest.  It  contains  every  kind  of 
epistolary  document  dealing  with  politics, 
administration,  art,  science,  and  literature, 
ranging  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  nineteenth 
centuries,  and  especially  relating  to  the  pub- 
lic and  private  life  of  monarchs,  statesmen, 
and  other  persons  of  mark  of  all  European 
countries,  particularly  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Italy.  Many  of  the  manuscripts  are  of 
great  importance.  The  correspondence  be- 
tween Nelson  and  Lady  Hamilton  was  for 
the  first  time  fully  printed  in  his  catalogue. 
The  papers  of  Sir  Richard  Bulstrode,  who 
died  in  1711  at  the  age  of  101,  contain  his 
newsletters,  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
companion  to,  and  a  continuation  of,  Pepys's 
'  Diary.'  Morrison  printed  for  private  distri- 
bution two  series  of  handsome  volumes  de- 
scribing the  collection.  The  first  series,  in 
large  4to,  with  full  descriptions  of  the  docu- 
ments and  many  facsimiles,  was  the  subject 
of  an  elaborate  review  by  M.  Leopold  Delisle 
( Journal des  Savants,  Aout-Septembre  1893). 
The  second  series  is  in  a  more  handy  form, 
without  facsimiles  but  with  a  more  ample 
reproduction  of  the  text  of  the  documents. 

Morrison  died  at  Fonthill,  Wiltshire,  on 
22  Dec.  1897,  at  the  age  of  seventy-six.  He 
married,  in  I860,  Mabel,  daughter  of  the  Rev. 
R.  S.  C.  Chermside,  rector  of  Wilton,  Wilt- 
shire. His  wife  survived  him  with  two 
sons — Hugh  (b.  1868),  and  James  Archibald, 
elected  M.P.  for  the  Wilton  division  of 
Wiltshire  in  October  1900 — and  two  daugh- 
ters. He  was  a  man  of  fastidious  taste,  of 
retiring  disposition,  and  of  wide  information 
on  the  subjects  in  which  he  was  interested. 

The   catalogues   of  his   autographs   are : 

1.  'Catalogue  of  the   Collection    of  Auto- 
graph  Letters    and    Historical  Documents 
formed  between  1865  and   1882,  compiled 
and  annotated  under  the  direction  of  A.  W. 
Thibaudeau  '  [London],  printed  for  private 
circulation,  1883-92,  6  vols.  large  4to  (fac- 
similes, the  name  of  Thibaudean  appears  on 
the  titles  of  vols.  i-iii. ;  only  200  copies). 

2.  Second     series,     1882-93     [London], 
1893-6,  A  to  D,  3  vols.  large  8vo.      3.  'The 
Hamilton   and   Nelson  Papers,  1756-1815' 
[London],    1893-4,     2     vols.    large    8vo. 
4.     '  The    Blessington    Papers  '    [London], 


Morton 


204 


Moulton 


1896,  large  8vo.    5. '  The  Rulstrode  Papers,' 
vol.  i.,  1667-76  [London,  1897],  large  8vo. 

[Times.  27  Dec.  1897,  p.  7  ;  Iturke's  Landed 
Gentry,  1898,  i.  1068;  Annual  Register,  1897, 
p.  2<»4 ;  Murray's  Humlbook  for  Wilts  and 
Dorset,  1899,  pp.  410-11.]  H.  It.  T. 

MORTON,     GEORGE     HIGHFIELD 

i  l-i1'-  1900),  geologist,  was  the  son  of  George 
Morton,  a  brewer,  by  his  wife  Elizabeth 
Bartenshaw,  both  of  Liverpool.  He  was 
born  in  that  city  on  9  July  1826,  went  to 
school  there,  and  when  about  sixteen  years 
old  became  interested  in  geology.  Going 
into  business  as  a  house  decorator,  he  devoted 
every  spare  minute  to  his  favourite  study, 
exploring  the  country  round  Liverpool,  and  j 
pushing  his  researches  into  North  Wales  and  j 
Shropshire.  He  formed  a  large  and  valuable 
collection  of  fossils,  of  which  those  from  the 
Trias  downwards  have  been  acquired  by  the 
British  Museum  of  Natural  History,  and 
the  remainder  by  the  Liverpool  University 
College.  Morton  became  F.G.S.  in  1858, 
and  was  awarded  the  Lyell  medal  of  that 
society  in  1892.  He  was  a  member  of 
various  local  societies,  notably  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society  of  Liverpool,  of  which  he 
was  founder  in  1859,  honorary  secretary  for 
twenty-six  years,  and  twice  president.  Also 
for  several  years  after  1864  he  was  lecturer 
on  geology  at  Queen's  College,  Liverpool. 
He  died  on  30  March  1900.  His  wife, 
whoso  maiden  name  was  Sarah  N.  Ascroft, 
died  about  two  years  before  him,  but  one 
son  and  four  daughters  survived.  He  wrote, 
beginning  in  1856,  numerous  papers  on  the 
district  already  mentioned,  which  have  ap- 
peared in  the  publications  of  various  societies, 
and,  though  in  failing  health,  read  his  last 
one  about  a  fortnight  before  his  death ;  but 
his  chief  work  is  the  volume  entitled  '  Geo- 
logy of  the  Country  round  Liverpool,'  of 
which  the  first  edition  was  published  in 
1863,  a  second,  revised  and  enlarged,  in  1891 , 
with  an  appendix  in  1897.  As  a  geologist 
Morton  was  characterised  by  accuracy, 
thoroughness,  orderliness,  and  caution,  fie 
cared  more  for  the  advancement  of  science 
than  for  his  own  reputation,  and  was  a  worthy 
representative  of  a  class — the  painstaking 
and  indefatigable  local  geologists— to  whom 
the  science  is  so  much  indebted. 

[Obituary  notice,  Geological  Mag.  1900,  p. 
288;  Royal  Soc.  Cut.  of  Papers ;  private  infor- 
mation, and  personal  knowledge.]  T.  G.  B. 

MOULTON,  WILLIAM  FIDDIAN 
(1835-1898),  biblical  scholar,  born  at  Leek, 
Staffordshire,  on  14  March  1835,  was  the 
second  son  of  James  Egan  Moulton,  a  Wes- 


leyan  minister,  who  died  in  1866,  and 
Catherine,  daughter  of  William  Fiddian,  a 
well-known  Birmingham  brass-founder  of 
Huguenot  descent.  His  grandfather  had 
been,  like  his  father,  a  methodist  preacher ; 
and  among  his  ancestors  was  John  Bakewell, 
Wesley's  friend.  William  was  educated  at 
Woodhouse  Grove  school,  near  Leeds,  and 
Wesley  College,  Sheffield,  of  which  he  after- 
wards became  a  master.  After  having  taught 
for  a  year  in  a  private  school  at  Devonport, 
he  in  1854  went  as  an  assistant  master  to 
Queen's  College,  Taunton,  where  he  remained 
for  four  years.  While  at  Taunton  he  gra- 
duated B.A.  with  mathematical  honours  at 
London  University  in  1854,  and  M.A.  two 
years  later,  when  he  was  awarded  the  gold 
medal  for  mathematics  and  natural  philo- 
sophy. Subsequently  he  also  won  the  uni- 
versity prizes  for  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Chris- 
tian evidences.  In  1858  he  entered  the 
AVesleyan  ministry,  and  was  appointed  a 
classical  tutor  at  Wesley  College,  Richmond, 
Surrey.  He  held  that  position  for  sixteen 
years,  during  which  he  gave  much  of  his 
time  to  biblical  studies.  On  the  suggestion 
of  a  correspondent,  Dr.  Ellicott,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol,  Moulton 
published  in  1870  a  translation  of  Winer's 
'  Grammar  of  New  Testament  Greek,'  accom- 
panied with  valuable  notes,  in  which  several 
errors  were  corrected  and  not  a  little  original 
scholarship  was  shown.  A  new  edition 
appeared  in  1876,  and  a  complete  recast  of 
the  whole  work  had  been  begun  under  his 
supervision  at  the  time  of  Moulton's  death. 
In  the  year  in  which  the  first  edition  of 
Winer  was  issued,  Moulton  was  invited  to 
become  one  of  the  committee  of  revisers  of 
the  Jsew  Testament.  He  was  only  thirty- 
five,  by  far  the  youngest  of  the  company. 
He  acted  throughout  with  the  Cambridge 
group,  who  preferred  linguistic  accuracy  to 
literary  picturesqueness.  Yet  he  was  espe- 
cially responsible  for  the  renderings  from 
older  English  versions  which  were  inserted 
from  collations  of  black-letter  Bibles  made 
by  his  wife.  He  afterwards  acted  as  secre- 
tary to  the  Cambridge  committee  for  the 
revision  of  the  Apocrypha. 

Meanwhile  Moulton  bad  in  1872  been  chosen 
at  an  unprecedentedly  early  age  a  member  of 
the  Legal  Hundred  of  the  Wesleyan  con- 
nexion. Two  years  later,  in  1874,  he  was 
appointed  the  first  head-master  of  the  newly 
founded  Leys  school,  Cambridge,  where  he 
entered  upon  his  duties  in  February  1875, 
and  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  In 
1874  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from 
Edinburgh,  and  in  1877  was  made  an  hono- 
rary M.A.  of  Cambridge.  While  devoting 


Moulton 


205 


Mowbray 


the  greater  part  of  his  time  to  his  duties  as 
head  of  a  public  school  and  taking  great  in- 
terest in  the  work  of  teaching,  Moulton  still 
continued  his  literary  labours.  In  1878  he 
published  a  'History  of  the  English  Bible,' 
a  popular  exposition  of  the  researches  under- 
taken in  connection  with  his  labours  as  a  re- 
viser. It  had  originally  been  printed  in  the 
form  of  articles  in  Cassell's  '  Bible  Educa- 
tor ; '  a  second  edition  appeared  in  1882, 
and  was  followed  by  others.  He  contri- 
buted to  Bishop  Ellicott's  '  Commentaries ' 
the  volume  on  Hebrews  (1879),  and,  in 
conjunction  with  William  Milligan  [q.  v. 
Suppl.],  that  on  St.  John's  Gospel  (1880)  in 
Schaff's  International  Series.  In  1879  he 
wrote  a  preface  to  Rush's  '  Synthetic  Latin 
Delectus,'  in  1889  an  introduction  to  the 
life  of  the  Rev.  B.  Hellier,  and  in  1893  a 
preface  to  Pocock's  '  Methodist  New  Testa- 
ment Commentary.'  Moulton  and  Geden's 
'  Concordance  to  the  Greek  Testament ' 
(1897)  was  revised  by  him,  though  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  most  of  the  actual  work 
to  Professor  Geden  and  his  own  son,  the 
Rev.  James  Hope  Moulton.  At  the  time 
of  his  death  he  had  very  nearly  completed 
the  marginal  references  to  the  revised  ver- 
sion of  the  New  Testament.  In  1890  he 
was  president  of  the  Wesleyan  conference, 
and  preached  the  memorial  sermon  on  John 
Wesley,  which  was  printed.  In  addition 
to  his  educational  and  literary  work,  he  also 
undertook  in  his  later  years  the  duties  of  a 
justice  of  the  peace  at  Cambridge. 

Moulton  died  suddenly  while  walking 
near  the  Leys  school  on  5  Feb.  1898.  He 
was  held  in  high  estimation  for  his  personal 
character,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of 
eminent  Anglican  divines,  and  others  outside 
his  own  communion.  As  a  Greek  scholar 
he  was  among  the  foremost  of  his  time, 
while  he  was  also  a  learned  hebraist,  an 
able  mathematician,  and  a  devoted  student 
of  English  literature.  He  gained  the  affec- 
tion as  well  as  the  respect  of  his  pupils,  and 
under  him  the  Leys  school  early  attained  an 
excellent  standing  among  public  schools.  He 
was  also  an  admirable  preacher.  Moulton 
married  a  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Hope,  and  left  two  sons,  the  Rev.  James 
Hope  Moulton,  sometime  fellow  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  and  the  Rev.  William 
Fiddian  Moulton,  formerly  fellow  of  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge. 

[William  F.  Moulton :  a  Memoir  by  his  son, 
W.  Fiddian  Moulton,  1899;  Methodist  Times, 
10  Feb.  1898  (by  Mr.  P.  W.  Bunting,  the  bishop 
of  Durham,  Judge  Waddy,  and  others) ;  Method- 
ist Recorder,  17  Feb.  1898  (with  portrait),  by 
liev.  J.  H.  Moulton;  British  Weekly,  10  Feb. 


j  (by  the  Rev.  Professor  G.  Findlay  and  the  Rev. 

i  T.  G.  Selby);  Leys  Fortnightly  (special  num- 
ber) ;  Sunday  Magazine,  April  1898  (illustrated) ; 
West  Cambs.  Free  Churchman,  March  1898 ; 
Times,  7  Feb.  1898;  Men  of  the  Time,  14th 
edit.]  G.  LEG.  N. 

MOWBRAY  (formerly  CORNISH),  SIE 
JOHN  ROBERT,  first  baronet  (1815-1899), 
'  father  of  the  House  of  Commons,'  born  at 
Exeter  on  3  June  1815,  was  the  only  son  of 
Robert  Stribling  Cornish  of  that  city,  and 
his  wife  Marianne,  daughter  of  John  Pown- 
ing  of  Hill's  Court,  near  Exeter.  Admitted 
at  Westminster  School  on  16  Sept.  1829,  he 
matriculated  from  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
i  on  23  May  1833,  was  elected  student  in 
i  1835,  was  president  of  the  L'nion,  and 
!  graduated  B.A.  in  1837  with  a  second  class 
j  in  lit.  hum.,  and  M.A.  in  1839.  In  1841  he 
was  called  to  the  bar  from  the  Inner  Temple 
and  went  the  western  circuit.  On  19  Aug. 
i  1847  he  married  Elizabeth  Gray,  only  sur- 
viving child  of  George  Isaac  Mowbray  of 
j  Bishopwearmouth,  Durham,  and  Mortimer, 
|  Berkshire,  having  previously  on  26  July 
assumed  by  royal  license  the  surname  Mow- 
bray.  He  now  abandoned  law  for  politics, 
and  on  25  June  1853  was  elected  in  the 
conservative  interest  member  of  parliament 
for  Durham  city,  which  he  represented  until 
the  general  election  of  1868  ;  he  then  suc- 
ceeded Sir  William  Heathcote  as  junior 
member  for  Oxford  University,  for  which  he 
sat  until  his  death.  In  1858  and  again  in 
1866  Lord  Derby  appointed  Mowbray  judge- 
advocate-general  ;  and  from  1866  to  1868 
and  from  1871  to  1892  he  was  church  estates 
commissioner.  On  30  Nov.  1868  he  was 
created  hon.  D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  in  1875  he 
was  elected  hon.  fellow  of  Hertford  College, 
and  in  1877  hon.  student  of  Christ  Church. 
On  3  May  1880  he  was  created  a  baronet 
and  sworn  of  the  privy  council.  From  1874 
to  his  death  Mowbray  was  chairman  of  the 
House  of  Commons'  committee  of  selection 
and  committee  on  standing  orders,  and  on 
the  death  of  Charles  Pelham  Villiers  [q.  v.] 
in  1898  he  became  'father  of  the  house.' 
He  was  held  in  highest  respect  by  both 
parties,  but  rarely  spoke  except  on  such 
ceremonial  occasions  as  when  moving  the 
re-election  of  Mr.  Speaker  Peel  in  January 
1886,  the  election  of  Sir  Matthew  White 
(now  Viscount)  Ridley  as  speaker  in  April 
1895,  in  which  he  was  unsuccessful,  and  the 
re-election  of  Mr.  Speaker  Gully  after  the 
general  election  in  the  following  August. 
His  '  Seventy  Years  at  Westminster,'  parts 
of  which  appeared  in '  Blackwood's  Magazine,' 
was  posthumously  published  (London,  1900, 
8vo),  and  contains  some  instructive  and 


Muirhead 


206 


Muirhead 


entertaining  material  for  the  parliamentary 
history  of  the  period.  He  died  at  his  house 
in  Onslow  Gardens  on  22  April  1899,  and 
was  buried  at  Strathfield  Mortimer  on  the 
27th.  A  portrait,  painted  bv  Mr.  Sargent 
in  1893,  is  reproduced  as  frontispiece  to 
Mowbray's  '  Seventy  Years  at  Westminster.' 
A  bronze  bust  of  Mowbray  by  Mr.  Conrad 
Dressier  was  on  22  April  1901  unveiled  by 
Mr.  Speaker  Gully  in  committee-room  No.  14 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  By  his  wife, 
who  predeceased  him  on  16  Feb.  1899,  aged  76, 
he  left  issue  three  sons  and  two  daughters ; 
the  eldest  son,  Robert  Gray  Cornish  Mow- 
bray,  who  succeeded  as  second  baronet,  was 
sometime  fellow  of  All  Souls'  and  M.P.  for 
the  Prestwich  division  of  Lancashire  from 
1886  to  1895,  and  since  1900  M.P.  for  Brix- 
ton. 

[Mowbray's  Seventy  Years  at  Westminster, 
1900 ;  Barker  and  Stenning's  Westm.  Seh.  Reg. ; 
Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886,  and  Men  at 
the  Bar;  Burke's  Peerage,  1900;  Official  Ret. 
Memb.  of  Parl. ;  "Hansard's  Parl.  Debates ; 
Times,  18  Feb.  and  24,  26,  and  28  April  1899.] 

A.  F.  P. 

MUIRHEAD,  GEORGE  (1715-1773), 
professor  at  Glasgow  University,  born  on 
24  June  1715,  was  second  son  of  John  Muir- 
head of  Teggetsheugh,  Stirlingshire,  a  patri- 
mony held  for  generations  by  this  branch  of 
the  Muirheads  of  Lauchop.  Matriculating 
at  Glasgow  in  1728,  and  graduating  M.A. 
Edinburgh  in  1742,  he  was  in  1746  ordained 
minister  of  Mingaff,  Wigtonshire,  and  within 
a  year  was  promoted  to  the  parish  of  Dysart 
in  Fife.  In  December  1762  he  resigned  this 
charge,  on  being  elected  professor  of  oriental 
languages  in  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and 
on  2  Dec.  1754  he  was  promoted  to  the  chair 
of  humanity,  which  he  held  with  distinction 
till  his  death  on  31  Aug.  1773.  He  was 
*  an  enthusiastic  and  accomplished  classical 
scholar,'  and  with  James  Moor  [q.  v.],  profes- 
sor of  Greek,  superintended  the  noble  edition 
of  Homer  in  4  vols.  fol.,  printed  by  Robert 
and  Andrew  Foulis  of  Glasgow  (the  '  Iliad ' 
in  1756,  the '  Odyssey,' with  the '  Hymns '  and 
'  Fragments,'in  1758).  He  also  supervised  the 
equally  beautiful  edition  of  Virgil,  printed 
somewhat  later  under  the  same  auspices.  In 
memory  of  Muirhead  his  surviving  brothers 
(John  of  Teggetsheugh,  and  Patrick,  1718- 
1807,  who  succeeded  George  as  minister  of 
Dysart)  founded  in  1776,  with  a  gift  of  100/., 
the  '  Muirhead  Prizes,'  which  are  given  an- 
nually in  the  humanity  class  of  Glasgow 
College. 

[Nisbet's  Heraldry;  Account  of  the  Family  of 
the  Muirheads  of  Lachop,  a  very  rare  work, 
n.  d.,  but,  from  internal  evidence,  about  1750; 


Memorials  of  the  Rev.  Robert  Morehead,  D.D. 
(with  supplementary  note  on  the  Family  of  Muir- 
head or  Morehead  of  Lauchop),  by  Charles  More- 
head;  Deeds  instituting  Bursaries,  Scholarships, 
j  and  other  Foundations  in  the  College  and  Uni- 
i  versity  of  Glasgow,  printed  for  the  Maitland 
Club,  1850;  the  Snell  Exhibitions,  by  W.  Innes 
Addison ;  private  information.]         B.  M.  S. 

MUIRHEAD,  JAMES  PATRICK 
(1813-1898),  biographer  of  James  Watt  the 
engineer,  born  26  July  1818  at  The  Grove, 
Hamilton,  Lanarkshire,  was  son  of  Lockhart 
Muirhead,  LL.D.  George  Muirhead  [q.  v. 
Suppl.l  was  his  great-uncle.  His  grandfather, 
Patrick  Muirhead,  minister  of  Dysart,  was 
principal  librarian,  and  from  1808  to  1829 
regius  professor 'of  natural  history,  in  Glas- 
gow University ;  he  married,  in  1804,  his 
cousin,  Anne  Campbell  (of  the  Ballochlaven 
i  family),  whose  mother  (born  Muirhead)  was 
first  cousin  of  James  Watt,  and  left  a  valu- 
able manuscript  record  of  the  great  engineer's 
youth. 

James  Patrick  was  educated  first  at  Glas- 
gow College,  where  between  1826  and  1832 
his  name  appears  frequently  in  the  prize  lists 
(especially  for  Latin  verse).  Gaining  on 
3  Feb.  1832  a  Snell  exhibition  at  Balliol  Col- 
j  lege,  Oxford, he  matriculated  there  on  6  April 
|  1832 ;  but  spending  his  long  vacations  in  Al- 
pine expeditions,  and  in  the  study  of  German 
rather  than  in  working  for  honours,  he  only 
i  took  a  third  class  in  lit.  hum.  on  graduating 
I  B.A.  in  1835  (M.A.  1838).  Admitted  advo- 
!  cate  at  Edinburgh  in  1838,  he  published  dur- 
|  ing  the  same  year  '  Disputatio  Juridica  ad 
Lib.  XII.  Tit.  ii.  Digest  =  de  Jurejurando 
sive  voluntario  sive  necessario  sive  Judiciali,' 
and  for  eight  years  he  practised  law  in  Edin- 
burgh. In  1844  he  married  Katharine  Eliza- 
beth, second  daughter  of  Matthew  Robinson 
Boulton  of  Tew  Park  and  Soho.  His  wife 
fully  shared  his  classical  and  literary  tastes, 
but  she  found  the  climate  of  Edinburgh  so 
uncongenial  that  in  1846  Muirhead  gave  up 
a  promising  career  at  the  Scottish  bar,  and 
eventually  (1847)  settled  at  Haseley  Court, 
Oxfordshire,  a  property  of  his  wife's  family. 
While  still  at  Oxford  he  had  become  ac- 
quainted with  his  kinsman,  the  great  engi- 
neer's son,  James  Watt  (the  younger)  of 
Aston  Hall,  Birmingham.  Disabled  by  grow- 
ing infirmities  from  writing  a  long-contem- 
plated memoir  of  his  father,  the  younger 
Watt  decided  to  commit  the  task  to  Muir- 
head. Thenceforth  Muirhead  was  mainly 
occupied  on  this  labour.  The  firstfruits  of 
this  employment  was  the  issue  in  1839  of 
Muirhead's  translation  (with  original  notes 
and  appendix)  of  Arago's  '  Eloge  Historique 
de  James  Watt,'  as  read  before  the  Acad6mie 


Muirhead 


207 


Mulhall 


des  Sciences,  8  Dec.  1834.  In  the  controversy  j 
respecting  the  priority  of  Watt  or  of  Henry  | 
Cavendish  [q.  v.]  in  the  discovery  of  the 
composition  of  water,  Muirhead  took  infi- 
nite pains  to  sift  every  particle  of  evidence. 
Not  satisfied  with  free  access  to  the  Watt  I 
and  Boulton  papers,  and  to  such  living  au-  I 
thorities  as  Brewster,  Davy,  Jeffrey,  and  ! 
Brougham,  he  visited  Paris  in  1842  to  confer  ] 
with  Arago,  Berzelius,  and  other  savants, 
and  in  1846  published  a  clear  vindication  of 
Watt's  rights,  with  introduction,  remarks, 
and  appendix,  in  '  The  Correspondence  of 
the  late  James  Wratt  on  his  Discovery  of  i 
the  Theory  of  the  Composition  of  Water.'  , 
This  was  followed  in  1854  by  three  quarto 
volumes,  entitled  '  The  Mechanical  Inven-  j 
tions  of  James  Watt,'  a  work  of  great  labour  , 
which  offers  a  rich  mine  to  the  scientific  stu-  ! 
dent.  The  third  volume,  illustrated  by  thirty- 
four  admirable  engravings  of  machinery  by  j 
Lowry,  deals  with  the  '  specifications  of 
patents ; '  the  second  with  '  extracts  from 
correspondence.'  But  the  '  introductory  me- 
moir' (vol.  i.)  was  of  more  general  interest, 
and  became  the  nucleus  of  the  fuller  '  Life 
of  James  WTatt '  which  Muirhead  published 
in  1858  (2nd  edit.  1859).  This  work,  scho- 
larly in  style  and  sympathetic  in  tone,  avoids 
with  careful  accuracy  the  errors  of  unfounded 
claim,  no  less  than  of  unfounded  detraction. 
Muirhead,  though  devoted  to  books,  was 
a  keen  angler  and  a  good  shot.  In  1857  he 
edited  the  '  Winged  Words  on  Chantrey's 
Woodcocks,'  a  collection  of  epigrams  by 
various  writers,  inspired  by  Chantrey's  feat 
in  killing  at  one  shot  and  then  immortalising 
in  sculpture  two  woodcocks  flushed  at  Hoik- 
ham.  To  this  volume  Muirhead  contributed 
an  introduction  and  original  verses.  Subse- 
quently Muirhead  and  his  wife  devoted  much 
time  to  the  education  of  their  children.  In 
1875  another  book  saw  the  light, '  The  Vaux 
de  Vire  of  Maistre  Jean  le  Houx,  Advocate, 
of  Vire.  Edited  and  translated  into  Eng- 
lish Verse,  with  an  Introduction.'  There 
Muirhead  investigated  and  rejected  the 
claims  of  Olivier  Basselin,  the  miller,  in 
favour  of  Jean  le  Houx.  It  won  him  a 
delightful  letter  from  the  aged  poet  Long- 
fellow. Between  August  1882  and  March 
1891  Muirhead  contributed  to  'Blackwood's 
Magazine '  nine  original  poems  and  twenty 
graceful  translations  from  English  and  old 
French  poems  into  Latin  or  English  verse — 
compositions  which,  owing  to  his  signature, 
'  J.  P.  M.,'  were  occasionally  attributed  in 
error  to  Professor  J.  P.  Mahaffy.  Until  near 
the  end  of  his  life  he  amused  himself  with 
effusions  of  this  kind,  some  of  which  he 
printed  privately,  as  'Folia  Caduca,'  'Iter 


Johannis  Gilpini,  auctore  R.  Scott,  with 
preface  by  J.  P.  M.,'  '  Domina  de  Shalott.' 
Copies  of  the  last — a  free  translation  into 
rhyming  Latin  of  Tennyson's  verses — arrived 
from  the  binder  a  few  hours  after  the  trans- 
lator had  breathed  his  last,  in  his  eighty- 
sixth  year,  on  15  Oct.  1898. 

Mrs.  Muirhead  predeceased  her  husband 
in  1890.  Their  six  children  survive,  the 
eldest  son  being  Lionel  Boulton  Campbell 
Lockhart  Muirhead,  now  residing  at  Haseley 
Court.  The  third  son  is  Colonel  Herbert 
Hugh  Muirhead,  R.E. 

[Personal  knowledge  ;  private  information  ; 
Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886;  the  Snell 
Exhibitions  by  W.  Innes  Addison ;  Muirhead's 
•works;  article  on  James  Watt  in  Encyclop. 
Brit,  by  Swing.]  B.  M.  S. 

MOUNT-TEMPLE,  BAKO*.  [See  Cow- 
PKR,  WILLIAM  FBASTCIS,  1811-1888.] 

MULHALL,     MICHAEL     GEORGE 

(1836-1900),  statistical  compiler,  third  son 
of  Thomas  Mulhall  of  St.  Stephen's  Green, 
Dublin,  was  born  at  100  Stephen's  Green  on 
29  Sept.  1836.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Irish  College,  Rome,  went  out  to  South 
America,  and  founded  in  1861  the  Buenos 
Ayres  '  Standard,'  said  to  be  the  first  daily 
paper  in  English  to  be  printed  in  that  con- 
tinent. As  a  journalistic  venture  it  was 
daring,  but  success  was  the  ultimate  re- 
ward, and  Mulhall  did  not  finally  abandon 
his  connection  with  the  enterprise  until  1894, 
making  frequent  journeys  between  Buenos 
Ayres  and  the  British  Isles.  In  1869  Mul- 
hall issued  the  first  English  book  printed  in 
Argentina,  a  '  Handbook  of  the  River  Plate,' 
which  went  through  six  editions.  In  1873 
he  published  in  London  '  Rio  Grande  do  Sul 
and  itsGermanColonies,'  which  was  followed 
in  1878  by  '  The  English  in  South  America ' 
(Buenos  Ayres,  8vo).  For  some  years  pre- 
vious to  this  Mulhall,  who  had  a  large  Euro- 
pean correspondence,  had  been  collecting 
materials  with  a  view  to  a  survey  of  the 
whole  field  of  his  favourite  study,  statistics. 
In  1880  he  brought  out  his  '  Progress  of  the 
AVorld  in  Arts,  Agriculture,  Commerce, 
Manufactures,  Instruction,  Railways,  and 
Public  Wealth,  since  the  beginning  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,'  a  useful  supplement 
to  the  invaluable  record  of  George  Richard- 
son Porter  [q.  v.],  which  had  been  completed 
in  1851.  It  was  followed  up  in  1881  by 
'  The  Balance  Sheet  of  the  World,  1870-80,' 
and  in  1883  by  his  '  Dictionary  of  Statistics,' 
a  standard  work  of  reference  (revised  edi- 
tions, 1886,  1892,  1899).  Few  modern  com- 
pilations have  been  more  extensively  used 
or  abused.  Mulhall  has  been  charged  with 


Miiller 


208 


Miiller 


guess-work,  but  unfairly  ;  for  although'some 
of  his  data  are  far  from  being  as  trustworthy 
as  could  be  desired,  his  deductions  are  all 
carefully  worked  out,  and  the  whole  volume 
was  most  carefully  printed,  owing  to  the  in- 
defatigable zeal  of  his  proof-corrector, 
Marion  Mulhall  (born  Murphy),  whom  he 
had  married  at  Buenos  Ayres  in  1878,  and 
to  whom  he  dedicated  his  chief  work.  Mul- 
hall further  issued  a  '  History  of  Prices  since 
1850'  (1886),  '  Fifty  Years  of  National  Pro- 
gress' (1887),  'Industries  and  Wealth  of 
Nations'  (1890),  and  '  National  Progress  in 
the  Queen's  Reign  '  (1897).  In  1896,  at  the 
instance  of  the  Hon.  Horace  Plunkett,  he 
travelled  extensively  in  Western  Europe, 
collecting  material  for  the  recess  committee's 
report  upon  the  prospect  of  a  department  of 
agriculture  for  Ireland.  Mulhall,  who  was 
cameriere  segreto  of  the  pope  (who  sent  him 
his  blessing  in  articulo  mortis),  died  at 
Kelliney  Park,  Dublin,  on  13  Dec.  1900. 
He  was  buried  at  Glasnevin  cemetery,  be- 
side his  only  child  who  had  died  at  Buenos 
Ayres  in  1886.  He  is  survived  by  his  widow, 
the  writer  of  a  valuable  book  of  travel,  '  Be- 
tween the  Amazon  and  the  Andes  '  (1881), 
for  which  she  received  a  diploma  from  the 
Italian  government. 

[Times,  14  Dec.  1900;  Tablet,  22  Dec.  1900; 
Illustrated  London  News,  22  Dec.  1900  (por- 
trait); Allibone'o  Diet,  of  Engl.  Lit.  Suppl. ; 
Brit.  Mas.  Cat. ;  private  information.]  T.  S. 

MtJLLER,  FRIEDRICH  MAX  (1823- 
1900),  philologist.  [See  MAX  MULLER.] 

MtJLLER,  GEORGE  (1805-1898), 
preacher  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Krop- 
penstadt  near  Halberstadt  on  27  Sept.  1805, 
was  the  son  of  aPrussian  exciseman.  Though 
a  German  by  birth,  he  became  a  naturalised 
British  subject,  and  for  over  sixty  years  was 
identified  with  philanthropic  work  in  Eng- 
land. When  four  years  of  age  his  father 
received  an  appointment  as  collector  in  the 
excise  at  Heimersleben.  Wrhen  ten  years  of 
age  he  was  sent  to  Halberstadt  to  the 
cathedral  classical  school  to  be  prepared 
for  the  university.  His  mother  died  when 
he  was  fourteen,  and  a  year  later  he  left 
school  to  reside  with  his  father  at  Schoene- 
beck,  near  Magdeburg,  and  to  study  with  a 
tutor.  After  two  and  a  half  years  at  the 
gymnasium  of  Nordhausen  he  joined  the 
university  of  Halle.  Though  he  was  in- 
tended for  the  ministry,  Miiller  was  a  pro- 
fligate youth,  but  at  the  end  of  1825  a  change 
came  over  his  disposition,  and  he  was 
thenceforth  a  man  of  self-abnegation,  devot- 
ing himse  exclusively  to  religious  work. 

For  a  brief  period  Miiller  gave  instructions 


in  German  to  three  American  professors, 
Charles  Hodge  of  Princeton  being  .one  of 
them.  In  1826  he  resolved  to  dedicate  him- 
self to  missionary  work  either  in  the  East 
Indies  or  among  the  Jews  in  Poland.  In 
June  1828  he  was  offered  an  appointment 
by  the  London  Society  for  promoting  Chris- 
tianity among  the  Jews,  and  he  arrived  in 
London  in  March  1829  to  study  Hebrew 
and  Chaldee  and  prepare  for  missionary  ser- 
vice. But  in  1830,  finding  that  he  could 
not  accept  some  of  the  rules  of  the  society, 
he  left,  and  became  pastor  of  a  small  congre- 
gation at  Teignmouth,  at  a  salary  of  551.  a 
year.  In  the  same  year  he  married  Mary 
Groves,  sister  of  a  dentist  in  Exeter,  who 
had  resigned  his  calling  and  1,500/.  a  year 
to  devote  himself  to  mission  work  in  Persia. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  same  year  Miiller 
was  led  to  adopt  the  principle  with  which 
henceforth  his  name  was  associated,  that 
trust  in  God,  in  the  efficacy  of  sincere 
prayer,  is  sufficient  for  all  purposes  in  tem- 
poral as  well  as  in  spiritual  things.  He 
accordingly  abolished  pew-rents,  refused  to 
take  a  fixed  salary,  or  to  appeal  for  contribu- 
tions towards  his  support — simply  placing  a 
box  at  the  door  of  the  church  for  freewill 
offerings — and  he  resolved  never  to  incur 
debt  either  for  personal  expenses  or  in  re- 
ligious work,  and  never  to  lay  up  money  for 
the  future. 

After  about  two  years  in  Teignmouth 
Miiller  went  to  Bristol,  where  he  remained 
for  the  rest  of  his  life.  There  he  and  others 
carried  on  a  congregation,  schools,  a  Scrip- 
tural Knowledge  Institution,  and  other  or- 
ganisations, but  the  Avork  among  orphans 
was  that  by  which  he  was  chiefly  known. 
The  suggestion  and  the  pattern  of  the  Bris- 
tol orphanages  were  taken  from  the  orphan- 
ages which  Miiller  had  visited  in  early  life 
at  Halle ;  these  were  erected  in  1720  by  a 
philanthropist  named  Francke,  whose  bio- 
graphy greatly  influenced  Miiller.  Begin- 
ning with  the  care  of  a  few  orphan  children, 
Miiller's  work  at  Bristol  gradually  grew  to 
immense  proportions,  latterly  no  fewer  than 
two  thousand  orphan  children  being  fed, 
clothed,  educated,  cared  for,  and  trained  for 
useful  positions  in  five  enormous  houses 
which  were  erected  on  Ashley  Down.  These 
houses  cost  115,000^.,  all  of  which,  as  well 
as  the  money  needed  for  carrying  on  the 
work — 26,000/.  annually — was  voluntarily 
contributed,  mainly  as  the  result  of  the  wide 
circulation  of  Miiller's  autobiographical '  Nar- 
rative of  the  Lord's  Dealings  with  George 
Miiller '(London,  pt.  i.  1837,  pt.  ii.  1841; 
3rd  edit.  1845)  which  was  suggested  to  him 
by  John  Newton's  '  Life.'  This  book  con- 


Mummery 


209 


Mundella 


veyed  to  people  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
knowledge  of  Miiller's  work,  his  faith,  and 
his  experiences.  As  a  consequence,  gifts  of 
money  and  goods  flowed  in  without  direct 
appeal. 

In  1838  the  biography  of  the  great  evan- 
gelist, George  Whit-field,  helped  to  intensify 
Miiller's  religious  fervour,  and,  after  he  had 
passed  his  seventieth  year,  he  set  out  on 
a  world-wide  mission,  which,  with  brief 
intervals  at  home,  covered  seventeen  years. 
He  travelled  over  much  of  Britain  and  of 
the  continent  of  Europe,  made  several  jour- 
neys to  America,  and  visited  India,  Austra- 
lia, China,  and  other  parts  to  preach  the 
gospel. 

In  the  course  of  his  life  Miiller  received 
from  the  pious  and  charitable  no  less  than 
1,500,000/. ;  he  educated  and  sent  out  into 
the  world  no  fewer  than  123,000  pupils ;  he 
circulated  275,000  bibles  in  different  lan- 
guages, with  nearly  as  many  smaller  portions 
of  Scripture;  and  he  aided  missions  to  the 
extent  of  255,000/.  He  supported  189  mis- 
sionaries, and  he  employed  112  assistants. 
The  record  of  his  life  seems  to  associate  it- 
self more  closely  with  primitive  and  puritan 
periods  of  history  than  with  modern  times. 

Miiller  was  found  dead  in  his  room  on  the 
morning  of  10  March  1898. 

Miiller  was  twice  married.  His  first  wife 
died  in  1870.  In  1871  he  married  Miss 
Susannah  Grace  Sangar,  who  accompanied 
him  in  his  missionary  tours  ;  she  died  in 
1895.  From  1832  till  his  death  in  1866 
Henry  Craig  assisted  Miiller.  In  1872  Mr. 
James  Wright,  who  married  Miiller's  only 
child,  Lydia,  became  his  assistant,  and  the 
work  is  still  being  carried  on  under  Mr. 
Wright's  superintendence. 

[The  Lord's  Dealings  "with  George  Miiller 
(London),  5  vols.  1885 ;  Annual  Keports  of  Scrip- 
tural Knowledge  Institution;  Memoir  of  George 
Miiller,  reprinted  from  the  Bristol  Mercury, 
1898;  Pierson's  George  Miiller  of  Bristol,  with 
introduction  by  James  Wright,  1899.] 

T.  B.  J. 

MUMMERY,  ALBERT  FREDERICK 
(1855-1895),  political  economist  and  Alpine 
climber,  born  on  10  Sept.  1855  at  Maison- 
Dieu,  Dover,  was  son  of  William  Rigden 
Mummery  of  Dover.  His  business  was  that 
of  a  tanner  at  Dover  and  Canterbury  in 
partnership  with  his  brother.  Being  a  man 
of  means  he  devoted  his  leisure  to  economic 
studies  and  to  mountaineering.  In  1889,  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  J.  A.  Hobson,  he  pub- 
lished '  The  Physiology  of  Industry'  (Lon- 
don, 8vo),  a  criticism  of  several  current 
economic  theories.  He  was  a  well-known 
climber  both  in  the  Alps  and  in  the  Caucasus, 

VOL.  in. — strp. 


!  and  in  1895  he  published '  My  Climbs  in  the 
!  Alps  and  Caucasus '  (London,  8vo),  a  work 
|  of  great  merit.  In  1895  he  was  mountaineer- 
j  ing  in  the  Nanga  Parbat  group  of  the  Kash- 
i  mir  Himalayas.  He  was  last  seen  on  23  Aug., 
i  and  it  is  believed  that  he  was  overwhelmed 

by  an  avalanche  while  traversing   a   snow 

pass. 

[Alpine  Journal,  November  1895  ;  information 

kindly  given  by  Mrs.  A.  F.  Mummery.] 

rp     T     /"f 

MUNDELLA,      ANTHONY      JOHN 

(1825-1897),  statesman,  was  born  at  Leices- 
ter on  28  March  1825.  His  father,  Antonio 
Mundella,  a  native  of  Monte  Olimpino,  near 
Como,  had  come  to  England  some  years  be- 
fore as  a  political  refugee,  and  after  many 
hardships  settled  at  Leicester,  where  he  mar- 
ried a  wife  of  Welsh  descent,  Rebecca,  daugh- 
ter of  Thomas  Allsopp.  He  remained  a  Ro- 
man catholic,  but  the  children  were  brought 
up  as  protestants.  Young  Mundella  at- 
tended the  national  school  of  St.  Nicholas 
in  Leicester,  but  his  schooling  ended  at  the 
age  of  nine.  Its  chief  feature  was  the  read- 
ing aloud  of  the  bible  and  of  English  poets, 
especially  Milton.  This,  with  his  mother's 
tales  from  Shakespeare,  was  the  commence- 
ment for  him  of  a  thorough  knowledge  and 
peculiarly  keen  enjoyment  of  the  English 
classics.  His  first  work  was  in  a  printing 
office.  At  eleven  years  he  was  apprenticed 
to  Mr.  Kempson,  a  hosiery  manufacturer  in 
Leicester,  and  at  nineteen  he  was  engaged 
as  a  manager  by  Messrs.  Harris  &  Hamel  in 
the  same  town  and  trade.  Shortly  after, 
in  1845,  he  married  Mary  (d.  1890),  daughter 
of  William  Smith,  formerly  of  Kibworth 
Beauchamp  in  Leicestershire.  To  this  union 
with  a  woman  of  rare  strength,  sweetness, 
and  dignity  of  character,  he  and  his  family 
attributed  much  of  the  success  as  well  as 
the  joyousness  of  his  life. 

In  1848  he  was  taken  into  partnership  by 
Messrs.  Hine  &  Co.,  hosiery  manufacturers 
in  Nottingham,  and  continued  in  this  busi- 
ness till  he  had  acquired  a  sufficient  fortune 
to  devote  himself  to  public  life.  Meanwhile 
he  took  an  active  part  in  local  politics,  served 
as  sheriff  and  town  councillor,  and  was 
one  of  the  first  five  volunteers  enrolled  in 
the  Robin  Hood  volunteer  corps,  in  which 
he  was  for  some  time  a  captain.  While  a 
lad  at  Leicester  he  had  declared  himself  on 
a  chartist  platform  for  'the  party  of  the 
working  men.'  When  he  entered  on  his 
political  career  he  was  a  radical,  ardent  for 
the  extension  of  the  franchise,  hostile  to  all 
that  savoured  of  religious  inequality,  anxious 
for  the  pacification  of  Ireland,  a  strong  free- 
trader, and,  above  all,  in  most  complete  sym- 


Mundella 


210 


Mundella 


pat  by  with  the  class  from  which  he  had  raised 
himself.  In  1806,  a  time  of  much  exaspera- 
tion between  employers  and  employed,  he 
succeeded  in  forming  the '  Nottingham  board 
of  conciliation  in  the  glove  and  hosiery 
trade,'  for  the  termination  and  prevention  of 
disputes  by  constant  conference  between  re- 
presentatives of  each  side.  This  was  the  first 
permanent  and  successful  institution  of  the 
kind  yi  this  country.  It  at  once  began  to 
be  copied  in  other  towns,  and  to  attract  the 
attention  of  foreign  observers.  Incidentally 
it  led  Mundella  into  parliament,  for  he  was 
invited  to  lecture  on  this  subject  at  Sheffield, 
and  this  lecture  and  his  settlement  of  a  grave 
labour  conflict  at  Manchester  suggested  the 
request  that  he  should  stand  for  the  former 
city  against  John  Arthur  Roebuck  [q.  v.], 
whose  bitter  tone  towards  labour  movements 
had  caused  much  irritation.  His  first  con- 
test at  Sheffield  took  place  during  the  emotion 
which  followed  the  famous  trade  union  out- 
rages there  [see  BROADHEAD,  WILLIAM, 
Suppl.]  He  had  a  robust  faith  in  the  British 
working  classes,  and  in  the  essential  sound- 
ness of  trade  unionism,  which  he  regarded  as 
the  basis  of  improved  relations  between  mas- 
ters and  men.  Defeating  Roebuck,  he  was 
returned  to  parliament  by  Sheffield  in  1868, 
and  he  represented  Sheffield  (from  1885,  the 
Brightside  division  of  that  city)  till  his  death, 
nearly  thirty  years  later. 

In  parliament  Mundella  mainly  devoted 
his  efforts  to  procuring  legislation  in  favour 
of  labour,  and  was  especially  zealous  in 
the  cause  of  popular  education.  Strongly 
averse  to  any  toleration  of  disorder,  he  was 
persistent  in  urging  the  amendment  of  cer- 
tain provisions  of  the  law  upon  offences  aris- 
ing in  labour  disputes,  as  straining  the  prin- 
ciples of  criminal  jurisprudence  against  work- 
ing men  in  the  mistaken  interest  of  em- 
ployers. He  criticised  keenly  the  Criminal 
Law  Amendment  Act,  1871,  and  his  efforts 
contributed  to  secure  Mr.  (afterwards  Vis- 
count) Cross's  legislation  of  1875,  which  to 
a  great  extent  gave  effect  to  his  views.  In 
1873  he  put  a  stop,  by  effective  exposure  in 
parliament,  to  a  system  of  frauds  by  which 
the  Truck  Act  had  previously  been  defied. 

With  this  work  must  be  associated  his 
principal,  though  not  his  only,  contribution 
to  factory  legislation.  In  1874  he  introduced 
a  bill  to  reduce  the  hours  of  labour  for  chil- 
dren and  young  persons  in  textile  factories 
from  sixty  to  fifty-four  hours  a  week,  to  raise 
the  age  at  which  '  half-time '  may  begin  from 
eight  to  ten,  and  the  age  for '  full-time '  work 
from  thirteen  to  fourteen,  to  shorten  the 
duration  of  half-time  work,  and  otherwise 
to  strengthen  the  law  in  question.  Although 


his  bill  did  not  become  law,  he  brought  about, 
by  his  agitation  in  this  matter,  the  passing  in 
the  same  year  of  Mr.  (afterwards  Viscount) 
Cross's  Factories  (Health  of  Women,  &c.) 
Act,  which  effected  most  of  his  objects.  Ten 
years  after,  at  a  great  demonstration  in  Man- 
chester, his  wife  received  a  fine  bust  of  him  by 
Sir  Edgar  Boehm,  the  gift  of  '  eighty  thou- 
sand factory  workers,  chiefly  women  and 
children,  in  grateful  acknowledgment  of  her 
husband's  services.' 

Even  more  important  was  Mundella's  par- 
liamentary work  in  connection  with  edu- 
cation. His  early  struggles  had  taught  him 
what  want  of  education  meant.  As  a  manu- 
facturer he  felt  the  national  need  of  techni- 
cal training.  His  business  took  him  at 
times  to  Chemnitz,  where  his  firm  had  a 
branch  factory  ;  what  he  there  saw  led  him 
to  study  closely  the  educational  systems  of 
Saxony,  Prussia,  and  other  states.  There- 
after he  devoted  himself  to  preaching  at  pub- 
lic meetings,  as  Matthew  Arnold  preached 
in  literature,  that  this  country  should  not  be 
behind  its  neighbours  in  public  provision  for 
education.  In  parliament  he  made  his  mark 
by  insistence  on  the  same  text.  And  none 
rated  more  highly  than  Forster  his  share  in 
procuring  the  Education  Act  of  1870. 

In  the  debates  upon  this  measure  Mundella 
stood  out  as  one  mainly  interested  in  getting 
the  utmost  done  for  the  teaching  of  children. 
He  consequently  held  a  moderate  attitude  on 
the  vexed  religious  question.  While  he  was 
himself  a  member  of  the  church  of  England, 
he  was  anxious  for  the  protection  of  religious 
liberty,  and  no  less  anxious  in  1870  that  the 
progress  of  popular  education  should  not  be 
sacrificed  to  excessive  fears  in  this  regard. 
He  gratefully  recognised  the  past  work  of  de- 
nominational schools  and  desired  its  con- 
tinuance, but  his  ideal  would  have  been  best 
satisfied  by  the  presence  throughout  the 
country  of  undenominational  schools  under 
public  management.  The  religious  difficulty, 
he  said,  was  made  not  by  but  for  the  people 
whose  children  were  to  be  taught.  He  wished 
the  bible  to  take  the  place  in  the  future  educa- 
tion of  children  that  it  had  taken  in  his  own ; 
and  twenty-five  years  later  he  was  enthusiastic 
in  the  belief  that  the  religious  teaching  of  good 
board  schools,  supplemented  as  it  was  by  the 
Sunday  schools,  gave  a  more  valuable  result 
than  anything  for  which  the  partisans  of  de- 
nominational schools  were  striving.  He  was 
early  a  prominent  advocate  of  compulsory 
education,  which,  partially  applied  by  the 
acts  of  1870  and  1876,  was  made  universal  in 
England  by  his  own  act  of  1881. 

On  the  return  of  the  liberals  to  power 
in  1880  Mundella  entered  Gladstone's  go- 


Mundella 


211 


vernment,  and  was  appropriately  appointed 
(3  May)  vice-president  of  the  committee  of 
council  for  education,  and  sworn  of  the 
privy  council.  His  administration  as  vice- 
president  was  chiefly  marked  by  the  code  of 
1882.  Up  to  that  time  the  government  grant 
had  been  assessed  almost  entirely  on  the  re- 
sults of  individual  examination  in  certain  ele- 
mentary subjects.  Hence  the  attention  of 
teachers  and  inspectors  had  in  too  many 
cases  been  directed  rather  to  the  number  of 
children  who  had  been  prepared  to  '  pass ' 
the  examination  than  to  the  skilled  methods, 
the  discipline,  and  general  intelligence  which 
should  characterise  the  school  as  a  whole. 
Mundella's  code  sought  to  correct  this  ten- 
dency in  three  ways:  1.  By  the  recognition  j 
for  the  first  time  in  the  infant  schools  of  the  i 
manual  employments  and  organised  play 
devised  by  Frobel.  2.  By  the  introduction 
of  a  '  merit  grant '  designed  to  reward  other 
forms  of  excellence  than  those  which  could 
be  tabulated  in  an  examination  schedule, 
and  to  encourage  the  inventiveness  and  in- 
dependent efforts  of  good  teachers.  3.  By 
giving  greater  scope  and  variety  to  the  list 
of  optional  or  '  specific '  subjects  for  use  in 
the  higher  classes.  In  these  and  other  ways 
the  code  of  1882  made  a  substantial  advance 
towards  many  of  the  most  beneficial  educa- 
tional reforms  of  later  years.  An  important 
step  was  taken  at  the  same  time  in  the  re- 
organisation of  the  inspectorate  by  establish- 
ing a  system  of  annual  conferences  to  be 
held  by-  the  chief  inspectors  in  their  several 
districts. 

The  development  of  the  South  Kensington 
(afterwards  the  Victoria  and  Albert)  Mu- 
seum was  also  a  most  congenial  subject  of 
Mundella's  official  work.  Outside  his  office 
various  labours  in  connection  with  societies 
and  institutions  for  technical  instruction, 
for  the  higher  education  of  women,  for  the 
training  of  schoolmasters,  for  teaching  the 
blind  and  the  deaf  and  dumb,  for  Sunday- 
schooling,  and  latterly  in  raising  and  admini- 
stering funds  for  giving  poor  school-children 
meals,  occupied  most  of  his  time. 

Mundella  left  office  with  Gladstone's  go- 
vernment in  June  1885.  On  6  Feb.  1886, 
when  Gladstone  again  returned  to  power,  he 
became  president  of  the  board  of  trade,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  cabinet.  He  adopted 
Gladstone's  home-rule  views,  and  held  his 
post  until  the  defeat  of  the  government  in 
the  following  July.  The  chief  mark  he  left 
on  the  board  of  trade  was  by  virtue  of  his 
creation  of  the  labour  department.  This 
Mundella  started  in  1886,  when  he  appointed 
Mr.  Burnett,  secretary  of  the  Amalgamated 
Engineers'  Trade  Society,  as  labour  corre- 


spondent. The  department  was  developed 
by  the  next  administration.  After  the  gene- 
ral election  in  July  1892  Mundella  became 
once  more  president  of  the  board  of  trade, 
with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  He  then  further 
strengthened  the  labour  department,  and  be- 
gan making  its  information  more  widely 
useful  by  the  publication  of  the  '  Labour 
Gazette.'  A  most  characteristic  act  of  his 
administration  in  the  same  office  was  the  ap- 
pointment of  two  railway  servants  as  inspec- 
tors of  accidents  on  railways.  At  the  same 
time  he  was  able  to  render  another  signal 
service  to  industrial  peace.  The  settlement 
of  the  great  coal  strike  of  1893  by  Lord 
Rosebery  as  conciliator  took  place  under 
Mundella's  administration  at  the  board  of 
trade.  He  attached  much  importance  to 
making  such  intervention  in  industrial  dis- 
putes one  of  the  regular  and  authorised  func- 
tions of  the  board,  and  had  already  in  1892 
introduced  a  bill  for  this  purpose.  There 
was  then  no  time  to  pass  it,  but  he  continued 
to  press  the  matter,  and  the  subsequent  pass- 
ing of  substantially  the  same  measure  by  Mr. 
Ritchie,  his  successor  in  the  board  of  trade 
on  the  return  to  office  of  the  unionists  in 
1895,  was  one  of  the  public  events  which 
interested  him  most  in  the  closing  years  of 
his  life. 

It  was  in  1894-5  that,  as  chairman  of 
the  departmental  committee  on  poor-law 
schools,  Mundella  directly  rendered  his  last 
most  important  public  service.  In  this  com- 
mittee his  power  of  diligent  and  thorough 
investigation,  his  fine  enthusiasm,  and  his 
deep  sympathy  with  the  claims  and  the 
best  aspirations  of  the  poor  were  conspicu- 
ously displayed,  and  the  report  of  his  com- 
mittee convinced  the  public  of  the  need  of 
reforms  which  have  since  been  effected.  In 
particular  the  report  demonstrated  the  evil 
of  herding  pauper  children  together  in  insti- 
tutions cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Meanwhile,  in  1894,  Mundella  had  retired 
from  the  government  under  painful  circum- 
stances. He  had  been  a  director  of  the  New 
Zealand  Loan  Company  from  1870  to  1892, 
when  he  resigned  this  position  upon  again 
taking  office.  Among  his  colleagues  in  the 
directorate  of  the  company  were  Sir  James 
Fergusson,  at  one  time  postmaster-general, 
the  late  Sir  George  Russell,  and  Sir  John 
Gorst,  now  vice-president  of  the  council. 
The  company,  once  very  prosperous,  went 
into  liquidation  in  1893,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  a  public  inquiry  was  held  as  to  its 
affairs.  Feeling  that  his  previous  position  of 
director  might  cast  doubt  on  the  impartiality 
of  his  department,  Mundella  at  an  early 
stage  of  these  proceedings  offered  his  resig- 

p2 


Mundella 


212 


Munk 


nation  of  the  presidency  of  the  board  of 
trade.  The  prime  minister  (Lord  Rosebery) 
requested  him  to  withdraw  it,  but  later  on 
he  insisted  upon  it,  and  his  resignation  took 
effect  on  12  May  1894.  lie  gave  his  reasons 
for  it  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  24th. 
As  for  the  bearing  of  these  proceedings  upon 
his  character,  the  opinion  of  a  stout  political 
opponent  intimately  acquainted  with  the  facts 
can  here  be  given.  In  a  letter,  not  at  the 
time  intended  for  publication,  Lord  James  of 
Hereford  (then  Sir  Henry  James)  wrote :  '  It 
seems  strange  to  me  that,  after  having  had 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  Mundella  for 
nearly  thirty  years,  I  should  now  be  writing 
in  regard  to  him  a  letter  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  of  an  exculpatory  character.  I 
say  it  is  strange,  because  during  all  our  inti- 
macy I  have  had  full  reason  to  know  by 
what  a  high  standard  of  rectitude  his  con- 
duct has  been  controlled.  My  object,  how- 
ever, in  writing  to  you  is  to  say  that  I  have 
had  an  opportunity  of  obtaining  some  insight 
into  the  affairs  of  the  New  Zealand  Loan 
Company  and  Mr.  Mundella's  connection 
therewith.  I  can  discover  nothing  in  all 
these  proceedings,  so  far  as  I  know  them, 
which  ought  to  disentitle  Mr.  Mundella  to 
the  confidence  of  any  man.' 

Nevertheless  a  suffering,  poignant  in  pro- 
portion to  his  keen  sense  of  honour,  shook  the 
health  of  his  robust  frame.  In  the  succeeding 
general  election  of  1895,  which  proved  so 
disastrous  to  his  party,  his  constituents  re- 
turned him  unopposed,  and  his  former  col- 
leagues invited  nun  to  take  his  place  again 
upon  the  front  opposition  bench.  His  energy 
in  and  out  of  parliament  returned ;  in  par- 
ticular he  took  a  prominent  part  in  debate 
on  the  education  bills  of  1896  and  1897. 
But  on  the  night  of  18  June  1897  he  was 
struck  with  paralysis,  and  he  died  on  21  July 
at  his  house,  16  Elvaston  Place,  Queen's  Gate. 
A  memorial  service  was  held  at  St.  Mar- 
garet's on  the  26th,  and  he  was  buried  at 
Nottingham  on  the  27th. 

His  life  was  one  of  unresting  public  acti- 
vity, characterised  throughout  by  a  certain 
eager  and  warm-hearted  combativeness,  but 
characterised  too  by  a  modest  estimate  of 
the  range  of  his  own  capacities,  and  by  un- 
selfish desire  that  good  work  should  be  done, 
whether  he  or  another  got  the  praise.  Few 
strenuous  partisans  have  counted  in  their 
circle  of  friends  so  many  of  their  foremost 
opponents.  To  those  friends  he  left  the  re- 
collection of  a  man  full  of  fire  and  fight; 
shrewd,  but  none  the  less  simple-minded  and 
tender  of  heart.  In  parliament  he  seldom 
spoke  except  to  put  the  house  in  possession 
of  his  own  experience.  Voice,  manner,  pre- 


sence, temperament,  and  intense  but  genial 
conviction  lent  him  oratorical  resources  which 
he  used  with  powerful  effect  in  popular  meet- 
ings. His  relation  to  Gladstone  was  that  of 
enduring  trust  and  personal  loyalty.  His  his- 
tory is  in  part  merged  in  that  of  the  political 
cause  of  which  he  was  a  champion ;  but  he  is 
to  be  remembered  as  one  of  the  two  or  three 
who  established  the  British  state  system  of 
popular  education,  and  as  a  great  and  suc- 
cessful labourer  for  industrial  peace. 

The  bust  of  Mundella,  by  Boehm,  belongs 
to  his  daughter,  Mrs.  Roby  Thorpe,  The  Park, 
Nottingham  ;  an  oil  painting  by  Cope  is  in 
the  mayor's  parlour,  Sheffield ;  and  a  replica 
in  the  possession  of  his  daughter,  Miss  Mun- 
della, 18  Elvaston  Place,  W. — both  presented 
by  '  constituents  independent  of  party.' 

[Private  information  ;  Hansard's  Debates ; 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  1898;  pamphlet  bio- 
graphy published  by  the  Sheffield  Independent 
Company  in  1897.] 

MUNK,  WILLIAM  (1816-1898),  phy- 
sician, eldest  son  of  William  Munk,  an  iron- 
monger, and  his  wife  Jane  Kenward,  was 
born  on  24  Sept.  1816  at  Battle,  Sussex,  and 
after  education  at  University  College,  Lon- 
don, graduated  M.D.  at  Leyden  in  1837.  He 
began  practice  in  London  in  September  1837, 
and  in  1844  he  became  a  licentiate  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  London,  and 
in  1854  a  fellow.  In  1857  he  was  elected  the 
Harveian  librarian  of  the  college,  and  held 
office  till  his  death.  In  that  year  he  pub- 
lished '  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
J.  A.  Paris,  M.D.' [see  PARIS,  JOHN  AYRTON], 
and  in  1861 '  The  Roll  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  of  London,'  in  two  volumes.  A 
second  edition  of  this  work  appeared  in  1878 
in  three  volumes,  and  it  is  the  best  general 
work  of  reference  on  the  physicians  of  Eng- 
land. It  is  exact  in  its  references  to  the 
manuscript  records  of  the  College  of  Phy- 
sicians, and  contains  much  information  from 
other  sources,  the  origin  of  which  is  not 
always  indicated,  but  which  is  generally 
valuable.  Its  bibliography  is  imperfect  and 
does  not  show  any  profound  acquaintance 
with  the  contents  of  English  medical  books, 
yet  almost  every  subsequent  writer  on  sub- 
jects relating  to  the  history  of  physicians 
owes  something  to  Dr.  Munk.  In  1884  he 
edited  'The  Gold-headed  Cane'  of  Dr. 
William  MacMichael  [q.v.J,  and  in  1887  pub- 
lished '  Euthanasia,  or  Medical  Treatment  in 
aid  of  an  Easy  Natural  Death,'  and  in  1895 
'  The  Life  of  Sir  Henry  Halford,  Bart.,  M.D.' 
The  College  of  Physicians  voted  him  one  hun- 
dred guineas  in  consideration  of  this  work. 
He  also  published  some  '  Notse  Harveianse ' 


Murphy 


213 


Murray 


in  the  '  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports  ' 
(vol.  xxii.) ;  and  in  1885  '  Marvodia,'  a 
genealogical  account  of  the  Marwoods,  a 
Devonshire  family ;  and  wrote  several  essays 
on  medical  subjects  in  the  '  Lancet.'  He 
was  elected  physician  to  the  Smallpox  Hos- 
pital in  February  1853,  and  held  office  there 
for  forty  years.  When  Prince  Arthur  (after- 
wards duke  of  Connaught)  had  smallpox  at 
Greenwich  in  October  1867  he  was  called  in 
consultation.  He  long  resided  at  40  Fins- 
bury  Square,  London,  enjoyed  a  considerable 
practice,  and  there  died  on  20  Dec.  1898. 
He  was  of  short  stature.  His  portrait,  by 
the  Hon.  John  Collier,  hangs  in  the  dining- 
room  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  to 
which,  in  the  last  year  of  his  life,  it  was  pre- 
sented by  the  fellows  in  memory  of  the  great 
service  which  he  had  rendered  to  the  college 
by  the  publication  of  the '  Roll.'  He  became 
a  Roman  catholic  in  1842,  and  from  1857 
to  1865  was  the  medical  adviser  of  Cardinal 
Wiseman.  He  had  much  information,  and 
readily  imparted  it  in  aid  of  the  studies  of 
others.  He  admired  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians, but  late  in  life  was  inclined  to  think 
that  in  it,  and  in  the  world  at  large,  past 
times  were  the  best.  He  was  for  many 
years  an  active  member  of  the  committee  of 
the  London  Library.  He  married,  30  April 
1849,  Emma,  eighteenth  child  of  John  Luke 
of  Exeter,  and  left  two  sons  and  three 
daughters. 

[Lancet,  1898,vol.ii.;  British  Medical  Journal, 
1898,  vol.  ii.;  Works;  personal  knowledge  ;  pri- 
vate information.]  N.  M. 

MURPHY,  DENIS  (1833-1896),  his- 
torical writer,  was  born  at  Newmarket,  co. 
Cork,  in  1833.  Having  been  trained  in  va- 
rious Jesuit  colleges  of  England,  Germany, 
and  Spain,  he  was  admitted  to  the  Society 
of  Jesus  as  a  novitiate  in  his  sixteenth  year. 
He  became  an  active  and  devoted  missionary 
priest,  but  soon  began  to  devote  his  chief 
attention  to  teaching  and  historical  research. 
He  was  professor  of  history  and  literature  at 
the  Jesuit  colleges  of  Clongowes  Wood, 
Limerick,  and  finally  at  University  College, 
Dublin.  His  best  known  work,  published 
at  Dublin  in  1883,  was  '  Cromwell  in  Ire- 
land,' an  excellent  account  of  the  suppression 
of  the  catholic  rebellion  of  1648-9,  which 
gives  evidence  of  great  research,  and  is  desti- 
tute of  sectarian  prejudice.  The  text  is 
accompanied  with  good  maps,  plans,  and 
illustrations.  A  new  edition  appeared  in 
1885.  Another  important  historical  work 
was  his  edition  of  O'Clery's  '  Life  of  Hugh 
Roe  O'Donnell,'  1893,  4to,  which  he  was  the 
first  to  render  into  English.  The  parallel 


bilingual  text  is  preceded  by  an  histori- 
cal introduction.  Murphy  also  published 
'The  Annals  of  Clonmacnoise'  (1896)  and 
a  '  History  of  Holy  Cross  Abbey.'  He  edited 
for  many  years  the  '  Kildare  Archaeological 
Journal,'  to  which  he  contributed  some  va- 
luable papers,  and  was  connected  with  similar 
publications  in  Cork,  Waterford,  and  Belfast. 
His  last  published  work  was  '  A  School 
History  of  Ireland '  (in  T.  A.  Findlay's  School 
and  College  Series),  issued  in  1894,  which 
is  remarkable  for  containing  a  eulogy  of 
Charles  Stewart  Parnell.  Just  before  his 
death  he  was  at  work  upon  '  The  Martyrs  of 
Ireland,'  an  account  of  Roman  catholics  who 
had  been  put  to  death  since  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII,  a  compilation  suggested  to  him 
by  the  Irish  bishops.  Murphy  received  the 
honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  royal  uni- 
versity of  Ireland  in  recognition  of  his  histori- 
cal writings.  He  was  vice-president  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Academy  and  a  member  of  the 
council  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries 
in  Ireland.  He  was  found  dead  in  his  bed, 
on  the  morning  of  18  May  1896,  in  his  rooms 
at  University  College,  St.  Stephen's  Green, 
Dublin,  and  was  buried  in  Glasnevin  cemetery 
on  20  May. 

[The  Irish  Catholic,  23  May  1896;  Tablet, 
23  May  1896  ;  Times,  25  May;  Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ; 
Allibone's  Diet.  Engl.  Lit.  (Suppl.)] 

G.  LB  G.  N. 

MURRAY,  SIR  CHARLES  AUGUS- 
TUS (1806-1895),  diplomatist  and  author, 
second  son  of  George  Murray,  fifth  earl  of 
Dunmore  (1762-1836),  and  Lady  Susan 
Hamilton,  daughter  of  Archibald,  ninth, 
duke  of  Hamilton,  was  born  on  22  Nov. 
1806.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  matriculated  on 
21  May  1824,  and  graduated  B.A.  and  was 
elected  to  a  fellowship  of  All  Souls'  in  1827  ; 
he  proceeded  M.A.  in  1832.  While  an  under- 
graduate Murray  had  John  Henry  (after- 
wards cardinal)  Newman  [q.  v.]  as  his  tutor. 
'  He  never  inspired  me,'  wrote  Murray,  '  or 
my  fellow-undergraduates  with  any  interest, 
much  less  respect ;  on  the  contrary,  we  dis- 
liked, or  rather  distrusted,  him.  He  walked 
with  his  head  bent,  abstracted,  but  every  now 
and  then  looking  out  of  the  corners  of  his  eyes 
quickly,  as  though  suspicious.  He  had  no 
influence  then ;  it  was  only  when  he  became 
vicar  of  St.  Mary's  that  the  long  dormant 
power  asserted  itself,  and  his  sermons  at- 
tracted hundreds.' 

Murray's  chief  undergraduate  friend  was 
Sidney  Herbert  (afterwards  Baron  Herbert 
of  Lea)  [q.  v.],  but  it  was  in  company  with 
Lord  Edward  Thynne,  son  of  the  second 
Marquis  of  Bath,  that  Murray,  who  was  a 


Murray 


214 


Murray 


great  athlete,  performed  his  most  famous 
feat  of  endurance.  Having  been  'gated' 
for  some  minor  offence,  Murray  made  a  bet 
that  he  would  ride  to  London,  sixty  miles, 
and  back  in  one  day.  Leaving  Oxford 
shortly  after  8  A.M.  he  and  Thynne  rode  to 
London,  changed  their  clothes,  mounted  two 
hacks  and  rode  in  the  park,  dined  at  a  club, 
saw  the  first  act  of  a  play,  and  were  back 
at  the  gate  of  Oriel  three  minutes  before 
midnight.  They  had  relays  of  horses  at  j 
Henley  and  Maidenhead. 

After  taking  his  degree,  Murray  was  ad-  j 
mitted  student  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1827  and  j 
read  for  the  bar  with  Nassau  Senior  [q. v.]  fl  is 
mother's  house  was  a  favourite  rendezvous 
of  literary  and  political  characters,  and 
Murray,  an  exceedingly  handsome  and  agree- 
able young  man,  with  a  strong  taste  for 
general  literature,  and  an  excellent  classical 
scholar,  formed  many  friendships  with  men 
distinguished  in  both  fields.  He  became  a 
frequent  guest  at  Samuel  Rogers's  break- 
fast table,  and  has  left  abundant  notes  of 
scenes  and  incidents  which  he  witnessed 
there.  When  travelling  in  Germany  in 
1830  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Goethe, 
then  minister  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Wei- 
mar. 

In  1834  he  sailed  for  America  in  a  ship 
of  630  tons,  which,  encountering  a  series  of 
gales,  followed  by  a  baffling  calm,  took 
fourteen  weeks  and  two  days  to  accomplish 
a  voyage  which  a  modern  ocean  liner  would 
do  in  about  six  days.  In  the  following 
year  Murray  joined  a  tribe  of  wandering 
Pawnees,  and  his  sojourn  of  three  months 
in  the  wilderness,  involving  a  number  of 
exciting  adventures  and  narrow  escapes, 
was  afterwards  described  in  his  '  Travels  in 
North  America '  (London,  1839),  which 
passed  through  three  editions.  This  work 
retains  considerable  interest  at  this  day, 
containing  minute  and  graphic  pictures  of 
people  and  scenes  which  have  since  under- 
gone such  rapid  and  sweeping  change.  Dur- 
ing his  stay  in  America,  Murray  became 
enamoured  of  Elise,  daughter  of  James 
Wadsworth,  a  wealthy  gentleman  living 
near  Niagara,  who  disapproved  of  their 
betrothal,  and  forbade  all  intercourse  be- 
tween the  lovers.  Fourteen  years  later,  in 
1849,  Mr.  Wadsworth  died,  and  Murray 
married  his  daughter  in  1850.  The  only 
intercourse  which  had  passed  between  them 
in  the  interval  was  through  the  indirect 
means  of  a  novel  written  by  Murray,  '  The 
Prairie  Bird  '  (1844),  in  which  he  managed 
to  convey  the  assurance  of  his  unalterable 
constancy. 

In  1838  Murray  was  appointed  groom-in- 


waiting  at  the  court  of  Queen  Victoria,  and, 
a  few  months  later,  master  of  the  house- 
hold, an  office  which  he  held  till  1844, 
when  he  entered  the  diplomatic  service  as 
secretary  of  legation  at  Naples.  In  1846  he 
became  consul-general  in  Egypt  during  the 
viceroyalty  of  the  famous  Mohammed  Ali, 
where  he  remained  till  1853,  when  he  was 
appointed  to  Berne  as  minister  to  the  Swiss 
confederation.  His  wife  died  in  1851  in 
giving  birth  to  a  sou,  Charles  James,  M.P. 
for  Coventry  since  1895.  Murray's  official 
connection  with  Egypt  was  rendered  notable 
to  the  British  public  by  his  success  in 
securing,  in  1849,  for  the  Zoological  Society 
the  first  hippopotamus  that  ever  came  to 
England.  The  animal  was  safely  lodged  in 
the  gardens  in  May  1850,  and  lived  there 
till  its  death  in  1878. 

In  1854  Lord  Clarendon  selected  Murray 
to  proceed  as  envoy  and  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary to  the  court  of  Persia,  which  turned 
out  an  unfortunate  mission  for  him.  The 
shah  was  entirely  under  control  of  his  grand 
vizier,  Sadr  Azim,  an  unscrupulous  intriguer, 
who,  suspecting  Murray  of  interference  with 
his  ascendency,  made  odious  charges  against 
the  British  envoy,  and  rendered  necessary 
Murray's  withdrawal  from  Tehran  to  Bag- 
dad. In  1856  an  ultimatum  was  despatched 
to  the  shah's  government  demanding  the 
recall  of  Persian  troops  from  Herat  and  an 
apology  for  '  the  offensive  imputations  upon 
the  honour  of  her  majesty's  minister.'  No 
notice  having  been  vouchsafed  to  this  mis- 
sive, war  was  declared  by  Great  Britain  on 
1  Nov.  1856 ;  Bushire  was  bombarded  on 
17  Dec.,  and  surrendered  to  General  Stalker. 
General  Outram  having  defeated  the  Persian 
army  near  Kooshab  on  8  Feb.  1857,  and 
again  at  Mohammerah  on  24  March,  peace 
was  concluded  at  Bagdad  on  2  May.  Blame 
for  the  hostilities  was  most  unjustly  imputed 
to  Murray  in  parliament  and  in  the  '  Times,' 
but  Lord  Clarendon  and  Lord  Palmerston 
vigorously  defended  him  in  the  two  houses, 
and  after  the  peace  he  resumed  his  duties  at 
the  Persian  court.  Murray  himself  attri- 
buted the  disfavour  he  incurred  from  the 
shah's  government  to  a  novel  policy  initiated 
by  the  British  cabinet,  under  which  the 
custom  of  giving  presents,  an  immemorial 
part  of  oriental  diplomacy,  was  strictly  pro- 
hibited, and  the  queen's  representative  had 
to  go  empty-handed  before  the  shah  and  the 
sadr,  while  the  French  and  Russian  mini- 
sters came  with  their  hands  full  of  gifts. 

In  1859  the  Persian  mission  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  India  office,  and  Murray,  pre- 
ferring to  serve  under  the  foreign  office,  was 
appointed  minister  at  the  court  of  Saxony. 


Myers 


215 


Myers 


On  1  Nov.  1862  he  married  the  Hon. 
Edythe  Fitzpatrick,  daughter  of  the  first 
Baron  Castletown,  and  in  1866  received  the 
rank  of  K.C.B.,  having  been  a  companion  of 
the  Bath  since  1848,  and  was  appointed 
minister  at  Copenhagen.  The  climate  of 
Denmark  proving  too  severe  for  Lady 
Murray,  Sir  Charles  applied  for  and  obtained 
the  British  legation  at  Lisbon,  which  he 
kept  till  his  final  retirement  from  the  ser- 
vice in  1874.  He  was  sworn  of  the  privy 
council  on  13  May  1875. 

Murray's  remaining  years  were  spent  in 
cultivated  leisure.  A  charming  manner,  an 
immense  and  varied  store  of  reminiscences, 
united  to  a  handsome  and  striking  appear- 
ance, rendered  him  a  very  well-known  figure 
in  society ;  but  the  associates  he  liked  best 
were  literary  men,  with  whom  he  main- 
tained constant  intercourse,  personal  and 
epistolary.  An  excellent  linguist,  he  devoted 
much  study  to  oriental  languages  and  philo- 
logy, upon  which,  and  upon  theology,  he 
left  a  quantity  of  notes  and  fragmentary 
treatises. 

Sir  '  Charles  Murray  resided  during  his 
later  years  at  the  Grange,  Old  Windsor, 
spending  the  winter  months  in  the  south  of 
France.  He  died  in  Paris  on  3  June  1895. 
There  is  a  portrait  of  Murray  by  Willis 
Maddox  at  the  Grange,  Old  Windsor.  His 
intellectual  gifts  and  singular  versatility  were 
such  as  might  have  raised  him  to  greater 
eminence  than  he  attained ;  no  doubt  they 
would  have  done  so  had  less  affluent  circum- 
stances compelled  him  to  concentrate  his 
energy  upon  a  single  object. 

He  published  the  following  works : 
1.  '  Travels  in  North  America,'  2  vols. 
1839  ;  2nd  ed.  1843 ;  3rd  ed.  1854.  2.  <  The 
Prairie  Bird,'  1844,  and  many  subsequent 
editions.  3.  'Hassan;  or,  the  Child  of  the 
Pyramid,'  1857.  4.  '  Nour-ed-dyn ;  or,  the 
Light  of  the  Faith,'  1883.  5.  'A  Short  Memoir 
of  Mohammed  Ali,'  1898  (posthumous). 

[Sir  Charles  Murray's  MSS. ;  private  infor- 
mation ;  Life  by  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell,  1898.] 

H.  E.  M. 

MYERS,  FREDERIC  WILLIAM 
HENRY  (1843-1901),  poet  and  essayist, 
was  born  on  6  Feb.  1843  at  Keswick  in 
Cumberland.  His  father  was  the  Rev. 
Frederic  Myers  [q.  v.],  perpetual  curate  of 
St.  John's,  Keswick,  and  his  mother  was 
Susan  Harriet,  youngest  daughter  of  John 
Marshall  of  Hallsteads  (a  beautifully 
situated  house  on  the  left  bank  of  Ulles- 
water),  who  was  M.P.  in  1832  for  the  un- 
divided county  of  Yorkshire.  Mrs.  Myers 
was  her  husband's  second  wife,  married  in 


1842  ;  and  Frederic  was  the  eldest  of  their 
three  sons.  WThen  he  was  seven  years  old 
his  father's  health  failed ;  and  on  the  death 
of  the  latter  in  1851  the  family  moved  to 
Blackheath,  where  the  eldest  boy  for  three 
years  attended  a  preparatory  day  school, 
under  the  Rev.  R.  Cowley  Powles,  a  well- 
known  teacher.  In  1856  Mrs.  Myers  took  a 
house  at  Cheltenham;  and  in  August  of  the 
same  year  Frederic,  aged  13,  was  entered  at 
Cheltenham  College,  then  inthe  fifteenth  year 
of  its  existence,  under  its  second  principal, 
the  Rev.  W.  Dobson.  His  taste  for  poetry 
was  unmistakable  from  the  first.  He  has  him- 
self recorded  the  delight  which  the  study  of 
Homer,  ^Eschylus,  and  Lucretius  brought 
him  from  the  age  of  fourteen  to  sixteen,  and 
the  '  intoxicating  joy '  which  attended  the 
discovery  of  Sappho's  fragments  in  an  old 
school  book  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  His 
enthusiasm  for  Pindar,  which  also  dates 
from  his  school  days,  is  well  remembered  by 
his  college  friends  in  their  eager  under- 
graduate discussions ;  and  it  may  well  be 
doubted  if  there  ever  lived  another  English 
boy  who  had  learned  for  his  pleasure  the 
whole  of  Vergil  by  heart  before  he  had  passed 
the  school  age. 

His  great  ability  and  particularly  his 
poetic  powers  were  recognised  at  once  by 
schoolfellows  and  teachers  alike.  He  had  a 
very  distinguished  career  at  Cheltenham 
College  ;  he  won  the  senior  classical  scholar- 
ship in  his  first  year ;  in  1858,  besides  gain- 
ing the  prize  for  Latin  lyrics,  he  sent  in  two 
English  poems,  in  different  metres,  which 
were  both  successful ;  in  1859  he  entered  for 
the  national '  Robert  Burns  Centenary  '  com- 
petition with  a  poem  which  was  placed 
second  in  the  judges'  award.  In  October 
1859  he  left  the  school,  and  passed  a  year  of 
private  study,  part  of  the  time  with  Mr. 
Dobson,  who  had  in  the  summer  resigned 
the  head-mastership.  But  though  Myers  had 
left,  he  was  qualified  to  compete  again  for 
the  college  prize  for  English  verse,  which  he 
won  in  1860  with  a  remarkable  poem  on  the 
'  Death  of  Socrates.'  In  the  same  year  he 
was  elected  the  first  minor  scholar  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  went  into  residence 
in  October.  At  the  university  few  men 
have  won  more  honours.  The  record  is  as 
follows :  a  college  scholarship  and  declama- 
tion prize ;  two  university  scholarships  .(the 
Bell  and  the  Craven) ;  no  less  than  six  uni- 
versity prizes  (the  English  poem  twice,  the 
Latin  poem,  the  Latin  essay  three  times)  ; 
second  classic  in  the  spring  of  1864 ;  second 
in  the  first  class  of  the  Moral  Sciences  Tripos 
in  December  of  the  same  year,  and  fellow  of 
Trinity  in  1865. 


Myers 


216 


Myers 


Immediately  after  graduating  in  1864,  he 
took  a  four  months'  tour  on  the  continent, 
visiting    Italy,    Greece,    Smyrna    and    the 
islands,  and  Constantinople  ;  and  in  the  next 
summer  he  spent  a  large  portion  of  the  long 
vacation  in  Canada  and  the  United  States.  | 
In  the  course  of  this  visit  he  swam  across 
the  river  below  the  Niagara  Falls,  being,  it  j 
is  believed,  the  first  Englishman  to  perform  j 
this  dangerous  feat.    In  the  October  term  of  ] 
1865  he  was  appointed  classical  lecturer  in  { 
Trinity  College,   Cambridge,  and  held  the  [ 
office  for  four  years ;  but  his  bent  was  not  for  i 
teaching,  and  he  resigned  the  lectureship  in 
1809.     Two  years  later  he  accepted  a  tempo- 
rary appointment  under  the  education  depart- 
ment, and  in  1872  he  was  placed  on  the  per- 
manent staflfof  school  inspectors,  a  post  which 
he  held  until  within  a  few  weeks  of  his  death. 

He  was  married  on  13  March  1880,  by 
Dean  Stanley  (an  old  friend  of  his  father's), 
in  Henry  VII's  chapel,  Westminster  Abbey, 
to  Eveleen,  youngest  daughter  of  Charles 
Tennant  of  Cadoxton  Lodge,  Neath.  In 

1881  he  and  his  wife  took  up  their  abode  in  ! 
Cambridge,  which  was  their  home  from  that  ! 
time  forward. 

Apart  from  his  official  duties  and  the 
circle  of  his  family  and  friends,  the  chief  inte- 
rests of  a  life  that  was  outwardly  uneventful 
were  centred  round  two  things — first,  his  lite- 
rary work;  and,  secondly,  the  systematic 
investigation  into  mesmerism,  clairvoyance, 
automatism,  and  other  abnormal  phenomena, 
real  or  alleged. 

His  work  in  poetry  was  intermittent,  and 
was  practically  confined,  as  far  as  the  pub- 
lished pieces  are  concerned,  to  the  fifteen 
years  between  1867  and  1882.  Many  of 
these  poems  appeared  first  in  magazines,  and 
were  afterwards  collected  and  reissued  with 
additions.  The  first  to  appear  was  the  poem 
entitled  'St.  Paul'  (London,  1867,  8vo). 
This  was  composed  for  the  Seatonian  prize, 
an  English  verse  competition  at  Cambridge, 
confined  to  graduates;  but  it  failed  to  ob- 
tain the  prize,  possibly  because  it  did  not 
conform  to  the  traditional  requirements, 
though  of  all  Myers's  poems  it  is  perhaps 
the  most  widely  known.  In  1870  appeared 
a  small  volume  of  collected  pieces,  which 
in  a  few  years  was  exhausted,  and  which 
the  author  never  reprinted  as  a  whole.  But 
he  continued  to  write  occasional  pieces, 
which  were  published  in  magazines ;  and  in 

1882  a  new  collection  was  issued,  which  was 
entitled,  from  the  latest  written  and  most 
important  poem,  '  The  Renewal  of  Youth.' 
This  poem,   containing  many  passages    of 
striking    beauty,    was   a  sort   of  palinode 
to     '  The     Passing     of     Youth,'     written 


from  another  point  of  view  eleven  years 
earlier,  and  included  in  the  1882  volume. 
There  were  also  a  few  poems  from  the 
1870  collection,  as  well  as  various  shorter 
pieces  written  in  the  intervening  twelve 
years.  This  book  and  '  St.  Paul,'  now  pub- 
lished separately,  represent  for  the  public  the 
author's  work  in  poetry.  That  he  ceased  for 
the  remaining  eighteen  years  of  his  life  to 
seek  expression  for  his  thoughts  and  feelings 
in  verse,  except  on  the  rarest  occasions, 
could  not  be  ascribed  by  any  one  who  knew 
him  either  to  a  loss  of  interest  or  to  the 
least  decay  of  power.  The  true  reason  was 
no  doubt  the  growing  absorption  of  his 
leisure,  during  the  last  twenty  years  of  his 
life,  in  the  work  of  psychical  research. 

His  poetic  work  was  known  at  first  to 
comparatively  few,  but  of  late  years  has 
had  a  steadily  increasing  public ;  and  the 
compressed  force,  the  ardent  feeling,  the 
vivid  and  finished  expression,  and,  above 
all,  the  combined  imaginativeness  and  sin- 
cerity of  his  best  work  (particularly  his  latest 
poem, '  The  Renewal  of  Youth  '),  could  leave 
few  qualified  readers  in  doubt  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  his  poetic  gift. 

His  prose  papers  were  written  at  various 
times  previous  to  1883,  when  they  were  col- 
lected in  two  volumes,  with  the  title  '  Essays, 
Classical  and  Modern,'  which  have  been 
twice  reprinted,  in  1888  and  1897.  They 
fall  naturally  into  two  groups,  according  as 
they  are  concerned  with  poetry  (as  in  the 
essays  on  Virgil,  Rossetti,  Victor  Hugo, 
and  Trench),  or  touch  on  the  questions  of 
religious  thought,  or  on  the  psychological, 
moral,  and  spiritual  subjects  and  problems 
which  tended  more  and  more  to  occupy  his 
mind.  The  latter  emerge  in,  or  underlie,  the 
papers  on  Mazzini,  Renan,  and  George  Eliot, 
on  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  on  Greek  Oracles. 
Of  the  first  group  the  most  remarkable  is  un- 
doubtedly the  paper  (which  first  appeared  in 
1879  in  the 'Fortnightly  Review')  on  Virgil, 
the  poet  who  above  all  others  had  be^n  the 
object  of  his  reverence  and  enthusiasm  from 
early  boyhood,  and  whom  he  later  describes 
as  '  one  of  the  supports  of  his  life.' 

Myers's  monograph  on  Wordsworth  was 
published  in  1881  in  the  series  of  '  English 
Men  of  Leters ; '  and  after  all  that  men  of 
genius  have  written  about  Wordsworth, 
from  Ruskin  and  Matthew  Arnold  down- 
wards, there  are  not  a  few  readers  who  owe 
a  special  debt  to  the  penetrating  and  illumi- 
nating criticism  of  this  little  volume.  Mr. 
John  Morley  justly  describes  Myers's  work 
as  '  distinguished  as  much  by  insight  as  by 
admirable  literary  grace  and  power.'  The 
same  insight  and  skill  appear  in  the  brief 


Myers 


217 


Myers 


essay  on  Shelley  contributed  in  1880  to 
Ward's  '  English  Poets,'  where  Myers  adopts 
the  happy  device  of  stating  the  case  against 
Shelley  of  the  average  intelligent  but  un- 
imaginative critic.  Myers's  defence  is  all 
the  more  effective,  because  he  so  well  under- 
stands the  feelings  of  the  assailants.  In  the 
same  year  in  which  Myers's  '  Essays'  first 
appeared  (1883)  he  issued  a  new  edition  of 
his  father's  book,  '  Catholic  Thoughts,'  with 
a  preface  by  himself. 

While  residing  as  lecturer  in  Trinity  Col- 
lege he  was  brought  into  close  relations 
with  Professor  Henry  Sidgwick  [q.  v.  Suppl.], 
who  became  one  of  his  most  valued  friends. 
It  was  largely  due  to  their  friendship  that 
Myers  was  led  to  take  a  great  interest  in 
the  higher  education  of  women,  of  which, 
from  1870  onwards,  Sidgwick  was  an  active 
promoter.  About  the  same  time,  or  even 
earlier,  Myers  had  begun  to  give  much  at- 
tention to  the  phenomena  of  mesmerism  and 
spiritualism,  and  he  speaks  (1871)  of  'the 
sympathetic  and  cautious  guidance'  which 
his  friend  was  able  to  give  him  in  such 
matters.  The  poem  called  '  The  Implicit 
Promise  of  Immortality'  (1870)  suggests 
that  another  reason,  strongly  drawing  him 
to  such  studies,  was  a  deep  modification  of 
his  early  religious  beliefs.  To  the  '  intensely 
personal  emotion'  which  underlay  (as  he 
records)  the  early  poems  of  'St.  Paul'  and 
'John  the  Baptist'  (1867-8)  had  succeeded 
for  the  time  '  disillusion  caused  by  wider 
knowledge ; '  and  for  fresh  light,  it  would 
seem,  he  began  to  look  to  the  scientific  study 
of  imperfectly  explored  phenomena.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  he  was  one  of  the  small 
band  of  men  who  in  1882,  after  several  years 
of  inquiry  and  experiment,  founded  the  So- 
ciety for  Psychical  Research,  of  which  the 
purpose  was  to  collect  evidence,  and  to  carry 
on  systematic  experiments  in  the  obscure 
region  of  hypnotism,  thought  transference, 
clairvoyance,  spiritualism,  apparition,  and 
other  alleged  occurrences,  in  regard  to  which 
the  common  attitude  has  been  well  described 
as  being  mainly  either  a  priori  disbelief  or 
undiscerning  credulity.  The  chief  workers, 
besides  Myers  and  Professor  and  Mrs.  Sidg- 
wick, were  at  first  Professors  Balfour  Stewart 
and  Barrett,  Mr.  Hodgson,  Edmund  Gurney 
[q.  v.],  and  Mr.  F.  Podmore. 

By  1886,  when  the  first  considerable  result 
of  these  labours  was  published  in  the  two 
large  volumes  entitled  '  Phantasms  of  the 
Living,'  the  society  numbered  nearly  seven 
hundred  members  and  associates,  including 
many  distinguished  men  of  science  in  Eng- 
land, France,  Italy,  Germany,  Russia,  and 
America.  The  'Phantasms  of  the  Living' 


was  the  joint  work  of  Messrs.  Myers,  Pod- 
more,  and  Gurney,  the  heaviest  part  of  the 
labour  being  borne  by  Gurney.  The  intro- 
duction was  contributed  by  Myers,  and  he 
there  formulates  the  central  theses  of  the 
book,  of  which  the  gist  is  contained  in  the 
two  claims  (1)  '  that  telepathy,  or  the  trans- 
ference of  thought  and  feeling  from  one 
mind  to  another  by  other  than  the  recognised 
sense  channels,  is  a  proved  fact  of  nature ; ' 
and  (2)  '  that  phantasms  (or  impressions)  of 
persons  undergoing  a  crisis,  especially  death, 
are  perceived  with  a  frequency  inexplicable 
by  chance,  and  are  probably  telepathic.'  The 
other  considerable  work  of  Myers  in  the 
same  field,  which  has  already  appeared,  is 
the  long  series  of  papers  on  the  '  Subliminal 
Self,'  which  are  printed  in  the  society's 
'  Proceedings.'  This  work  is  briefly  described 
by  Professor  William  James  ( Essays  in  Popu- 
lar Philosophy,  1897)  as  '  the  first  attempt 
to  consider  the  phenomena  of  hallucination, 
hypnotism,  automatism,  double  personality, 
and  mediumship,  as  connected  parts  of  one 
whole  subject.'  Of  the  permanent  value  of 
this  work  it  is  impossible  to  speak  yet  with 
confidence ;  it  must  be — it  is  recognised  by 
himself  as  being — largely  provisional.  His 
own  labours  in  this  field  were  continued 
through  the  years  since  1882  with  the  same 
devoted  strenuousness,  and  the  definite  study 
which  latterly  he  had  in  hand  was  practi- 
cally completed  before  his  death.  The  results 
will  appear  in  a  book,  already  (March  1901) 
announced,  entitled  '  Human  Personality 
and  its  Survival  of  Bodily  Death.'  The  last 
work  published  in  his  lifetime  was  a  small 
collection  of  essays  called  '  Science  and  a 
Future  Life'  (1893),  in  which  are  included 
the  two  papers  'Tennyson  as  Prophet' and 
'  Modern  Poets  and  Cosmic  Law.'  These 
are  the  maturest  and  most  eloquent  ex- 
pression of  his  views  on  poetry,  especially  in 
relation  to  the  great  questions  that  engrossed 
the  interest  of  his  later  years. 

In  the  striking  essay  on  '  George  Eliot,' 
written  shortly  after  her  death  in  December 
1880,  he  speaks  with  unreserved  admiration 
of  the  noble  and  unselfish  spirit  in  which 
she  faced  the  consequences  of  her  belief  that 
death  was  the  end.  But  he  adds :  '  There 
were  some  to  whom .  .  .  this  resignation 
seemed  premature;  some  whose  impulsion 
to  a  personal  life  beyond  the  grave  was  so 
preoccupying  and  dominant,  that  they  could 
not  readily  acquiesce  in  her  negations,  nor 
range  themselves  unreservedly  as  the  fellow- 
workers  of  her  brave  despair.'  No  reader  can 
fail  to  see  that  he  is  here  speaking  of  himself. 

His  health  failed  rather  suddenly  in  the 
autumn  of  1900,  and  he  went  abroad  for 


Nairne 


218 


Napier 


the  winter  by  medical  advice,  though  en- 
couraged to  hope  that  rest  would  work  a 
complete  cure.  But  early  in  1901  grave 
symptoms  returned,  and  lie  died  at  Rome 
on  It  Jan.  in  his  fifty-eighth  year.  A  tablet 
was  placed  to  his  memory  in  the  protestant 
cemetery,  where  are  Keats's  grave  and 
Shelley's  memorial,  and  he  was  buried  be- 
side his  father  and  mother  in  Koswick 
churchyard,  -within  sight  of  his  old  home. 


All  who  knew  him  agree  that  he  was 
a  man  of  rare  and  high  intellectual  gifts, 
original,  acute,  and  thoughtful;  subtle  in 
insight,  abundant  in  ideas,  vivid  and  elo- 
quent, in  expression ;  a  personality  at  once 
forcible,  ardent,  and  intense. 

[Personal  memories  and  private  information; 
the  Cheltenham  College  Register  ;  his  own  pub- 
lished work,  and  private  diaries  and  papers.] 

A.  S-K. 


N 


NAIENE,  SIR  CHARLES  EDWARD 
(1836-1899),  lieutenant-general,  born  on  30 
June  1836,  was  son  of  Captain  Alexander 
Nairne,  of  the  East  India  Company's  service. 
He  was  educated  at  Addiscombe,  and  was 
commissioned  as  second  lieutenant  in  the 
Bengal  artillery  on  7  Dec.  1855.  He  became 
lieutenant  on  '21  April  1858.  He  served  in 
the  Indian  mutiny  and  received  the  medal, 
and  in  the  Yusafzai  expedition  of  1803.  He 
was  promoted  second  captain  in  the  royal 
artillery  on  24  March  1865,  and  major  on 
2  Nov.  1872.  From  1875  to  1880  he  com- 
manded a  battery  (now  L  battery  of  B  bri- 
gade) of  horse  artillery,  and  served  with  it 
in  the  second  Afghan  war  as  part  of  the 
Peshawar  Held  force,  receiving  the  medal. 

He  became  regimental  lieutenant-colonel 
on  1  May  1880,  and  in  the  Egyptian  expe- 
dition of  1882  he  commanded  the  horse 
artillery  at  the  two  actions  of  Kassassin  and 
at  Tel-el-Kebir.  He  was  mentioned  in 
despatches  (London  Gazette,  2  Nov.  1882), 
was  made  C.B.  on  18  November,  and  received 
the  medal  with  clasp,  the  bronze  star,  and 
the  Medjidie  (3rd class).  He  became  colonel 
in  the  army  on  1  May  1884.  He  was  colonel 
of  the  depot  staff  of  the  horse  artillery  from 
1882  to  1885,  and  commandant  of  the  school 
of  gunnery  at  Shoeburyness  for  the  next 
two  years.  On  1  April  1887  he  was  ap- 
pointed inspector-general  of  artillery  in 
India,  with  the  local  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  He  held  this  post  for  five  years, 
and  brought  about  a  great  improvement  in 
the  shooting  of  the  field  artillery  (ROBERTS, 
Forty-one  Years  in  India,  p.  528). 

He  was  promoted  major-general  on  6  Nov. 
1890,  and  commanded  a  district  in  Bengal 
from  28  March  1892  to  4  Sept.  1893,  when 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  in 
Bombay.  There  it  fell  to  him  to  carry  out 
the  reorganisation  scheme  by  which  the 
three  presidential  armies  were  to  be  merged 
in  one,  and  he  did  this  with  tact  and  ability. 
He  became  lieutenant-general  on  17  Nov. 


1895,  and  was  made  K.C.B.  on  22  June 
1897.  From  20  March  to  4  Nov.  of  1898 
he  was  acting  commander-in-chief  in  India. 
He  left  that  country  with  a  high  reputation 
as  an  administrator,  and  he  had  just  been 
appointed  president  of  the  ordnance  com- 
mittee when  he  died  in  London  on  19  Feb. 
1899.  He  was  buried  on  the  22nd  at  Charl- 
ton  cemetery  with  military  honours.  In 
1860  he  married  Sophie,  daughter  of  the 
Rev.  John  DuprS  Addison,  vicar  of  Fleet, 
Dorset.  She  survived  him. 

[Times,  21  Feb.  1899;  Records  of  the  Royal 
Horse  Artillery ;  Lord  Roberta's  Forty-one  Years 
in  India,  ed.  1898.]  E.  M.  L. 

NAPIER,  SIR  FRANCIS,  ninth  BARON 
NAPIER  OF  MERCHISTOTJN  in  the  Scottish 
peerage,  first  BARON  ETTRICK  OF  ETTRICK 
in  the  peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
eleventh  (Nova  Scotia)  baronet  of  Scott  of 
Thirlestane  (1819-1898),  diplomatist  and 
Indian  governor,  born  in  1819  at  Thirle- 
stane in  Selkirkshire,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
William  John  Napier,  eighth  baron  Napier 
of  Merchistoun  [q.  v.]  On  his  father's  death 
on  11  Oct.  1834  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage 
and  baronetage  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He 
was  educated  partly  by  private  tutors  at 
Thirlestane  and  at  school  at  Saxe-Meiningen, 
and  afterwards  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
which  he  entered  in  1835.  He  left  Cam- 
bridge without  a  degree,  and  passed  some 
time  at  Geneva  under  the  guardianship  of  the 
Rev.  Walter  Patterson,  and  there  acquired  a 
command  of  foreign  languages  which  proved 
to  be  most  useful  to  him  in  after-life.  He 
also  studied  very  carefully  the  writings  of 
Gibbon,  which  no  doubt  helped  to  mould  his 
own  style.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  to  the 
diplomatic  service,  and  after  serving  as  an 
attach6  at  Vienna  and  at  Constantinople, 
and  subsequently  as  secretary  of  legation  at 
Naples,  and  as  secretary  to  the  embassy  at 
Constantinople,  he  was  sent  as  envoy  to  the 
United  States  of  America,  whence  he  was 


Napier 


219 


Napier 


transferred  to  the  Hague.  From  December 
1860  to  September  1864  he  was  ambassador 
at  St.  Petersburg,  and  from  September  1864 
to  January  1866  at  Berlin.  In  these  various 
diplomatic  posts  Lord  Napier  established  a 
high  reputation.  Many  years  ago  Edward 
Robert  Bulwer  Lytton,  first  earl  of  Lytton 
[q.  v.],  told  the  writer  of  this  article  that  he 
regarded  Napier  as  the  only  man  of  genius 
in  the  diplomatic  service  in  his  time.  When 
secretary  of  legation  at  Naples  in  1848  and 
1849,  he  was  charg6  d'affaires  for  eighteen 
months,  including  the  critical  period  of  the 
Sicilian  insurrection.  On  that  occasion  the 
judgment  and  tact  with  which  he  discharged 
his  duties  were  highly  appreciated  by  Lord 
Palmerston,then  secretary  of  state  forforeign 
affairs,  by  whom  Napier's  talents,  as  mani-> 
fested  in  the  higher  diplomatic  appoint- 
ments which  he  subsequently  held,  were  re- 
garded as  justifying  an  expectation  that  he 
would  rise  to  the  highest  offices  in  the  state. 
Both  by  Lord  Aberdeen  and  Lord  Clarendon 
his  services  were  much  valued.  In  the 
United  States  he  was  considered  to  have 
been  the  most  acceptable  envoy  they  had  up 
to  that  time  received  from  Great  Britain. 
As  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg  he  was  a 
pertona  grata  to  the  emperor  Alexander  II, 
who  wished  to  confer  upon  him  the  highest 
Russian  order,  that  of  St.  Andrew,  because 
he  considered  that  Lord  Napier  had  worked 
for  peace  between  England  and  Russia  which 
at  that  time  was  threatened.  This  proposal 
having  to  be  abandoned,  as  no  British  envoy 
could  accept  a  foreign  order,  the  emperor  sat 
for  his  portrait,  which  he  presented  to  Napier. 
A  similar  compliment  was  afterwards  paid 
to  him  by  the  king  of  Prussia. 

In  January  1866  Napier  was  appointed 
governor  of  Madras.  This  office  he  held  for 
six  years,  having  been  invited  by  George 
Douglas  Campbell,  eighth  duke  of  Argyll 
[q.v.  Suppl.],  then  secretary  of  state  for  India, 
to  prolong  his  tenure  of  the  office  beyond 
the  usual  time.  The  duties  of  an  Indian 
governor  are  very  different  from  those  which 
had  previously  devolved  upon  Napier  ;  but 
his  administration  fully  justified  the  promise 
of  his  previous  career.  He  went  very 
thoroughly  into  all  the  questions  which 
came  before  him,  mastering  the  facts,  and 
recording  his  views  with  a  fulness  and  clear- 
ness which  left  nothing  to  be  desired.  A 
few  months  after  taking  charge  of  the 
government  he  found  himself  confronted  by 
a  serious  famine  in  Ganjam,  the  northern 
district  of  the  presidency.  He  at  once  re- 
paired to  the  district  and  visited  the  affected 
tracts,  stimulating  the  district  officers  by  his 
example,  and  setting  on  foot  the  measures 


which  were  necessary  to  meet  the  calamity. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  there  was  no 
branch  of  the  administration  to  which  he 
did  not  devote  time  and  attention.  Whether 
it  was  a  question  relating  to  the  assessment 
of  the  land  revenue,  or  the  garrison  required 
to  maintain  the  peace  of  the  presidency,  or 
the  strength  of  the  police,  or  the  establish- 
ment of  municipal  and  local  government — 
all  these  matters  received  from  Napier  full 
and  careful  consideration  ;  but  the  business 
to  which  he  devoted  special  attention  was 
that  connected  with  the  public  health. 
Hospitals,  dispensaries,  and  everything  re- 
lating to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  pre- 
vention of  disease  were  to  him  objects  of 
the  deepest  interest.  As  secretary  to  the 
embassy  at  Constantinople  he  had  made  the 
acquaintance  and  had  acquired  the  friend- 
ship of  Miss  Florence  Nightingale,  to  whom 
his  official  position  had  enabled  him  to 
render  valuable  assistance  in  carrying  out 
her  work.  Throughout  his  residence  in 
India  he  kept  up  a  correspondence  with  her 
on  subjects  connected  with  the  public  health 
in  that  country.  He  also  from  the  first 
took  a  great  and  practical  interest  in  de- 
veloping public  works,  and  especially  works 
of  irrigation.  He  fully  recognised  the  great 
value  of  the  irrigation  works  carried  out  or 
devised  by  Sir  Arthur  Cotton  [q.  v.  Suppl.] 
He  visited  them  all  at  an  early  period  after 
assuming  the  government,  and  during  the  six 
years  that  he  remained  in  India  he  gave 
•  steady  encouragement  to  the  completion  and 
j  development  of  the  various  irrigation  systems 
|  then  in  operation.  It  was  while  Napier 
was  governor  of  Madras  that  the  Pennar 
anicut  was  built,  and  some  progress  made 
with  the  distributing  canals.  During  that 
time  also  the  Rushikuliya  anicut  in  Ganjam 
was  projected  and  planned,  and  the  great 
work  of  diverting  the  Periyar  river  in  Tra- 
vancore  from  its  natural  channel,  leading 
down  to  the  western  coast,  where  the  water 
was  not  required,  into  the  river  Vaigai  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula,  was 
brought  by  Napier  before  the  government  of 
India  and  the  secretary  of  state.  This  re- 
markable work  was  successfully  completed 
a  few  years  ago. 

Very  shortly  after  Napier's  arrival  at 
Madras  he  visited  Calcutta  and  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Sir  John  Lawrence  [see 
LAWRENCE,  JOHN-  LAIKD  MAIR,  first  BARON 
LAWRENCE],  with  whom  he  established  most 
friendly  relations,  as  he  afterwards  did  with 
the  Earl  of  Mayo.  Napier  from  the  first 
recognised  the  respective  positions  of  the 
supreme  government  of  India  and  of  the 
minor  governments,  and  did  everything  in 


Napier 


220 


Napier 


his  power  to  diminish  the  friction  and  the 
presidential  jealousies  which  are  so  often 
detrimental  to  the  efficiency  of  Indian  ad- 
ministration. At  the  same  time,  when- 
ever he  perceived  a  tendency  to  override 
the  legitimate  interests  of  the  presidency  en- 
trusted to  his  charge,  he  did  not  fail  to  re- 
monstrate. It  may  be  truly  affirmed  that  at 
no  period  in  the  history  of  British  India, 
since  the  days  of  Sir  Thomas  Munro  [q.  v.], 
were  the  relations  of  the  government  of 
India  and  of  the  Madras  government  more 
satisfactory  than  they  were  during  the  six 
yean  in  which  Napier  presided  over  the 
government  of  Madras. 

In  February  1872,  in  consequence  of  the 
assassination  of  the  Earl  of  Mayo  [see 
BOCRKE,  RICHARD  SOUTHWELL],  it  devolved 
upon  Napier  to  assume  temporarily  the  office 
of  governor-general  of  India.  During  the 
time,  a  little  short  of  three  months,  that  the 
temporary  governor-generalship  lasted,  no 
business  of  very  great  importance  arose,  and 
Napier,  on  being  relieved  by  Lord  North- 
brook,  returned  to  England.  For  his  Indian 
services  he  was  created  a  baron  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  with  the  title  of  Ettrick  (16  July 
1872).  In  the  same  year  he  took  the  chair 
at  the  meeting  of  the  social  science  congress 
which  was  held  at  Plymouth.  The  address 
which  he  delivered  on  that  occasion  called 
forth  some  comment  at  the  time  as  being 
unduly  socialistic ;  but  several  of  the  mea- 
sures which  Napier  then  suggested  have  been 
since  embodied  in  the  county  councils  and 
parish  councils  acts.  In  this  address,  as  in 
many  of  his  utterances,  he  evinced  the 
greatest  sympathy  with  the  condition  of  the 
poor,  both  in  the  rural  and  in  the  urban  dis- 
tricts. An  address  delivered  on  29  April 
1878  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  was,  with 
those  of  Canon  (afterwards  Bishop)  Light- 
foot  and  Bishop  Kelly,  published  in  the 
same  year  under  the  title  '  Missions,  their 
Temporal  Utility,  Rate  of  Progress,  and 
Spiritual  Foundation.'  In  1874  he  delivered 
an  address  on  education  at  the  social 
science  congress  held  at  Glasgow.  While 
he  continued  to  live  in  London  he  served  for 
some  time  on  the  London  school  board  and 
took  an  active  part  in  its  proceedings.  He 
also  served  as  chairman  of  the  dwellings 
committee  of  the  Charity  Organisation  So- 
ciety. He  subsequently  took  up  his  resi- 
dence on  his  estate  in  Scotland,  and  in  1883 
he  presided  over  a  royal  commission  which 
was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  condition 
of  the  crofters  and  cottars  in  the  highlands 
and  islands  of  Scotland.  This  was  a  con- 
genial duty,  which  gave  full  scope  to  his 


sympathy  with  the  poor.  The  report,  which 
was  drafted  by  him,  was  thorough  and  ex- 
haustive. It  was  vehemently  attacked  in 
the  '  Nineteenth  Century '  for  November 
lfr<84  by  the  late  Duke  of  Argyll,  whose 
criticisms  were  replied  to  by  Napier  in 
an  effective  article  in  a  subsequent  num- 
ber of  the  same  review.  The  report  was 
followed  by  the  appointment  of  a  permanent 
commission,  which  deals  with  all  questions 
concerning  the  crofters  and  cottars.  During 
the  latter  years  of  his  life  Napier  resided 
almost  entirely  in  Scotland,  acting  as  con- 
vener of  his  county,  and  interesting  himself 
generally  in  local  affairs.  He  was  ex- 
tremely popular  with  people  of  all  classes  on 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  estate,  to 
whom  he  had  endeared  himself  by  his  kindly 
and  generous  nature.  He  was  a  LL.D.  of 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Harvard.  He 
died  very  suddenly  on  19  Dec.  1898  at 
Florence,  where  he  and  Lady  Napier  and 
Ettrick  had  spent  their  honeymoon  fifty- 
three  years  before,  and  where  they  had  gone 
to  pass  the  winter.  He  had  married,  in 
1845,  Anne  Jane  Charlotte,  only  daughter 
of  Robert  Manners  Lockwood  of  Dun-y- 
Graig  in  Glamorganshire.  Lady  Napier, 
who  survives  her  husband,  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  imperial  order  of  the  crown 
of  India  shortly  after  it  was  constituted. 
Lord  Napier  left  three  sons,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded in  his  titles  and  estate  by  his  eldest 
son,  William  George. 

Napier's  career  was  undoubtedly  a  very 
brilliant  one  up  to  a  certain  point.  As  the 
representative  of  Queen  Victoria  at  two  of 
the  most  important  courts  in  Europe  and  at 
Washington,  he  had  discharged  his  important 
functions  with  admirable  judgment  and  tact. 
His  government  of  Madras  had  been  so  suc- 
cessful that  he  was  invited  to  retain  it 
beyond  the  usual  time.  His  long  official 
experience  and  dignified  bearing  would  have 
seemed  to  point  him  out  as  the  most  fitting 
successor  to  Lord  Mayo,  whose  loss  India 
was  at  that  time  deploring.  He  certainly 
had  shown  himself  to  be  possessed  of  quali- 
fications which  few  governors-general  of 
India  had  displayed  before  being  appointed 
to  that  high  post.  He  was  an  eloquent 
speaker.  His  reply  to  an  address  which 
was  presented  to  him  by  the  natives  of 
Madras  on  his  departure  from  India  has 
seldom  been  surpassed  in  felicity  of  diction 
and  pathos.  But  he  was  passed  over.  After 
his  return  to  England  he  might  have  been 
expected  to  follow  with  eminent  success  a 
political  career.  But  he  was  without  the 
pecuniary  means  of  meeting  the  expenses 
of  parliamentary  life,  and,  although  not 


Newman 


221 


Newman 


destitute  of  ambition,  he  was  too  proud  to 
press  his  claims.  Thus  it  came  about  that 
Lord  Palmerston's  prediction  was  unful- 
filled. 

[Foreign  Office  List  for  1898  ;  Phillimore's 
Life  of  Admiral  of  the  Fleet  Sir  William  Parker, 
Bart.,  G.C.B.,  vol.  iii.  London,  1880);  Minutes 
recorded  by  Lord  Napier  when  Governor  of 
Madras ;  Address  delivered  at  the  Social  Science 
Congress,  September  1872  ;  Report  of  Her 
Majesty's  Commissioners  of  Inquiry  into  the 
Condition  of  the  Crofters  and  Cottars  in  the 
Highlands  and  Islands  of  Scotland,  1884 ; 
Nineteenth  Century,  November  1884  and 
March  1885  ;  Longman's  Magazine,  February 
1899;  family  information  and  personal  know- 
ledge acquired  by  the  writer  when  closely  asso- 
ciated with  Lord  Napier  in  the  government  of 
Madras.]  .  A.  J.  A. 

NEWMAN,  FRANCIS  WILLIAM 
(1805-1897),  scholar  and  man  of  letters, 
third  son  of  John  Newman  (d.  29  Sept. 
1824),  banker,  by  his  wife  Jemima  (d.  17  May 
1836),  youngest  child  of  Henry  Fourdrinier, 
and  sister  of  Henry  Fourdrinier  [q.  v.],  was 
born  in  London  on  27  June  1805.  His 
father,  of  Dutch  descent,  was  '  an  admirer 
of  Benjamin  Franklin  and  Thomas  Jefferson/ 
and  '  had  learned  his  morality  more  from 
Shakspeare  than  from  the  Bible ; '  his 
mother,  of  Huguenot  extraction,  has  been 
incorrectly  described  as  a  Calvinist  (F.  W. 
NEWMAN,  Contributions,  1891,  p.  62).  He 
followed  his  brothers  to  the  large  private 
school  of  the  Rev.  George  Nicholas,  D.C.L., 
at  Baling ;  in  1821  he  was  '  captain  '  of  the 
school,  and  in  the  autumn  of  that  year, 
having  been  confirmed  by  William  Howley 
[q.  v.j,  then  bishop  of  London,  whom  he 
thought  '  a  made-up  man,'  he  went  to  Ox- 
ford. He  lodged  with  his  brother,  John 
Henry  Newman  [q.  yj,  the  future  cardinal, 
first  at  Seale's  coffee-house,  then  from 
Easter  1822  at  Palmer's  in  Merton  Lane, 
with  Joseph  Blanco  White  [q.  v.],  who 
joined  them  at  breakfast  and  tea.  On 
29  Nov.  1822  he  matriculated  from  Wor- 
cester College.  Going  into  residence  in  1824, 
he  found  an  '  engraving  of  the  Virgin '  on 
the  wall  of  his  room,  and,  directing  its  re- 
moval, learned  that  it  had  come  by  his 
brother's  order.  He  notes  this  as  the  .point 
at  which  he  began  definitely  to  '  resist '  his 
brother's  influence.  In  1826  he  took  his 
B.A.,  with  a  double  first  in  classics  and  in 
mathematics,  and  was  elected  fellow  of 
Balliol.  On  his  taking  the  degree,  the  whole 
assembly  rose  to  welcome  him,  an  honour 
paid  previously  only  to  Sir  Robert  Peel  on 
taking  his  double  first.  His  brother's  verses 
on  his  twenty-first  birthday  (1826)  show  that 


he  expected  him  to  take  orders  ('  shortly  thou 
Must  buckle  on  the  sword ').  From  1826  he 
saw  no  foothold  for  a  doctrine  of  the  future 
life  apart  from  revelation.  He  was  in  Dublin 
(1827-8)  as  tutor  in  the  household  of  '  an 
Irish  peer.'  Here  he  met  John  Nelson 
Darby  [q.  v.],  and  attended  nonconformist 
worship  for  the  first  time.  Returning  to 
Oxford  in  the  autumn  of  1828,  he  aided  in 
looking  after  the  poor  at  Littlemore.  Pusey's 
first  books,  on  German  theology  (1828- 
1830),  '  delighted '  him  by  their  mixture 
of  pietism  and  rationalism. 

In  1830  he  resigned  his  fellowship,  being 
unable  to  take  his  M.A.  through  unwil- 
lingness to  subscribe  the  articles.  Through 
Darby  he  had  become  acquainted  with  An- 
thony Norris  Groves  [q.  v.],  whom  he  fol- 
lowed (September  1830)  on  a  mission  to 
Bagdad  with  John  Vesey  Parnell  [see  under 
PARNELL,  HENRY  BROOKE,  first  BARON 
CONGLETON]  and  Edward  Cronin  ;  his  '  Per- 
sonal Narrative'  (1856,  12mo)  consists  of 
letters  (23  Sept.  1830  to  14  April  1833)  re- 
vised '  to  suit  the  writer's  maturer  taste.' 
At  Aleppo  he  fell  in  with  a  Mohammedan 
carpenter,  and  was  impressed  by  his  calm 
retort  that  God,  in  giving  to  the  English 
great  gifts,  had  withheld  the  knowledge  of 
the  true  religion. 

Leaving  the  East  in  order  to  obtain  more 
volunteers  for  missionary  enterprise,  New- 
man reached  England  again  in  1833,  about 
the  time  of  his  brother's  return  from  Italy, 
and  was  received  '  kindly,  if  stiffly  ; '  he  had 
communicated  with  baptists,  and  was  zea- 
lous for  intercommunion  of  all  protestants. 
His  non-acceptance  of  an  '  evangelical  for- 
mula '  estranged  him  from  Darby.  He  be- 
came classical  tutor  (1834)  in  the  Bristol 
College  (an  unsectarian  institution,  exist- 
ing from  1829  to  1841),  and  was  baptised 
(7  July  1836)  in  Broadmead  chapel  (though 
he  was  against  making  adult  baptism  a 
term  of  communion)  and  married.  At 
Bristol  he  lectured  also  on  logic ;  the  '  Lec- 
tures '  were  published  (Oxford,  1838,  8vo). 
j  In  October  1840  he  became  professor  of 
classical  literature  in  Manchester  New  Col- 
lege (now  Manchester  College,  Oxford), 
removed  in  that  year  from  York  to  Man- 
chester. His  opening  address  was  pub- 
lished in  '  Introductory  Lectures,  Manchester 
New  College'  (1841,  8vo).  He  published 
an  abridged  translation  of  Hubert's  '  Eng- 
|  lish  Universities'  (1843,  8vo).  His  'Catho- 
lic Union'  (1844,  12mo;  2nd  edit.  1854, 
12mo)  was  a  plea  for  a  '  church  of  the 
future'  on  an  ethical  basis,  leaving  theo- 
logical questions  open.  In  1846  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  Latin  in  Univer- 


Newman 


222 


Newman 


sity  College,  London.  He  further  accepted, 
in  February  1848,  the  principalship  of  Uni- 
versity Hall  (an  institution  founded  by  uni- 
tarians  in  Gordon  Square),  and  delivered 
(20  July)  an  address  on  occasion  of  the 
laying  the  foundation  stone,  but  resigned 
the  principalship  in  November,  through  dis- 
satisfaction witn  structural  arrangements  of 
the  building.  As  professor  of  Latin  litera- 
ture his  methods  were  in  marked  contrast  to 
those  of  Henry  Maiden  (\j.  v.],  the  professor 
of  Greek ;  he  succeeded  in  awaking  interest 
in  his  subject  rather  than  in  promoting  depth 
of  study ;  his  prelections,  always  without 
notes,  were  bright  and  vivid.  He  introduced 
the  Italian  mode  of  pronouncing  Latin.  Two 
of  his  favourite  books  for  class  translation 
were  turned  into  Latin  by  himself,'  Hiawatha' 
(1862, 12mo)  and  'Robinson  Crusoe'  ('  Re- 
bilius  Cruso,'  1884,  8vo).  He  had  earlier 
published  English  versions  of  Horace's 
Odes  in  unrhymed  metres  (1853,  12mo ; 
1876,  8vo),  and  of  Homer's  Iliad  (1856, 
8vo ;  1871,  8vo) ;  the  latter,  specially  in- 
tended to  be  read  by  working  men,  was 
severely  criticised  by  Matthew  Arnold,  who, 
admitting  Newman's  '  great  ability  and 
genuine  learning,'  thought  he  had  '  failed 
more  conspicuously  than  any '  of  his  prede- 
cessors, 'for  want  of  appreciating'  the 
'nobleness'  of  Homer  (ABNOLD,  On  Trans- 
lating Homer,  1861,  16mo;  NEWMAN  pub- 
lished A  Reply,  1861,  16mo).  Later,  his 
philological  publications  extended  to  Arabic 
and  to  African  dialects.  He  held  the  Latin 
chair  till  1869,  when  he  became  emeritus 
professor. 

Meantime  he  had  acquired  a  special  re- 
pute by  bis  writings  on  subjects  of  religion, 
of  which  the  most  important  were  his  '  His- 
tory of  the  Hebrew  Monarchy '  (1847,  8vo ; 
1853,  12mo),  a  study  rendered  obsolete  by 
more  recent  research ;  his  pietistic  treatise 
on  '  The  Soul '  (1849,  12mo  ;  3rd  edit,  1852, 
12mo),  perhaps  the  most  influential  of  his 
works ;  his  '  Phases  of  Faith '  (1850,  12mo  ; 
1852,  12mo),  an  autobiographical  account 
of  his  religious  changes,  which  excited  much 
controversy,  producing  '  The  Eclipse  of 
Faith '  (1852,8vo),  by  Henry  Rogers  (1806- 
1877)  fq.  v.],  with  Newman's  'Reply' 
(1853,  8vo),  and  Rogers's  '  Defence  '  (1854, 
8vo)  ;  and  his  'Theism,  Doctrinal  and  Prac- 
tical,' 1858,  4to.  The  working  of  his  mind, 
which  had  gradually  led  him  to  the  rejec- 
tion of  historical  Christianity,  left  his 
theistic  attitude  unshaken,  though  of  im- 
mortality he  could  not  speak  with  certain 
voice.  He  occasionally  conducted  the  ser- 
vice at  South  Place  Chapel,  Finsbury,  and 
perhaps  elsewhere.  In  1876  he  joined  the 


British  and  Foreign  Unitarian  Association, 
and  was  made  a  vice-president  in  1879. 

In  political  questions,  especially  those 
bearing  on  social  problems,  he  took  a  keen 
interest.  He  was  the  friend  of  Mazzini  and 
Kossuth,  and  published  '  Reminiscences  of 
Kossuth  and  Pulszky'  (1888, 8vo).  Women's 
suffrage  he  warmly  espoused ;  provincial 
councils  he  regarded  as  '  the  restoration  of 
the  heptarchy.'  To  vaccination  he  was  as 
keenly  opposed  as  to  vivisection,  while  he 
became  a  strong  advocate  of  a  vegetarian 
diet.  On  these,  as  on  religious  topics,  he 
wrote  much  in  later  life.  Some  of  his  con- 
troversial pamphlets  were  produced  under 
the  auspices  of  Thomas  Scott  (1808-1878) 
[q.  v.l  With  his  eldest  brother  there  was 
latterly  no  close  intimacy,  but  no  breach  of 
friendly  feeling  ;  from  1852  they  united  in 
supporting  their  '  very  eccentric '  brother, 
Charles  Robert  Newman  (d.  1884).  In  1877 
John  Henry  Newman  wrote,  '  Much  as  we 
love  each  other,  neither  would  like  to  be 
mistaken  for  the  other'  (OLDCASXLE,  Car- 
dinal Newman,  1890,  p.  5).  He  published, 
after  the  cardinal's  death,  '  Contributions 
chiefly  to  the  Early  History  of  the  late  Car- 
dinal Newman '  (1891,  8vo,  two  editions), 
important  for  the  biographies  of  both  men, 
though  it  bears  marks  of  defective  memory, 
and  some  of  its  criticisms  are  more  trenchant 
than  just. 

He  died  at  15  Arundel  Ten-ace,  Weston- 
super-Mare,  on  4  Oct.  1897,  and  was  buried 
in  the  cemetery  there  on  9  Oct.  In  the 
funeral  address  the  Rev.  John  Temperley 
Grey,  congregationalist,  affirms  that '  of  late 
his  attitude  to  Christ  had  undergone  a  great 
change,'  an  impression  which  seems  at 
variance  with  the  tenor  of  his  last  publica- 
tion (1897).  His  slender  form  and  acute 
physiognomy  were  often  made  more  striking 
by  peculiarities  of  dress.  His  habits  were 
very  simple  ;  he  regularly  conducted  family 
prayers  after  breakfast.  He  was  twice  mar- 
ried, but  had  no  issue;  his  first  wife  being  a 
daughter  of  Sir  John  Kennaway,  British 
resident  at  Hyderabad. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  above,  he 
published  the  following : 

I.  LINGUISTIC  :  1.  'A  Collection  of  Poetry 
for  ...  Elocution,'  1850,  8vo.  2.  '  Homeric 
Translation  in  Theory  and  Practice,'  1861, 
8vo  (reply  to  Matthew  Arnold).  3.  '  The 
Text  of  the  Iguvine  Inscriptions,'  1864,  8vo. 
4.  'A  Handbook  of  Modern  Arabic,'  1866, 
8vo.  5.  '  Translations  of  English  Poetry 
into  Latin  Verse,'  1868,  8vo.  6.  '  Orthoepy 
.  . .  Mode  of  Accenting  English,'  1869,  8vo. 
7.  'Dictionary  of  Modern  Arabic,'  1871, 
8vo,  2  vols.  8.  '  Libyan  Vocabulary,'  1882, 


Newman 


223 


Newth 


8vo.  9.  'Comments  on  the  Text  of 
yEschylus/  1884,  8vo  ;  '  Supplement . . .  and 
Notes  on  Euripides,'  1890,  8vo.  10.  '  Ku- 
bail  Vocabulary,'  1887,  8vo. 

II.  MATHEMATICAL:  11.  '  The  Difficulties 
of  Elementary  Geometry,'  1841,  8vo.     12. 
'  Mathematical  Tracts,'    Cambridge,    1888, 
sq.  8vo.    13.  'Elliptic Integrals,'  Cambridge, 
1889,  8vo  (an  instalment  had  been  published 
in  the  'Dublin  and  Cambridge  Magazine' 
forty  years  before). 

III.  HISTORICAL  :  14.  '  Four  Lectures  on 
the  Contrasts  of  Ancient  and  Modern  His- 
tory,' 1847,  16mo.     15.  '  Regal  Rome,'  1852, 
8vo.     16.    '  The    Crimes   of  the  House   of 
Hapsburg,'  1853,  8vo. 

IV.  SOCIAL  AXD  POLITICAL  :  17.  'A  State 
Church  not  Defensible,'  1845,  12mo  ;  1848, 
12mo.     18.  '  On  Separating  . .  .  Church  from 
State,'   1846,   12mo.     19.    'Appeal    to   the 
Middle  Classes  on  ...  Reforms,'  1848,  8vo. 

20.  'On  ...  Our  National  Debt,'  1849,  8vo. 

21.  '  Lectures  on  Political  Economy,'  1851, 
12mo.     22.  '  The  Ethics  of  War,'  1860,  8vo. 
23.    '  English  Institutions  and  their  .    .   . 
Reforms,'  1865,  8vo.     24.  '  The  Permissive 
Bill,'  Manchester,  1865,  8vo.  25.  '  The  Cure 
of  the  great  Social  Evil,'  1869,  8vo ;   first 
part  reprinted  as  '  On  the  State  Provision 
for  Vice,'  1871,  8vo ;  second  part  reprinted, 

1889,  8vo.    26.  '  Europe  of  the  near  Future,' 
1871,  8vo.     27.  '  Lecture  on  Women's  Suf- 
frage,' Bristol  [1869],  8vo.     28.  '  Essays  on 
Diet,'  1883,  8vo.    29.  '  The  Land  as  National 
Property '  [1886],  8vo.    30.  'The  Corruption 
now  called  Neo-Malthusianism/  1889,  8vo ; 

1890,  8vo.     31.  'The  Vaccination  Question,' 
oth  edit.  1895,  8vo. 

V.  RELIGIOUS  :  32.  '  On  the  Relation  of 
Free  Churches  to  Moral  Sentiment,'  1847, 
8vo.    33.  '  Thoughts  on  a  Free  and  Compre- 
hensive Christianity/  Ramsgate  [1865],  8vo. 
34.    'The   Religious  Weakness   of  Protes- 
tantism,' Ramsgate,   1866,   8vo.      35.  '  On 
the  Defective  Morality  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment,' Ramsgate,  1867,  8vo.     36.  '  The  Bigot 
and   the    Sceptic,'    Ramsgate   T1869],  8vo. 

37.  '  James  and  Paul,'  Ramsgate,  1869,  8vo. 

38.  '  Anthropomorphism,'  Ramsgate,  1870, 
8vo.      39.    '  On    the   Causes    of    Atheism ' 
[1871],  8vo.     40.  '  The  Divergence  of  Cal- 
vinism from  Pauline  Doctrine,'  Ramsgate, 
1871,  8vo.    41.  '  The  Temptation  of  Jesus,' 
Ramsgate  [1871],  8vo.     42.  '  On  the  Rela- 
tion of  Theism  to  Pantheism,  and  on  the 
Galla  Religion,'  Ramsgate,  1872,  8vo.     43. 
'  Thoughts  on  the  Existence  of  Evil,'  Rams- 
gate [1872],  8vo.     44.  '  On  the   Historical 
Depravation   of  Christianity,'   1873,  12mo. 
45.  'Ancient  Sacrifice,'  1874,  8vo.     46.  <  He- 
brew Theism,'  1874,  8vo.     47.  'The  Two 


Theisms  '  [1874],  8vo.  48.  '  On  this  and  the 
other  World'  [1875],  8ve.  49.  'Religion 
not  History,'  1877,  8vo.  50.  '  Morning 
Prayers,' 1878,  8vo ;  1882,  8vo.  51.  'What 
is  Christianity  without  Christ  ? '  1881,  8vo. 
52.  '  A  Christian  Commonwealth,'  1883, 
8vo.  53.  '  Christianity  in  its  Cradle,'  1884, 
8vo  ;  1886,  8vo.  54.  '  Life  after  Death  ?  ' 
1886,  8vo  ;  1887,  8vo.  55.  'The  New  Cru- 
sades; or  the  Duty  of  the  Church  to  the 
World,'  Nottingham,  1886,  8vo.  56.  '  He- 
brew Jesus :  His  true  Creed,'  Nottingham, 
1895,  8vo.  Posthumous  was  57.  'Mature 
Thought  on  Christianity,'  1897,  8vo,  edited 
by  Mr.  George  Jacob  Holyoake. 

Several  other  lectures  and  '  lay  sermons  ' 
came  from  his  pen ;  three  of  them  were  re- 
printed in  'Discourses,'  1875,  8vo ;  three 
volumes  of  his  '  Miscellanies '  appeared  in 
1869-80, 8vo.  He  edited  Kossuth's '  Speeches ' 
(1853,  12mo,  condensed),  and  Smith's 
'Fruits  and  Farinacea'  (1880,  12mo, 
abridged).  He  wrote  much  in  '  Fraser's 
Magazine,'  the  '  Westminster,' '  Prospective/ 
and  '  Theological '  Reviews,  the  'Reasoner/ 
the  'Index'  (Boston,  U.S.A.),  and  other 
periodicals. 

[Times,  6  Oct.  1897;  Inquirer,  9  Oct.  and 
27  Nov.  1897;  In  Memoriam,  Emeritus  Pro- 
fessor F.  W.  Newman,  1897  (portrait);  Chris- 
tian Eeformer,  1853,  p.  386  ;  Letters  and  Corre- 
spondence of  J.  H.  Newman,  1891  ;  private  in- 
formation; F.  W.  Newman's  works  and  authori- 
ties cited  above.]  A.  G. 

NEWTH,  SAMUEL  (1821-1898),  prin- 
cipal of  New  College,  London,  born  in  1821, 
was  son  of  Elisha  Newth,  by  his  wife,  the 
eldest  daughter  of  J.  Killick.  His  father 
was  an  early  convert  of  Rowland  Hill  (1744- 
1833)  [q.v.],  with  whom  he  was  associated 
at  the  Surrey  congregational  chapel,  so  that 
Newth's  boyhood  was  passed  under  the  sway 
of  vigorous  religious  influences,  and  he  came 
into  contact  with  all  the  leading  congrega- 
tionalists  of  the  time.  His  early  education 
was  conducted  by  his  father,  who  instructed 
him  in  Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew,  French,  and 
Italian,  after  which,  in  1837,  he  entered 
Coward  College.  He  graduated  B.A.  and 
then  M.A.  in  the  university  of  London  with 
high  mathematical  honours,  and  after  ordi- 
nation settled,  in  1842,  at  Broseley,  Shrop- 
shire, where  for  three  years  he  was  minister 
of  the  congregational  chapel.  In  1845  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  classics  and  ma- 
thematics at  Western  College,  Plymouth, 
one  of  the  congregational  colleges  for  train- 
ing candidates  for  the  ministry. 

While  holding  this  appointment  he  pub- 
lished two  elementary  text-books  on  natural 
philosophy, '  The  Elements  of  Statics,  Dyna- 


Nevvth 


224 


Newton 


mice,  and  Hydrostatics '  (1851),  and  '  A 
First  Book  of  Natural  Philosophy '  (1854), 
which  are  distinguished  by  clearness  and 
simplicity  of  treatment,  and  were  long  re- 
cognised as  standard  text-books. 

In  1855  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  and  ecclesiastical  history  at 
New  College,  St.  John's  Wood,  another  of 
the  congregational  colleges,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1889.  In  his  work  at  this 
college,  the  students  attending  which  num- 
ber from  thirty  to  forty,  the  varied  character 
of  Newth's  attainments  was  of  special  value. 
In  1867  he  added  the  teaching  of  classics 
to  his  other  duties,  and  in  1872  succeeded 
Robert  Halley  [q.  v.]  as  principal  of  the 
college.  This  post  and  the  professorships  of 
New  Testament  exegesis  and  ecclesiastical 
history  he  retained  until  his  resignation 
in  1889,  after  which,  however,  he  still  main- 
tained his  position  as  a  member  of  the  col- 
lege council. 

Newth's  great  work  lay  in  the  influence 
which  he  exerted  as  principal  of  New  Col- 
lege on  the  minds  of  the  divinity  students 
who  came  under  his  care.  Although  his 
rule  was  strict,  he  gained  their  affection  and 
esteem.  He  was  a  most  accurate  scholar  in 
all  of  the  many  branches  of  learning  which 
he  cultivated,  and  was  deeply  versed  in  the 
history  of  the  nonconformist  colleges.  In 
1870  his  ability  and  reputation  as  a  Greek 
scholar  were  recognised  by  his  appointment 
as  a  member  of  the  company  of  New  Testa- 
ment revisers,  and  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  revision  which  was  completed  in  1880. 
A  general  account  of  the  labours  of  the  re- 
visers, together  with  an  historical  sketch  of 
the  whole  question  of  biblical  translation, 
was  given  by  him  in  a  series  of '  Lectures  on 
Bible  Revision,'  published  in  1881. 

Newth  attained  a  very  high  position 
among  congregational  divines,  and  received 
the  highest  honours  at  the  disposal  of  the 
congregational  union.  In  1875  the  degree 
of  D.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  uni- 
versity of  Glasgow,  and  in  1880  he  was 
elected  chairman  of  the  congregational  union 
of  England  and  Wales,  while  he  also  offi- 
ciated as  chairman  of  the  London  congrega- 
tional board,  and  organised  the  congre- 
gational library  at  the  Farringdon  Street 
Memorial  Hall.  For  the  hist  eight  years  of 
his  life  he  resided  at  Acton,  where  he  died 
on  30  Jan.  1898. 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  men- 
tioned Newth  published  '  Mathematical  Ex- 
amples,' 1859,  and  '  Christian  Union,'  an 
address  delivered  to  the  congregational 
union,  1880;  and  edited  '  Chambers  of 
Imagery,'  a  series  of  sermons  by  his  brother, 


the  Rev.  Alfred  Newth,  1876,  to  which  he 
contributed  a  memoir  of  the  author.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  an  essay  on  '  The  New 
Testament  Witness  concerning  Christian 
Churches,'  contributed  to  a  series  of  essays  by 
various  writers  published  under  the  title 
'  The  Ancient  Faith '  in  1897,  and  wrote 
numerous  articles  in  the  'Cyclopaedia  of 
Biblical  Literature.' 

[Short  biographical  notices  are  given  in  the 
Times,  31  Jan.  1898;  Nature,  Ivii.  322;  the 
British  Weekly,  3  Feb.  1898  ;  the  Independent, 
.3  Feb.  1898  ;  Congregational  Year  Book,  1899, 
p.  62  ;  '  Dr.  S.  Newth,'  a  memorial  address  by 
Joseph  Parker,  British  Weekly,  3  Feb.  1898  ; 
Some  Memories  of  Dr.  Newth,  the  Independent, 
3  Feb.  1898.]  A.  H->-. 

NEWTON,  SIB  CHARLES  THOMAS 
(1816-1894),  archaeologist,  second  son  of 
Newton  Dickinson  Hand  Newton,  vicar  of 
Clungunford,  Salop,  and  afterwards  of  Bred- 
wardine  in  the  same  county,  was  born  in 
1816.  He  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury 
School  (then  under  Samuel  Butler),  and 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (matriculating 
17  Oct.  1833),  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in 
1837  and  M.A.  in  1840. 

Already  in  his  undergraduate  days  Xew- 
ton  (as  his  friend  and  contemporary,  Ruskin, 
tells  in  Preeterita)  was  giving  evidence  of 
his  natural  bent ;  the  scientific  study  of 
classical  archaeology,  which  Winckelmann 
had  set  on  foot  in  Germany,  was  in  England 
to  find  its  worthy  apostle  in  Newton.  In 
1840,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  family, 
he  entered  the  British  Museum  as  assistant 
in  the  department  of  antiquities.  As  a 
career  the  museum,  as  it  then  was,  can  have 
presented  but  few  attractions  to  a  young 
man ;  but  the  department,  as  yet  undivided, 
probably  offered  to  Newton  a  wider  range 
of  comparative  study  in  his  subject  than  he 
could  otherwise  have  acquired. 

In  1852  he  was  named  vice-consul  at 
Mytilene,  and  from  April  1853  to  January 
1854  he  was  consul  at  Rhodes,  with  the 
definite  duty,  among  others,  of  watching 
over  the  interests  of  the  British  Museum  in 
the  Levant.  In  1854  and  1855,  with  funds 
advanced  by  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  he 
carried  on  excavations  in  Calymnos,  enriching 
the  British  Museum  with  an  important  series 
of  inscriptions,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
was  at  length  enabled  to  undertake  his  long- 
cherished  scheme  of  identifying  the  site, 
and  recovering  for  this  country  the  chief 
remains,  of  the  mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus. 
His  residence  in  the  Levant  was  further 
marked  by  researches  at  Cnidus  and  Bran- 
chidae,  both  of  which  resulted  in  important 
gains  to  the  nation,  and  by  the  disinter- 


Newton 


225 


Nichol 


ment  of  the  famous  bronze  Delphian  serpent 
in  the  Hippodrome  at  Constantinople.  In 
1860  he  was  named  consul  at  Rome,  bat 
•was  the  following  year  recalled  to  take  up 
the  newly  created  post  of  keeper  of  Greek 
and  Roman  antiquities  at  the  British  Mu- 
seum. On  27  April  1861  he  married  the  dis- 
tinguished painter,  Ann  Mary,  daughter  of 
Joseph  Severn  [q.v.],  himself  a  painter  and 
the  friend  of  Keats,  who  had  succeeded  New- 
ton in  Rome;  she  died  in  1866  at  their  resi- 
dence, 74  Gower  Street,  Bloomsbury  [see 
NEWTON,  ANN  MAKY]. 

Newton's  keepership  at  the  museum  was 
marked  by  an  amassing  wealth  of  important 
acquisitions,  which  were  largely  attributable 
to  his  personal  influence  or  initiation.  Thus 
in  the  ten  years  1864-74  alone  he  was  en- 
abled to  purchase  no  less  than  five  important 
collections  of  classical  antiquities :  the  Far- 
nese,  the  two  great  series  of  Castellani,  the 
Pourtales,  and  the  Blacas  collections,  re- 
presenting in  special  grants  upwards  of 
100,0007. ;  only  those  who  know  what  labour 
and  tact  are  involved  in  the  capture  of  even 
the  smallest  '  special  grant '  can  appreciate 
what  this  implies.  Meanwhile  his  work  in 
the  Levant,  bringing  to  the  museum  the 
direct  results  of  exploration  and  research, 
was  being  continued  by  his  successors  and 
friends :  Biliotti  in  Rhodes,  Smith  and  Por- 
cher  at  Gyrene,  Lang  in  Cyprus,  Dennis  in 
Sicily,  in  the  Cyrenaica,  and  around  Smyrna, 
Pullan  at  Priene,  Wood  at  Ephesus  were  all 
working  more  or  less  directly  under  Newton 
on  behalf  of  the  museum. 

Of  his  own  work  as  a  scholar  in  eluci- 
dating and  editing  the  remains  of  antiquity, 
the  list  of  his  writings  given  below  is  only  a 
slight  indication  ;  nor  was  this  confined  to 
writing  alone.  In  1855  he  had  been  offered 
by  Lord  Palmerston  (acting  on  Liddell's 
advice)  the  regius  professorship  of  Greek  at 
Oxford,  rendered  vacant  by  Dean  Gaisford's 
death,  with  the  definite  object  of  creating 
a  school  of  students  in  what  was  then  a 
practically  untried  field  of  classical  study 
at  Oxford.  The  salary,  however,  was  only 
nominal,  and  Newton  was  obliged  to  decline 
the  post,  which  was  then  offered  to  and  ac- 
xjepted  by  Benjamin  Jowett  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  In 
1880,  however,  the  Yates  chair  of  classical 
archaeology  was  created  at  University  College, 
London,  and  by  a  special  arrangement  New- 
ton was  enabled  to  hold  it  coincidently  with 
his  museum  appointment.  As  antiquary  to 
the  Royal  Academy  he  lectured  frequently. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  career  he  was  closely 
associated  with  the  work  of  three  English 
societies,  all  of  which  owed  to  him  more  or 
less  directly  their  inception  and  a  large  part 

VOL.  in. — sup. 


of  their  success  ;  the  Society  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  Hellenic  Studies,  at  the  inaugural 
meeting  of  which  he  presided  in  June  1879 ; 
the  British  School  at  Athens,  started  in  Fe- 
bruary 1885 :  and  the  Egypt  Exploration 
Fund,  which  was  founded  iii  1882.  In  1889 
he  was  presented  by  his  friends  and  pupils, 
under  the  presidency  of  the  Earl  of  Carnarvon, 
with  a  testimonial  in  the  form  of  a  marble 
portrait  bust  of  himself  by  Boehm,  now  de- 
posited in  the  Mausoleum  room  at  the  British 
Museum ;  the  balance  of  the  fund  was  by  his 
own  wish  devoted  to  founding  a  studentship 
in  connection  with  the  British  school  at 
Athens.  In  1885  he  resigned  the  museum 
and  academy  appointments,  and  in  1888  he 
was  compelled  by  increasing  infirmity  to  give 
up  the  Yates  professorship.  On  28  Nov.  1894 
he  died  at  Margate,  whither  he  had  gone 
from  his  residence,  2  Montague  Place,  Bed- 
ford Square. 

In  1874  Newton  was  made  honorary  fellow 
of  Worcester  College,  Oxford,  and  on  9  June 
1875  D.C.L.  of  the  same  university ;  LL.D. 
of  Cambridge,  and  Ph.D.  of  Strasburg  in 
1879 ;  C.B.  on  16  Nov.  1875,  and  K.C.B.  on 
21  June  1887.  He  was  correspondent  of 
the  Institute  of  France,  honorary  director 
of  the  Archaeological  Institute  of  Berlin, 
and  honorary  member  of  the  Accademia  dei 
Lincei  of  Rome. 

He  was  editor  of  the  '  Collection  of  An- 
cient Greek  Inscriptions  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum '  (1874  &c.  fol.),  and  author  of  nume- 
rous other  official  publications  of  the  British 
Museum  ;  also  of  a  treatise  on  the  '  Method 
of  the  Study  of  Ancient  Art,'  1850;  a '  His- 
tory of  Discoveries  at  Halicarnassus,  Cnidus, 
and  Branchidse,'  1862-3  ;  '  Travels  and  Dis- 
coveries in  the  Levant,'  1865 ;  '  Essays  on 
Art  and  Archaeology,'  1880 ;  and  of  many 
papers  in  periodicals,  among  which  may  be 
specially  noted  a '  Memoir  on  the  Mausoleum ' 
in  the  '  Classical  Museum '  for  1847. 

[Revue  Archeologique,  1894,  xxr.  273 ;  Times, 
30  Nov.  1894  ;  National  Eeview,  January  1895, 
p.  616  ;  Classical  Eeview,  1895,  p.  81.] 

C.  S-H. 

NICHOL,  JOHN  (1833-1894),  professor 
of  English  literature  and  author,  born  on 
8  Sept.  1883  at  Montrose,  where  his  father 
was  then  rector  of  the  academy,  was  only 
son  of  the  astronomer,  John  Pringle  Nichol 
[q.  v.],  by  his  first  wife.  From  1836  onwards 
Glasgow  was  his  home,and  from  1842  to  1848 
he  went  to  school  at  the  Western  Academy, 
without,  according  to  his  own  account,  de- 
riving much  advantage  from  it.  His  imagi- 
native powers  were,  however,  early  stimu- 
lated by  foreign  travel,  and  by  excursions 
nearer  home,  especially  in  Arran.  In  1848 


Nichol 


226 


Nichol 


he  entered  the  university  of  Glasgow.  His 
seven  years  of  stndent  life  at  Glasgow  were 
marked  by  eager  work  and  ardent  enthu- 
siasms devoted  in  part  to  the  revival  of  the 
'  liberal  cause'  in  the  university.  His  fellow 
students,  Dr.  John  Service  [q.  v.~|,  Dr.  Henry 
Crosskey,  and  Dr.  Edward  Caird,  now  mas- 
ter of  Balliol,  remained  his  closest  friends 
through  every  subsequent  stage  of  his  career. 
Before  he  left  Glasgow  Nichol  printed  for 
private  circulation  a  volume  of  poems  of  re- 
markable promise,  entitled  '  Leaves  '  (Edin- 
burgh, 18"nM. 

In  1865,  at  the  late  age  of  twenty-two, 
Nichol  entered  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  There 
in  the  following  year  he  gained  one  of  the 
Glasgow  Snell  exhibitions.  He  graduated 
in  18oO  with  first-class  honours  in  the  final 
classical  school.  At  first  Oxford  pleased 
him,  but  disenchantment  and  bitterness  fol- 
lowed, although  he  conceived  a  lasting  ad-  \ 
miration  for  Benjamin  Jowett  [q.  v.  Suppl.], 
then  tutor  of  his  college,  and  formed  many 
enduring  friendships,  with  (among  other 
undergraduates  of  Balliol)  George  Rankine 
Luke  (afterwards  senior  student  and  tutor 
of  Christ  Church,  whose  premature  death  by 
drowning  in  the  Isis  in  1862  was  mourned 
by  Nichol  in  a  passionate  sonnet) ;  Thomas 
Hill  Green  [q.  v.],  Albert  Venn  (now  Pro- 
fessor) Dicey,  and  Mr.  Algernon  Charles 
Swinburne.  With  these  and  a  few  kindred 
'  spirits  of  flame '  from  other  colleges  Nichol 
formed  in  1856-7  the  Old  Mortality  Society, 
for  the  purpose  of  seriously  discussing  lite- 
rary and  other  topics.  It  is  said  that  mem- 
bers of  the  society  showed  a  '  marked  ten- 
dency towards  professorial  positions ; '  but 
few  literary  and  philosophical  societies  of 
the  kind  have  better  vindicated  their  tran- 
sitory fame  (PROFESSOR  DICEY,  ap.  KXIGHT, 
p.  147). 

Nichol's  studies  at  Oxford  took  a  philoso- 
phical rather  than  a  linguistic  direction; 
and  owing  probably  to  the  defects  of  his 
early  training  he  never  became  a  very  accu- 
rate scholar.  A  few  months  after  he  had 
gained  his  first  class  he  lost  his  father ;  but, 
in  accordance  with  the  paternal  wish,  he 
became  on  12  Nov.  1859  a  member  of 
Gray's  Inn.  He  seems  never  to  have  been 
actually  called  to  the  bar.  After  graduating 
B.A.  (he  declined  to  proceed  to  M.A.  till  1874, 
after  the  abolition  of  university  tests),  he 
resided  at  Oxford,  successfully  engaging  in 
the  work  of  a  '  philosophical  coach  for  greats.' 
This  he  carried  on  at  intervals,  latterly 
chiefly  by  vacation  parties,  till  1873.  But 
already  in  1859  he  was  intent  upon  securing 
a  Scottish  professorial  chair.  While  a  candi- 
date for  the  professorship  of  logic  and  Eng- 


lish literature  at  St.  Andrews  in  1859,  he 
privately  printed  a  volume  of '  Fragments  of 
Criticism  (Edinburgh,  1860),  consisting  of 
condensed  Oxford  lectures  on  ancient  phi- 
losophy and  of  English  literary  criticisms, 
partly  reprinted  from  the  '  Westminster  Re- 
view' and  from  university  periodicals,  espe- 
cially the  audacious '  Undergraduate  Papers.' 
The  volume  included  noticeable  estimates  of 
Carlyle,  whose  influence  Nichol  in  these  days 
reflected  with  striking  force,  Tennyson, 
Browning,  in  the  tardy  popularisation  of 
whose  work  Nichol  was  pre-eminently  in- 
strumental, and  his  intimate  friend,  Sydney 
Thompson  Dobell  [q.  v.],  to  whose  '  Poems ' 
(1875)  and  '  Thoughts  on  Art,  Philosophy, 
and  Religion'  (1876)  he  afterwards  wrote 
introductions,  accompanied,  in  the  former 
instance,  by  a  memoir.  Nichol's  candidature 
at  St.  Andrews  was  unsuccessful,  but  at  a 
later  date  (1873)  that  university  conferred  on 
him  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D. 

In  April  1862,  a  year  after  his  marriage, 
Nichol  was  appointed  by  the  crown  to  the 
newly  established  chair  of  English  language 
and  literature  in  the  university  of  Glasgow. 
This  post  he  filled  till  his  resignation  of  it 
in  1889.  In  the  interval,  from  various  mo- 
tives— chiefly  from  an  ineradicable  restless- 
ness of  disposition — he  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  several  other  educational  posts ; 
but  his  success  as  a  professor  at  Glasgow 
was  from  first  to  last  extraordinary.  He  was 
a  brilliant  example  of  a  genuinely  Scottish 
type  of  academical  teacher,  who  had  assimi- 
lated the  enlightened  spirit  of  Oxford.  It  was 
his  habit  to  write  out  his  lectures  with 
extreme  care, and  to  subjectthem  to  incessant 
revision.  Several  of  his  pupils  subsequently 
attained  literary  distinction ;  but  more  im- 
portant was  the  general  influence,  incalculable 
alike  in  breadth  and  depth,  exercised  by  him 
during  a  quarter  of  a  century  upon  the  pro- 
gress of  culture  among  the  general  body  of 
his  students. 

Two  of  the  earlier  of  Nichol's  occasional 
courses  on  English  literature  (in  18G8  and 
1869)  were,  at  Jowett's  request,  redelivered 
at  Oxford.  From  1866  he  was  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  pioneers  of  the  movement 
afterwards  known  as  university  extension, 
and  he  lectured  with  conspicuous  success  in 
many  English  and  Scottish  towns.  Indeed, 
as  a  popular  lecturer  on  literature  he  had  in 
his  day  few,  if  any,  rivals.  His  activity 
was  not,  however,  exhausted  by  his  labours 
of  this  sort  at  home  and  abroad.  He  was 
associated  with  his  friend,  Professor  Knight 
of  St.  Andrews,  in  the  foundation  in  1867  of 
the  New  Speculative  Society,  which  held  its 
first  meeting  at  his  house  in  Glasgow,  and 


Nichol 


227 


Nicholson 


was  afterwards  divided  into  three  branches, 
at  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and  St.  Andrews 
respectively.  He  was  also  keenly  interested 
in  politics.  ;In  his  youth  his  foreign  politics 
had  been  coloured  by  his  father's  intimacy 
with  Kossuth  and  Mazzini,  both  of  whom 
he  afterwards  came  to  know  personally.  As 
an  Oxford  undergraduate  he  had  warmly 
sympathised  with  the  north  in  the  great 
American  civil  war.  In  course  of  time  his 
political  sentiments  took  a  pronouncedly 
conservative  hue ;  but  in  matters  ecclesiasti- 
cal he  always  remained  a  consistent  liberal. 
He  was  warmly  interested  in  educational 
politics,  and  addresses  delivered  by  him  on 
national  education  (Glasgow,  1869),  and  on 
university  reform  (Glasgow,  1888),  attested 
the  vigour  of  his  public  utterances. 

In  the  autumn  of  1865  Nichol  paid  a  visit 
to  the  United  States,  where  he  made  the 
personal  acquaintance  of  Emerson  and  Long- 
fellow. In  later  years  he  was  a  frequent 
visitor  to  the  continent,  while  other  long 
vacations  were  devoted  to  literary  work  in 
Scottish  country  retreats.  On  resigning  his 
chair  at  Glasgow  in  1889,  he  spent  much 
time  abroad ;  but  in  the  autumn  of  1890  he 
settled  definitively  in  London,  ultimately  in 
Kensington.  In  November  1891  he  revisited 
Glasgow,  on  the  occasion  of  the  presentation 
of  his  portrait  by  Mr.  Orchardson,  R.A.,  and 
delivered  a  characteristic  address  to  the  sub- 
scribers, mostly  members  of  the  university. 
In  London,  while  his  pen  remained  active,  he 
occasionally  lectured  in  public.  The  death 
of  his  wife  in  January  1894  broke  the  main- 
spring of  his  powers,  and  he  died  on  11  Oct. 
of  the  same  year.  He  was  cremated  four 
days  afterwards  at  Woking,  his  ashes  being 
taken  to  St.  George's  cemetery,  Edinburgh, 
where  she  had  been  laid  to  rest. 

From  1853  onwards  Nichol  and  his  sister 
Agnes  (afterwards  the  wife  of  Professor 
William  Jack)  had  found  a  second  mother  in 
his  father's  second  wife,  Elizabeth  Pease,  at 
whose  house  in  Edinburgh  (Huntley  Lodge) 
he  was  in  his  later  years  a  frequent  visitor. 
On  10  April  1861  he  married  Jane  Stewart, 
eldest  daughter  of  Henry  Glassford  Bell 
[q.  v.],  afterwards  sheriff'  of  Lanarkshire. 
The  union,  of  which  were  born  a  son  and  two 
daughters,  was  one  of  perfect  happiness. 

From  first  to  last  Nichol's  chief  ambition 
was  a  literary  eminence  which  he  never 
realised,  and,  owing  to  a  constitutional  ner- 
vousness rather  than  to  vanity,  he  nursed 
the  delusion  that  his  literary  claims  were 
belittled  by  a  critical  clique.  But  if  as  a 
poet  he  missed  fame,  he  vindicated  his  right 
to  a  high  place  among  writers  of  spirited, 
sincere,  and  thoughtful  verse.  His  historical 


drama,  '  Hannibal'  (Glasgow,  1873),  re- 
mained his  most  notable  original  effort  in 
poetry.  '  The  Death  of  Themistocles  and 
other  Poems'  (Glasgow,  1881)  added  a  fine 
dramatic  fragment  of  a  cognate  kind,  with 
which  was  printed  a  selection  of  lyrics  full 
of  fire  and  intensity.  If,  as  Jowett  said, 
Nichol'sprose  style '  bristled  too  much,' it  was 
often  tipped  with  fire.  As  a  critic  he  was 
distinguished  by  independence  of  judgment 
founded  on  philosophic  thought,  and  by 
perfect  fearlessness  of  sympathy.  His  chief 
critical  works  were  his  '  Byron '  in  the  '  Eng- 
lish Men  of  Letters'  series  (1880),  which 
went  some  way  towards  converting  Mr. 
Swinburne  from  his  unduly  deprecatory 
opinion  of  that  poet ;  his  '  Robert  Burns :  a 
Summary  of  his  Career  and  Genius'  (Edin- 
burgh, 1882),  which  was  designed  as  an  in- 
troduction to  Paterson's  library  edition,  and 
proved  one  of  the  most  finished  in  form  as 
well  as  concentrated  in  treatment  of  all 
Nichol's  prose  productions ;  his  '  Francis 
Bacon'  (2  vols.,  Life  and  Philosophy,  in 
'  Blackwood's  Philosophical  Classics  for  Eng- 
lish Readers,'  1888-9);  and  '  Carlyle,'  the 
fruit  of  a  life's  intellectual  and  moral  sym- 
pathy ('  English  Men  of  Letters '  series,  1892). 
Besides  an  admirable  historical  review  of 
'  American  Literature'  for  the  '  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica,'  1882  (reprinted  in  a  re- 
vised and  enlarged  edition,  1885),  Nichol 
contributed  to  T.  H.  Ward's  '  English  Poets ' 
(from  1880),  and  to  many  reviews  and 
journals.  He  endeavoured  to  meet  some  of 
the  requirements  of  his  teaching  of  literature 
by  his  '  Tables  of  European  Literature ' 
(Glasgow,  1876,  and  later  editions,  that  of 
1888  including 'America')  and  'Tables  of 
Ancient  Literature'  (Glasgow,  1877),  as  well 
as  by  his  '  Primer  of  English  Composition ' 
(1879),  and  his  '  Questions  and  Answers '  on 
the  same  (1890). 

[Of  Nichol's  earlier  years  (1833-51)  he  in 
1861  wrote  for  the  eye  of  his  wife  a  series  of 
picturesque  reminiscences  under  the  title  of 
Leaves  from  my  Life.  These  are  printed  in  the 
full  Memoir  of  John  Nichol,  by  Professor  Knight, 
Glasgow,  1896.  See  also  obituary  notices  by 
E.  C.  (Edward  Caird)  in  Glasgow  Herald ;  by 
J.  S.  C.  (J.  S.  Cotton)  in  Academy,  and  T.  W. 
(Theodore  Watts-Dunton)  in  Athenaeum ;  and 
A.  M.  Stoddart,  Elizabeth  Pease  Nichol  (1899). 
This  article  is  also  based  on  private  informa- 
tion and  personal  knowledge.]  A.  W.  W. 

NICHOLSON,  HENRY  ALLEYNE 

(1844-1899),  biologist,  born  at  Penrith,  Cum- 
berland, on  11  Sept.  1844,  was  son  of  John 
Nicholson,  a  distinguished  biblical  scholar, 
and  himself  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Mark  Ni- 
cholson, sometime  president  of  Codrington 

Q2 


Nicholson 


228 


Nicholson 


College,  Barbados.  His  mother,  Annie 
Elizabeth,  was  a  daughter  of  Captain  Henry 
Waring,  R.N.,  of  Lyme  Regis.  Spending 
his  boyhood  among  the  hills  of  Cumberland 
and  Westmoreland,  he  received  his  early 
education  at  Appleby  grammar  school.  On 
leaving  the  latter  he  was  sent  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Giittingen,  where  he  became  a 
student  in  zoology  under  Keferstein,  and 
took  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  Returning  to 
Britain  he  studied  medicine  and  natural 
science  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh  from 
1862  till  1867 ;  he  took  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  science  in  1866,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
was  awarded  the  Baxter  scholarship  as  the 
most  distinguished  graduate  in  science.  In 
the  following  year  (1867)  he  proceeded  to  the 
degrees  of  bachelor  of  medicine,  master  of 
surgery,  and  doctor  of  science  ;  his  doctorial 
thesis,  '  On  the  Geology  of  Cumberland,' 
gaining  him  the  gold  medal  of  the  univer- 
sity for  that  year.  In  all  the  subjects  of 
examination  he  gained  a  first  class;  and 
when,  in  1869,  he  took  the  M.D.  degree  he 
was  awarded  the  Ettles  medical  scholarship, 
as  occupying  the  highest  position  among  the 
graduates.  Even  in  his  schooldays  he  had 
devoted  much  attention  to  the  geology  of 
his  native  county  and  Westmoreland ;  and 
while  a  student  at  Edinburgh  he  learnt 
anatomy  under  Goodsir,  zoology  under  All- 
man,  and  botany  under  Balfour,  thus  laying 
the  foundation  of  that  wide  zoological  know- 
ledge which  subsequently  stood  him  in  good 
stead. 

In  1869  he  received  his  first  appointment, 
that  of  lecturer  on  natural  history  in  the 
extra-academical  school  of  medicine  at  Edin- 
burgh. This  he  held  till  1871,  when  he 
visited  Toronto,  where  he  was  offered  and 
accepted  the  professorship  of  natural  history 
in  the  university.  This  chair  he  retained 
for  three  years,  exchanging  it  in  1874  for  the 
professorship  of  comparative  anatomy  and 
zoology  in  the  Royal  College  of  Science, 
Dublin.  No  sooner,  however,  had  he  ac- 
cepted the  latter  post  than  he  was  offered 
the  professorship  of  biology  in  the  Durham 
College  of  Physical  Science.  Assuming  the 
latter  appointment  in  preference  to  the 
former,  he  filled  this  office  till  1875,  when 
the  offer  of  the  chair  of  natural  history  at 
the  university  of  St.  Andrews  induced  him 
to  remove  to  that  city.  Here  he  practically 
created  a  zoological  school,  and  assisted  in 
the  extension  of  university  teaching  to  Dun- 
dee. Nicholson  remained  at  St.  Andrews 
till  1882,  when  he  was  appointed  regius 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  university 
of  Aberdeen — a  post  which  he  held  at  the 
time  of  his  death.  When  he  first  succeeded 


to  this  chair,  zoology  was  the  chief  science 
on  which  he  had  to  lecture ;  but  a  change 
in  the  curriculum  elevated  geology  to  a  more 
important  status  than  previously.  And  it 
was  to  this  branch  of  science  that  Nicholson 
now  mainly  devoted  his  energies  ;  the  lec- 
tures in  zoology,  except  for  the  summer 
course,  being  delivered  by  his  assistant, 
Dr.  Alexander  Brown. 

In  addition  to  the  official  posts  already 
noticed  Nicholson  delivered  in  London  the 
annual  course  of  Swiney  lectures  in  geology 
from  1878  till  1882,  and  he  was  reappointed 
in  1890,  continuing  his  lectures  till  1894. 
During  the  illness  of  Sir  Charles  Wyville 
Thompson  [q.  v.l,  then  professor  of  natural 
history  at  Edinburgh,  Nicholson,  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  session  of  1878,  and  the 
whole  of  those  of  the  two  following  years, 
discharged  the  duties  of  that  office.  In  1880 
he  was  appointed  examiner  in  natural  his- 
tory and  the  cognate  branches  of  science  to 
the  university  of  New  Zealand. 

In  1867  Nicholson  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  and 
in  1888  was  awarded  by  the  council  the 
Lyell  medal.  He  was  also  a  fellow  of  the 
Linnean  Society,  and  in  1897  was  admitted 
to  the  fellowship  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Nicholson  died  at  Aberdeen  on  19  Jan. 
1899.  As  a  lucid  lecturer  Professor  Nichol- 
son attained  well-merited  celebrity ;  and  as 
his  bias  inclined  to  the  palaeontological 
aspect  of  zoology,  it  was  in  this  walk  that 
he  gained  his  highest  reputation.  His  most 
important  investigations  are  perhaps  those 
connected  with  the  palaeozoic  fossils  known 
as  graptolites,  which  occur,  although  not 
abundantly,  in  the  slates  and  shales  of  his 
native  hills.  Connected  closely  with  this 
study  was  the  work  of  unravelling  the 
tangled  skein  of  the  geological  succession  of 
the  palaeozoic  rocks  of  the  lake  district ; 
and  to  this  task  his  contributions,  some  of 
which  were  written  conjointly  with  Mr.  J.  E. 
Marr,  are  of  the  highest  value. 

Nicholson's  name  is,  however,  most  widely 
and  generally  known  through  his  zoological 
and  palseontological  text-books,  which  have 
been  largely  adopted,  not  only  in  the  uni- 
versities and  colleges  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
but  likewise  in  many  of  those  of  other  Eng- 
lish-speaking countries.  The  earliest  of  these 
is  '  A  Manual  of  Zoology  for  the  use  of 
Students,'  the  first  edition  of  which  ap- 
peared in  1870  in  two  volumes,  and  the 
seventh  (greatly  enlarged  and  rewritten) 
in  one  volume  in  1887.  The  year  1872  saw 
the  issue  of  the  first  edition  of  'A  Manual 
of  Palaeontology  for  the  use  of  Students,' 
in  one  volume.  The  second  edition,  which 


Nimrod 


229 


Nixon 


was  expanded  to  two  volumes,  appeared  in 
1879  ;  while  the  third  and  enlarged  edition, 
written  in  collaboration  with  the  author  of 
the  present  notice,  was  published  in  1889. 
His  other  works  of  the  same  nature  are: 
'Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Biology' 
(1872),  'The  Ancient  Life-History  of  the 
Earth '  (1877),  and  '  Synopsis  of  the  Classi- 
fication of  the  Animal  Kingdom  '  (1882). 

In  addition  to  these  works  Professor 
Nicholson  contributed  more  than  150  papers 
and  memoirs  to  the  publications  of  various 
scientific  societies,  scientific  periodicals,  &c. 
To  quote  even  the  most  valuable  of  them  is 
impossible,  but  mention  must  be  made  of 
'  A  Monograph  of  the  British  Graptolitidse ' 
(1872)  and  '  A  Monograph  of  the  British 
Stromatoporoids '  (1886),  both  published  by 
the  Palseontographical  Society.  Like  several 
of  his  geological  papers,  his  last  palseonto- 
logical  memoir, '  The  Phylogeny  of  the  Grap- 
tolites,'  was  the  joint  product  of  himself  and 
his  friend,  Mr.  Marr.  To  the  ninth  edition 
of  the  '  Encyclopaedia  Britannica '  he  con- 
tributed the  articles  '  Buffon,'  '  Corals/ 
'  Cuttle-fishes,'  and  '  Cuvier.' 

[Alma  Mater  (Aberdeen  University  Mag.), 
25  Jan.  1899,  xvi.  115-21,  with  portrait, 
8  March,  pp.  17^-8;  Nature,  26  Jan.  1899; 
Natural  Science,  March  1899,  pp.  247-8  ;  Geo- 
logical Magazine,  March  1899,  pp.  138-44,  with 
portrait;  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  1899,  vol.  lv. 
pp.  Ixiv-lxvi;  Yearbook  Eoy.  Soc.  1899,  p. 
189.]  K.  L. 

NIMROD,  pseudonym.  [See  APPERLEY, 
CHARLES  JAMES,  1779-1843.] 

NIXON,  JOHN  (1816-1899),  pioneer  of 
the  steam-coal  trade  in  South  Wales,  born 
at  Barlow  in  Durham  on  10  May  1815,  was 
the  only  son  of  a  tenant  farmer  of  that  vil- 
lage. He  was  educated  at  the  village  school 
and  at  Dr.  Bruce's  academy  at  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  famous  as  the  training-place  of 
many  great  engineers.  Leaving  school  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  Nixon  was  set  to  farm- 
work  for  a  time,  and  shortly  after  was 
apprenticed  to  Joseph  Gray  of  Garesfield, 
the  Marquis  of  Bute's  chief  mining  engineer. 
On  the  expiry  of  his  indentures  he  became 
for  two  years  overman  at  the  Garesfield  col- 
liery. At  the  end  of  this  time,  in  1839,  he 
undertook  a  survey  of  the  underground 
workings  of  the  Dowlais  Company  in  South 
Wales.  Some  years  later  he  accepted  the 
appointment  of  mining  engineer  to  an  Eng- 
lish company,  working  a  coal  and  iron  field 
at  Languin  near  Nantes.  He  perceived,  how- 
ever, that  the  enterprise  was  destined  to 
fail,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  inform  his  em- 
ployers of  his  opinion.  After  labouring  for 


some  time  to  carry  on  a  hopeless  concern 
he  returned  to  England. 

During  his  first  visit  to  Wales  Nixon  had 
been  impressed  by  the  natural  advantages 
of  Welsh  coal  for  use  in  furnaces.  On  his 
return  from  France  he  found  that  it  was  be- 
ginning to  be  used  by  the  Thames  steamers. 
He  perceived  that  there  was  a  great  opening 
for  it  on  the  Loire,  where  coal  was  already 
imported  by  sea.  At  the  time,  however, 
he  was  unable  to  obtain  a  supply  with 
which  to  commence  a  trade.  Mrs.  Thomas 
of  the  Graig  colliery  at  Merthyr,  who  sup- 
plied the  Thames  steamers,  was  disinclined 
to  extend  her  operations,  and  Nixon  was 
compelled  to  return  to  the  north  of  England. 
But  business  again  taking  him  to  South 
Wales,  he  chartered  a  small  vessel,  took  a 
cargo  of  coal  to  Nantes,  and  distributed  it 
gratuitously  among  the  sugar  refineries. 
He  succeeded  also  in  inducing  the  French 
government  to  make  a  trial  of  it.  Its  merits 
were  at  once  perceived ;  the  French  govern- 
ment definitely  adopted  it,  and  a  demand  was 
created  among  the  manufactories  and  on  the 
Loire.  Returning  to  Wales  he  made  arrange- 
ments for  sinking  a  mine  at  W'erfa  to  secure 
an  adequate  supply.  After  being  on  the 
point  of  failure  from  lack  of  capital  he 
obtained  assistance  and  achieved  success. 
Continuing  his  operations  in  association  with 
other  enterprising  men  of  the  neighbourhood, 
he  acquired  and  made  many  collieries  in 
South  Wales.  In  1897  the  output  of  the 
Nixon  group  was  1,250,000  tons  a  year. 
Nixon  succeeded,  after  a  long  struggle,  in 
inducing  the  railway  companies  of  Great 
Britain  to  adopt  Welsh  coal  for  consumption 
in  their  locomotives.  He  had  great  difficulty 
also  in  persuading  the  Great  Wrestern  Rail- 
way Company  to  patronise  the  coal  traffic, 
which  now  forms  so  large  a  part  of  their 
goods  business.  Much  of  Nixon's  success 
was  due  to  his  improvements  in  the  art  of 
mining.  He  introduced  the  '  long  wall ' 
system  of  working  in  place  of  the  wasteful 
'pillar  and  stall' system,  and  invented  the 
machine  known  as  '  Billy  Fairplay '  for  mea- 
suring accurately  the  proportion  between 
large  coal  and  small,  which  is  now  in  uni- 
versal use.  He  also  made  improvements  in 
ventilating  and  in  winding  machinery.  He 
was  one  of  the  original  movers  in  establish- 
ing the  sliding-scale  system,  and  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Monmouthshire  and  South 
Wales  Coalowners'  Association.  He  was 
for  fifteen  years  chairman  of  the  earlier 
South  Wales  Coal  Association,  and  for 
many  years  represented  Wales  in  the  Mining 
Association  of  Great  Britain.  Nixon  mate- 
rially contributed  to  the  growth  of  Cardiff 


O'Byrne 


230 


Oliphant 


by  inducing  leading  persons  in  South  Wales  !  of  the  East  Dock.     He  died  in  London,  on 
to  petition  the  trustees  of  the  Marquis  of  i  3  June  1899  at  117  Westbourne  Terrace, 

Hyde  Park,  and  was  buried  on  8  June  in  the 
Mountain  Ash  cemetery,  Aberdare  valley. 


Bute  in  1853  for  increased  dock  accommo- 
dation, and  by  persuading  the  trustees,  in 
spite  of  the  objections  of  their  engineer, 
Sir  John  Rennie  [q.  v.],  to  increase  the  depth 


[Vincent's  Life  of  John  Nixon,   1900  (with 
portrait).]  E.  I.  C. 


O 


O'BYRNE,  WILLIAM  RICHARD 
(1823-1896),  author  of  the  '  Naval  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary'  (1849,  8vo),  born  in 
1823,  was  elder  son  of  Robert  O'Byrne  and 
his  wife  Martha  Trougher,  daughter  of 
Joseph  Clark.  He  was  scarcely  out  of  his 
teens  when  he  conceived  the  idea  of  com- 
piling and  publishing  a  record  of  the  service 
of  every  living  naval  officer  of  the  executive 
branch.  For  six  years  he  worked  at  this, 
publishing  the  first  parts  in  1845,  and  com- 
pleting the  volume  of  fourteen  hundred 
closely  printed  royal  8vo  pages  in  1849. 
The  labour  must  have  been  very  great,  for 
the  admiralty  records  were  in  a  semi-chaotic 
state,  and  it  was  mainly  to  them  that  he 
trusted.  He  had,  indeed,  a  very  extended 
correspondence  with  the  subjects  of  his 
memoirs,  but  he  seems  in  all  cases  to  have 
checked  their  statements  by  the  official  docu- 
ments. The  work  is  one  of  almost  un- 
paralleled accuracy — a  fact  which  the  present 
writer  has  had  very  many  occasions  to  test 
and  to  prove.  On  the  other  hand,  the  work 
has  no  literary  pretensions ;  the  bare  facts 
are  stated  in  the  baldest  possible  way;  the 
book  is  a  register  and  nothing  more ;  in- 
valuable as  a  work  of  reference,  but  not 
intended  to  be  read.  Financially  the  book 
was  not  a  success,  as  far  as  the  author  was 
concerned.  An  edition  of  two  thousand  was 
sold  at  42i«.  a  copy ;  but  out  of  the  proceeds 
100/.  was  all  that  O'Byrne  received  as  pay- 
ment for  six  years'  labour  and  expenses. 
In  acknowledgment  of  the  value  of  his  work 
the  admiralty  awarded  him  100/.,  and  Sir 
Francis  Thornhill  Baring  (Lord  Northbrook) 
[q.  v.]  appointed  him  librarian  at  the  admi- 
ralty; but,  going  out  of  office  shortly  after- 
wards, his  successor,  the  Duke  of  North- 
umberland, refused  to  confirm  the  appoint- 
ment. On  this  a  testimonial  from  officers  of 
thei  navy  was  set  going,  and  at  a  meeting 
at  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution 
O'Byrne  was  presented  with  a  piece  of  plate 
and  a  purse  ot  400/.  In  1857  he  was  specially 
elected  a  member  of  the  Athenaeum  Club. 

In  1859  he  began  a  second  edition  of  the 
Dictionary,  brought  up  to  date,  and  contain- 
ing also  the  memoirs  of  officers  of  the  civil 


branches  of  the  service.  This — which  is  by 
no  means  so  accurate  as  the  first  edition — 
did  not  pay,  and  was  not  carried  beyond 
the  letter  G,  with  the  less  regret  on  O'Byrne's 
part,  as  about  that  time,  on  the  death  of  his 
cousin  Georgiana  O'Byrne,  he  succeeded  to 
the  Cabinteely  estate,  co.  Wicklow,  which 
had  been  in  the  family  for  very  many  genera- 
tions, though  probably  not  quite  for  fifty-four, 
as  they  claimed.  In  1872  he  was  high  sheriff 
of  Wicklow,  and  was  M.P.  for  the  county 
from  1874  to  1880.  But  the  property  to 
which  he  had  succeeded  was  heavily  mort- 
gaged, and  on  the  depreciation  of  Irish  land 
he  was  unable  to  pay  the  interest.  The 
mortgagees  foreclosed,  and  O'Byrne  was  left 
practically  destitute.  The  following  years 
were  years  of  privation  and  struggle.  In 
;  1884  he  was  awarded  100/.  from  the  royal 
bounty,  and  endeavoured  to  get  the  admi- 
!  ralty  to  appoint  him  officially,  at  a  regular 
|  salary,  to  prepare  a  new  edition  of  his  Dic- 
tionary. The  admiralty  refused  to  do  this, 
or  to  further  the  project  in  any  way,  as — 
I  under  the  modern  improved  system  of  keep- 
ing the  records — the  work  would  be  useless 
j  to  them,  while  the  fact  that  it  would  not 
j  pay  a  publisher  to  take  it  up  seemed  to  show 
that  the  public  did  not  want  it.  During 
his  later  years  O'Byrne's  health  broke  down, 
and  he  was  mainly  dependent  on  the  work 
of  his  daughter,  whose  exertions  at  this  very 
trying  time  are  spoken  of  as  beyond  all 
praise.  In  the  summer  of  1896  he  was 
granted  125/.  from  the  royal  bounty,  but 
too  late  to  be  of  personal  advantage.  He 
died  in  South  Kensington  on  7  July  1896. 
His  wife,  by  whom  he  had  one  daughter, 
predeceased  him. 

[O'Hart's  Irish  Pedigrees,  4th  ed.  i.  617,619  ; 
Times,  16  July  1896  ;  private  information.] 

J.  K.  L. 

OLIPHANT,  MARGARET  OLIPHANT 
(1828-1897),  novelist  and  historical  writer, 
born  at  Wallyford,  near  Musselburgh,  on 
4  April  1828,  was  daughter  of  Francis  Wil- 
son and  his  wife,  Margaret  Oliphant.  George 
Wilson  (1818-1859)  [q.  v.]  and  Sir  Daniel 
Wilson  fq.  v.]  were  her  father's  second 
cousins.  Her  first  recollections  were  of  Lass- 


Oliphant 


231 


Oliphant 


wade,   near   Edinburgh,  next  of   Glasgow, 
where  her  father  carried   on  some  business,  j 
and  then  of  Liverpool,  where  he  had  an  ap- 
pointment in  the  customs.     He  appears  to 
have   been   of    a  reserved  disposition   and 
singularly  indifferent   to   his   family.     Her 
mother,  on  the  other  hand,  was  energetic, 
eager,  and  sarcastic,  and  her  daughter  re- 
cognised a  strong  resemblance  in  her  to  Mrs. 
Carlyle,  when  she  came  to  know  the  latter  in 
later  years.  After  a  while  the  family  removed 
to  Birkenhead.     Both  parents  were  devoted 
to  the  Scottish  free  church  movement,  which 
occurred  when   Mrs.  Oliphant  was  fifteen, 
and  the  consequent  discussions  stimulated  | 
her  faculties  and  tended  to  inspire  her  first  ; 
book,  '  Passages  in  the  Life  of  Mrs.  Margaret 
Maitland'  (1849).  Later  in  life  she  regretted  | 
'  its  foolish  little  polemics,'  but  it  is  a  sur- 
prising work  for  an  authoress  of  twenty-one. 
Notwithstanding   the  obstacle  of  the  low- 
land dialect,  it  was  highly  successful — Col-  ' 
burn,    who,   to  the   author's   surprise,   had 
promptly  accepted  it,  giving  her  150/.  upon 
its  attaining  the  third  edition.  'Caleb Field,' 
her  next  novel  (1851),  attracted  compara- 
tively little  notice,  but '  Merkland,'  published 
in  the  same  year,  was  a  great  success,  and 
continues  to  rank  among  her  best   novels. 
She  came  to  London  about  this  time  to  look 
after  an  unsatisfactory  brother,  and  on  4  May 
1852   married    at    Birkenhead   her    cousin, 
Francis  Wilson  Oliphant  [q.  v.],  an  artist,  prin- 
cipally engaged  in  designing  stained  glass. 
They  settled  at  Harrington  Square,  near  the 
Hampstead  Road,  and  Mrs.  Oliphant  began 
to  be   known   in   London   literary  society. 
Housekeeping  expenses  were  for  the  time  met 
bythe  alliancewhich  sheformedwith  Messrs. 
Blackwood  ;  she  was  introduced  to  the  firm 
by  David  Macbeth  Moir  [q.  v.J,  and  the  con- 
nection continued  unbroken  all  her  life.   Four 
novels  from  her  pen  successively  appeared  in 
'  Blackwood's   Magazine :  '  '  Katie  Stewart ' 
(1853),  'A  Quiet  Heart'   (1854),  'Zaidee' 
(1856),  and  'The  Athelings'  (1857).     In  the 
interim  her  parents  had  removed  to  London, 
where  her  mother  died  in  September  1854 ; 
another  brother  had  married  and  gone  out  to 
Canada  (where  his  cousin  Daniel  Wilson  had 
in  1853  been  appointed  professor  of  English 
literature  at  Toronto),  an  event  destined  to 
have  momentous  consequences  for  her  ;  and 
fL  daughter  and  a  son  had  been  born  to  her. 
In  January  1859  she  was  dismayed  by  the 
sudden  failure  of  her  husband's  health.    The 
case  proved  to  be  one  of  incurable  consump- 
tion.     It   was   necessary  to   break   up  the 
London  establishment  at  a  great  sacrifice, 
and  remove  to  Rome,  where  Oliphant  died 
in  October  1859.     Three  months  later  Mrs. 


Oliphant  gave  birth  to  a  posthumous  child — 
a  second  son,  who,  with  her  elder  son  and 
her  daughter,  were  through  life  to  depend 
entirely  on  their  mother's  exertion.     Mrs. 
Oliphant's  circumstances  at  the  time  of  brer 
husband's  death  are  thus  summed  up  by  her- 
self :  '  A  thousand  pounds  of  debt.  Two  hun- 
dred pounds  insurance  money.     Some  furni- 
ture warehoused.    My  faculties,  such  as  they 
are.'     They  proved  adequate  to  bring  her 
400/.  for  each  novel,  an  amount  soon  greatly 
increased  by  the  success  of  her  series  of  four 
novels,  entitled  '  Chronicles  of  Carlingford,' 
three  of  which  were  published  anonymously 
in  '  Blackwood's    Magazine '  between  1862 
and  1865.    The  earliest  was  'Salem  Chapel,' 
1863,  2  vols. ;  and  it  was  followed  by  '  The 
Rector    and  the  Doctor's  Family'   (1863), 
'The   Perpetual    Curate'    (1864,    new  ed. 
1865),  and  '  Miss  Marjoribanks  '  (1866).    The 
last  of  the  series  was  published  in  1876,  and 
entitled  'Phoebe  Junior:  a  last  Chronicle  of 
Carlingford.'     These  were  frequently  taken 
for  the  work  of  George  Eliot,  and  although 
the  more  acute  critics  never  fell  into  this 
error,  the  surface  resemblance  is  very  strong. 
The  characters   talk  and  behave  very  like 
George  Eliot's,  and  with  no  less  consistency 
and  truth  to  nature,  but  the  mind  behind 
them  is  manifestly  of  less  intellectual  calibre. 
The  authoress's  versatility  and  quickness  at 
taking  a  hint  are  evinced  by  her  undoubtedly 
true  assertion    that,  when  writing   '  Salem 
Chapel,'  which  was  received  as  an  oracle  upon 
dissent,  she  knew  nothing  about  chapels  un- 
connected with  the  free  church  of  Scotland. 
She  must  have  studied  George  Eliot  atten- 
tively, and  probably  Mrs.  Gaskell  also.     Mr. 
Blackwood  was  so  impressed  by  the  success 
of  '  Salem  Chapel '  that  he  voluntarily  of- 
fered  the   authoress  1,500/.  for  '  The  Per- 
petual Curate,'  to  the  horror  of  his  cashier. 
Another  important  work,  in  a  different  line, 
was  Mrs.  Oliphant's  'Life  of  Edward  Irving' 
(2  vols.  1862,  new  ed.  same  year,  1864  and 
1865),  to  write  which  she  mingled  with  the 
Irvingites,  who  expected  her  to  join  them 
and  were  proportionately  disappointed.   Mrs. 
Oliphant  was  nevertheless  too  much  of  an 
Irvingite  in  the  strictly  personal  sense  to  be 
entirely  impartial ;  her  account  of  Irving's 
courtships  is  defective ;  and  it  is  amazing  to 
find  a  biographer  of  him  disclaiming  both  the 
obligation   and  the  ability  to    express  any 
opinion   touching    the   phenomena   of  '  the 
tongues.'  The  great  interest  and  freshness  of 
the  book  arise  in  large  measure  from   the 
employment  of  Irving's  own  words  when- 
ever possible. 

Mrs.  Oliphant,  who,  upon  her  return  from 
Italy,  had  for  a  short  time  established  her- 


Oliphant 


232 


Oliphant 


self  at  Edinburgh,  was  now  living  at  Ealing, 
where  she  was  visited  by  Jane  AVelsh 
Carlyle  (Letters,  iii.  164-5,  324-6,  334). 
In  18(54  she  went  again  to  Rome,  where  she 
encountered  one  of  the  heaviest  afflictions  of 
her  life  in  the  death  of  her  daughter.  He- 
turning  in  broken  spirits  she  soon  found,  as 
she  deemed,  a  new  burden  imposed  upon  her 
by  the  return  of  her  widowed  brother  from 
Canada  with  three  children.  Without  hesi- 
tation, she  received  them  into  her  house, 
and  took  upon  herself  the  entire  charge  of 
their  education  and  maintenance — a  truly 
heroic  action,  which,  so  great  were  her 
energy  and  capacity  for  work,  might  not 
have  overtaxed  her  if  she  had  acted  more 
wisely  in  the  education  of  her  own  children. 
By  attempting  to  bring  them  up  at  Eton, 
she  involved  herself  in  perpetual  embarrass- 
ment :  ever  honourably  redeeming  obliga- 
tions, and  ever  of  necessity  contracting  new 
ones,  she  lived  under  a  sense  of  continual 
distress  and  humiliation,  all  the  more  in- 
tolerable from  the  contrast  between  the  ex- 
ternally bright  and  smooth  aspect  of  her 
household,  and  the  inner  consciousness  of 
its  struggling  mistress.  Thus  expensively 
and  at  the  same  time  inefficiently  educated, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  the  boys  misunderstood 
their  real  position,  formed  no  habits  of  self- 
help  or  self-reliance,  and,  almost  obliged  to 
enter  upon  university  careers,  where  nothing 
but  the  highest  talent  and  the  most  deter-  j 
mined  industry  could  have  insured  success,  j 
proved  little  better  than  broken  reeds,  though 
not  absolutely  bad  sons.  It  is  this  disap- 
pointment, even  more  than  their  premature  \ 
death,  that  casts  so  deep  a  gloom  upon  the  ! 
autobiography  of  the  successful  authoress.  ; 
The  elder,  Cyril  Francis,  lived  to  thirty-  | 
five,  mainly  upon  his  mother's  resources ; 
dying  in  1890,  he  left  nothing  behind  him 
but  a  '  Life  of  Alfred  de  Musset,'  published 
in  1890  in  his  mother's  '  Foreign  Classics 
for  English  Readers.'  The  younger,  Francis 
Romano,  wrote  a  considerable  part  of  a 
not  very  satisfactory  '  Victorian  Age  of 
English  Literature  '  (2  vols.),  published 
under  his  and  his  mother's  joint  names  in 
1892,  and  shortly  before  his  death  in  1894 
obtained  an  appointment  in  the  British  j 
Museum,  which  he  lost  from  inability  to  pass 
the  medical  test.  Maternal  anguish  has 
seldom  been  more  touchingly  expressed 
than  in  Mrs.  Oliphant's  lamentations  on  her 
bereavements. 

In  1866  Mrs.  Oliphant  removed  to  Wind- 
sor to  be  near  her  sons  at  Eton,  and  the  rest 
of  her  life  might  have  been  described  as 
slavery  to  the  pen,  if  writing  had  not  been  a 
real  enjoyment  to  her.  She  probably  found 


relief  in  the  visionary  world  of  her  creations 
from  pecuniary  cares  and  parental  disap- 
pointments ;  assuredly  she  cannot  have  suf- 
fered herself  to  brood  much  over  these.  In 
addition  to  the  constant  stream  of  fiction, 
she  took  up  biographical  and  semi-historical 
literature,  producing  such  books  as  'The  Life 
of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi '  (1871),  'The  Makers 
of  Florence '  (1874 ;  2nd  edit.  1877 ;  3rd  edit. 
1881),  'The  Makers  of  Venice  '  (1887),  'The 
Makers  of  Modern  Rome'  (1895),  useful 
digests  of  information,  brightened  by  her  eye 
for  the  picturesque  and  her  happy  talent  for 
describing  scenery.  She  also  took  charge  of 
two  important  undertakings  in  connection 
with  her  publisher,  Mr.  Blackwood,  and 
his  magazine.  His  series  of  monographs 
on  foreign  classics  was  edited  by  her,  and 
for  thnt  series  she  wrote  the  volumes  on 
Dante  (1877)  and  Cervantes  (1880).  For 
'  Blackwood 's  Magazine'  she  long  continued 
to  review  the  literature  of  the  day  in  monthly 
surveys,  entitled  '  Our  Library  Table.'  Her 
criticisms,  like  most  of  her  work,  are  excel- 
lent but  not  masterly.  She  is  always  shrewd, 
commonly  well-informed,  usually  impartial, 
and  knows  how  to  make  the  review  of  even 
a  dull  book  attractive  by  some  bright  touch 
of  observation  or  scenic  description.  But 
she  is  rarely  illuminating,  never  profound, 
and  her  criticism  seldom  does  more  than 
express  the  average  sentiment  of  the  most 
cultivated  class  of  readers.  Of  her  numerous 
later  novels,  while  none  stand  quite  at  the 
height  of '  Salem  Chapel,'  not  one  could  be  con- 
sidered a  failure.  She  gave  little  sign  of  hav- 
ing written  herself  out,  and  set  an  example, 
admirable  but  hard  for  voluminous  authors  to 
follow,  of  making  no  capital,  either  out  of  her 
own  private  affairs  or  those  of  her  neigh- 
bours. 'The  Wizard's  Son'  (1883)  may 
perhaps  have  borne  some  reference  to  the 
uneasy  relations  between  her  mother  and 
her  husband.  It  counted  among  her  best 
works ;  others  worthy  of  especial  mention 
were  'Agnes'  (1866),  'Madonna  Maryr 
(1867),  '  Ombra '  (1872), '  Innocent '  (1873), 
'Carita'  (1877),  'Hester'  (1883),  and  'The 
Ladies  Lindores '  (1883).  A  remarkable  class 
of  her  work  was  that  dealing  with  the  occult 
and  unseen.  A  st  rong  element  of  mysticism 
found  relief  in  such  books  as  '  A  Beleaguered 
City '  (1880),  founded  on  a  mediaeval  legend 
of  a  city  invested  and  occupied  by  the  dead, 
and '  A  Little  Pilgrim  in  the  Unseen '  (1882). 
There  was  quite  as  much  sense  of  reality  here 
as  in  her  more  everyday  writings.  The  same 
feeling  in  some  degree  inspired  her  indulgent 
biography  (1891)  of  her  brilliant  and  eccen- 
tric cousin,  Laurence  Oliphant  (1829-1891) 
[q.  v.],  and  of  the  poor  wife  who  had  so  much 


Oliphant 


233 


Oliphant 


to  endure  from  him.  As  in  the  case  of  her 
'  Life  of  Irving,'  she  succeeded  well  in  bio- 
graphy whenever  she  could  feel  sympathetic. 
Her  lives  of  Count  Montalembert  (1872), 
the  statesman  and  thinker  she  admired,  and 
Avhose  '  History  of  the  Monks  of  the  West ' 
she  translated  (1867-79,  7  vols.) ;  of  her  inti- 
mate friend,  Principal  Tulloch  (1888)  ;  and 
of  Dr.  Chalmers  (1893),  the  hero  of  her  youth, 
are  excellent ;  while  her  life  in  the  '  Men  of 
Letters  '  series  of  Sheridan  (1883),  a  charac- 
ter entirely  alien  to  her  own,  is  the  least 
satisfactory  of  her  writings. 

The  principal  events  of  Mrs.  Oliphant's 
later  years  were  a  visit  to  the  Holy  Land  in 
1890  to  collect  materials  for  her  '  Memoir  of 
Laurence  Oliphant  and  Alice  Oliphant,  his 
Wife '  (1892).  She  also  produced  '  Jerusa- 
lem, its  History  and  Hope '  (1891),  and  her 
two  sons  died  respectively  in  1890  and  1894. 
Bowed  down  by  grief,  she  was  not  pro- 
strated; she  continued  to  write  as  formerly; 
and  although  in  the  preface  to  her  last  book, 
'  The  Ways  of  Life'  (1897),  she  touchingly 
hints  an  apprehension  that  she  may  have 
written  herself  out,  the  pair  of  stories  it  con- 
tains— not,  indeed,  quite  her  most  recent  pro- 
ductions— are  quite  upon  her  usual  level. 
She  was  less  successful  with  a  more  important 
undertaking,  the  history  of  the  publishing 
house  of  Blackwood  (1897, 2  vols.).  Either 
her  heart  was  not  in  the  work  or  the  mass  of 
material  overwhelmed  her ;  a  third  volume, 
added  by  an  authoress  of  far  inferior  celebrity, 
is  in  every  way  superior.  Her  health  was  fail- 
ing when,  early  in  1897,  she  undertook  a  jour- 
ney to  Siena  with  the  view  of  writing  a  book, 
one  chapter  of  which  actually  appeared  in 
'  Blackwood's  Magazine  '  in  July  1898.  On 
her  return  she  was  evidently  worse,  and  con- 
tinued to  sink  until  her  death  at  Windsor 
on  25  June,  retaining,  however,  such  mental 
vigour  to  the  last  as  to  have  written  some 
spirited  verses  on  the  queen's  jubilee  a  few 
days  previously.  She  was  buried  at  Eton 
on  29  June  1897.  Her  scattered  tales  were 
collected  after  her  death,  and  published  with 
a  generous  recognition  of  her  supremacy  as 
a  delineator  of  Scottish  life  by  a  more  modern 
master  of  the  art,  Mr.  J.  M.  Barrie.  Another 
posthumous  publication,  revealing  her  in  a 
new  light  in  many  respects,  was  the  melan- 
choly autobiographic  fragment,  with  its  ap- 
pendix of  correspondence,  published  in  1899. 
Written  under  the  influence  of  her  sore  be- 
reavements, it  naturally  exhibits  a  depression 
which,  considering  the  amount  of  work  she 
performed,  cannot  have  been  habitual  with 
her.  It  nevertheless  shows  what  a  hard  life  the 
brilliant  and  successful  authoress  had  lived, 
and  how  severe  the  strain  had  been  that  had 


enabled  her  to  meet  the  domestic  and  busi- 
ness obligations  she  had  undertaken.  It  had 
been  her  destiny  to  live  for  and  be  lived  upon 
by  others,  and,  except  as  regarded  the 
family  she  had  so  courageously  adopted,  to 
find  disappointment  in  all  the  tenderest  re- 
lations of  life. 

Most  distinguished  novelists  who  have 
not  completely  attained  the  highest  rank 
have  written  themselves,  so  to  speak,  into 
form,  passing  through  a  period  of  apprentice- 
ship before  reaching  a  level  which  they  have 
long  retained,  and  ending  by  writing  them- 
selves out.  Mrs.  Oliphant's  literary  history 
is  different.  Totally  inexperienced  in  com- 
position, she  began  by  a  book  which  she  never 
very  greatly  surpassed,  and  the  end  of  her 
career  found  her  almost  as  fresh  as  at  the 
beginning.  It  seemed  a  natural  criticism 
that  she  should  have  devoted  herself  to  some 
concentrated  effort  of  mind  which  would 
have  placed  herself  in  the  front  rank ;  but 
the  probability  is  that  she  made  the  best 
possible  use  of  her  powers.  Her  great  gifts 
— invention,  humour,  pathos,  the  power  of 
bringing  persons  and  scenes  vividly  before 
the  eye — could  hardly  have  been  augmented 
by  any  amount  of  study,  and  no  study  could 
have  given  her  the  incommunicable  some- 
thing that  stamps  the  great  author.  She 
resembled  the  George  Sand  of  George  Sand's 
later  period  in  her  consummate  ease  of  pro- 
duction, but  she  had  never  known  the 
Frenchwoman's  day  of  genius  and  enthu- 
siasm. Her  work  as  a  biographer  and  com- 
piler, which  alone  would  have  made  a  re- 
spectable reputation  for  many  authors,  was 
probably  of  service  to  her  as  a  distraction 
from  mental  strain.  Refreshed  by  a  change 
of  environment,  she  returned  with  new  zest 
to  '  my  natural  way  of  occupying  myself,'  as 
she  described  the  composition  of  her  fictions. 

Mrs.  Oliphant  was  the  author  of  nearly  a 
hundred  separate  publications,  a  full  list  of 
which  and  of  her  equally  numerous  contri- 
butions to  '  Blackwood '  is  printed  as  an  ap- 
pendix to  her  '  Autobiography '  (1899).  The 
more  important,  besides  those  already  men- 
tioned, are:  1.  'Agnes  Hopetoun's  School,' 
1859;  new  edits.  1872,  1880.  2.  'The 
House  on  the  Moor,'  1860 ;  new  edit.  1876. 
3.  'The  Last  of  the  Mortimers,'  1861 ;  new 
edit.  1875.  4.  '  Historical  Sketches  of  the 
Reign  of  George  the  Second,'  1869 ;  3rd  edit. 
1875.  5.  '  At  His  Gates,'  1872  ;  new  edit. 
1885.  6.  '  Whiteladies,'  1876;  new  edit. 
1879.  7.  'Within  the  Precincts,'  1879; 
new  edit.  1883.  8.  '  The  Literary  History 
of  England  in  the  end  of  the  Eighteenth 
and  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,' 
1882,  3  vols.  9.  '  It  was  a  Lover  and  his 


O'Neill 


234 


O'Neill 


Lass,'  1883;  new  edit.  1884.  10.  'Royal 
Edinburgh,'  1891.  11. <  A.  House  in  Blooms- 
bury,'  1894,  2  vols.  12.  '  Sketches  of  the 
Reign  of  Queen  Anne,'  1894.  13. '  A  Child's 
History  of  Scotland,'  1896.  14.  'Jeanne 
d'Arc,'  1896.  1 5.  '  The  Two  Brontes,'  1897. 

[Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ;  Autobiography  and  Letters 
of  Mrs.  Oliphant,  arranged  and  edited  by  Mrs. 
H.  Coghill,  1899;  Black  wood's  Magazine,  1897; 
Who's  Who,  1897.]  K.  G. 

O'NEILL,  SIR  BRIAN  MAcPHELIM 
(d.  1574),  chief  of  the  O'Neills  of  Clande- 
boye, was  son  of  Phelim  Bacagh  O'Neill, 
and  was  descended  from  Hugh  Boy  O'Neill, 
the  founder  of  the  Clandeboye  branch  of 
the  O'Neills.  His  father's  sister  Mary  was 
mother  of  Shane  O'Neill  [q.  v.],  who  was 
thus  Brian's  cousin.  Brian's  father  seems 
to  have  died  early  in  Mary's  reign,  and  in 
155G  Brian  and  his  brother  Hugh  Mac 
Phelim  went  to  Dublin,  and  promised  to 
serve  the  queen  '  lyke  as  by  report  they  have 
of  long  time  done  '  (Hist.  MSS.  Comm. 
15th  Rep.  App.  iii.  2).  Orders  were  given, 
on  29  May  1556,  for  their  protection  against 
the  Scots,  and  on  15  Sept.  following  the 
English  government  made  a  division  of 
their  lands  in  Clandeboye  (ib.  p.  9).  De- 
tails of  this  arrangement  are  not  given,  but 
its  effect  was  to  enable  Brian  to  claim  the 
chieftainship  of  both  upper  and  lower 
Clandeboye  to  the  exclusion  of  his  uncle  and 
elder  brother  Hugh  (Montgomery  MSS. 
ed.  Hill,  pp.  58-9  ;  HILL,  Macdonnells  of 
Antrim,  p.  147).  By  this  compact  the  Eng- 
lish government  secured  O'Neill's  loyalty, 
and  for  many  years  he  was  a  thorn  in  the 
side  of  Shane  O'Neill,  Turlough  Luineach 
O'Neill  [q.  v.],  and  other  rebellious  chiefs  of 
I'lster,  and  he  requited  himself  for  his  ser- 
vices to  Elizabeth  by  plundering  the  re- 
ligious houses  in  his  part  of  the  country. 

After  Shane  O'Neill's  death  in  1567  Brian 
became,  next  to  Turlough  Luineach,  the 
most  important  O'Neill  in  Ireland.  In 
that  year  he  was  recommended  to  Elizabeth 
as  'the  man  that  heretofore  hath  longest 
and  most  constantly  stayed  on  your  majesty's 
party  like  a  true  subject.'  He  received 
Elizabeth's  thanks  on  6  July  1567,  was 
knighted  by  Sir  Henry  Sidney  [q.  v.]  at 
Knockfergus  in  the  following  September, 
and  for  several  years  was  more  effective  than 
the  English  captains  in  holding  Turlough 
Luineach  in  check.  On  4  May  1570  he 
was  placed  on  a  commission  to  survey  the 
Ards,  co.  Down,  and  soon  afterwards  he 
undertook  the  whole  cost  of  victualling 
Carrickfergus.  These  friendly  relations 
were,  however,  disturbed  in  1572  by  Sir 


Thomas  Smith's  project  for  planting  the 
Ards  with  Englishmen  [see  SMITH,  SIR 
THOMAS  (1513-1577.)]  Sir  William  Fitz- 
william  (1526-1599)  [q.  v.]  endeavoured  to 
persuade  Brian  that  the  project  was  not 
directed  against  the  O'Neills ;  but  Brian 
produced  a  copy  of  Smith's  pamphlet,  which 
left  little  room  for  doubt,  came  to  an  under- 
standing with  his  old  enemy,  Turlough 
Luineach  O'Neill,  and  with  the  Scots,  and 
ravaged  the  Ards. 

The  project  of  colonisation  was,  however, 
now  taken  up  by  Walter  Devereux,  earl 
of  Essex  [q.  v.],  who  invaded  Ulster,  and 
compelled  Brian  O'Neill  to  submit.  He 
wus  granted  a  pardon  on  10  Dec.  1572 
(Cal.  Fiants,  No.  2180)  on  condition  of 
bringing  in  a  number  of  cattle  as  security  ; 
but,  discovering  the  weakness  of  Essex's 
force,  O'Neill  drove  off"  his  cattle,  renewed 
his  compact  with  Turlough  Luineach,  burnt 
Carrickfergus,  and  killed  Sir  Thomas  Smith's 
son  on  18  Oct.  1573.  Satisfied  with  his 
victory,  O'Neill  declined  to  be  made  a 
tool  in  the  general  conspiracy  against  Eliza- 
beth: and  when  the  Spanish  agent,  Antonio 
de  Guaras,  sent  Rowland  Turner  to  secure 
his  co-operation,  O'Neill  refused  to  entertain 
the  suggestion  (Cal.  State  Papers,  Ireland, 
1509-73,  p.  508). 

Essex,  however,  was  determined  to  sub- 
due O'Neill,  and  in  1574  prepared  for  a  fresh 
campaign  in  Ulster.  On  13  May  he  wrote 
to  the  lord-deputy  that  O'Neill  had  been 
proclaimed  a  traitor,  and  200/.  put  upon  his 
head ;  but  in  the  same  letter  he  said  that 
O'Neill  would  accompany  him  against  the 
Scots,  and  hand  over  Belfast  to  the  queen 
(ib.  1574-85,  p.  23).  On  17  June  O'Neill 
was  granted  a  fresh  pardon  (Cal.  Fiantg, 
No.  2413),  in  the  same  month  his  two  sons 
were  at  Dublin  as  pledges  for  his  good 
faith,  and  on  11  July  the  council  instructed 
Essex  to  use  Brian's  aid  in  fortifying  Belfast, 
which,  in  pursuance  of  his  promise,  he  seems 
to  have  surrendered  to  the  English.  In  the 
autumn  Essex  advanced  north,  professedly 
against  the  Scots ;  but  from  the  fact  that  on 
8  Oct.  he  sent  Burghley  notes  for  the  plan- 
tation of  Tyrone  and  Clandeboye,  it  is 
probable  that  his  design  was  really  against 
the  O'Neills.  He  made  an  appointment 
with  Brian  at  Masereene  on  16  Oct.,  and 
early  in  November  invited  him  to  a  banquet 
I  at  Belfast.  O'Neill  came  unsuspectingly, 
i  and  was  there  with  his  wife  and  children 
seized  by  Essex,  most  of  his  attendants 
being  slain.  On  the  14th  Essex  published 
an  account  of  O'Neill's  '  treasons,'  and 
promised  that  he  should  be  tried  by  '  order 
of  law.'  No  further  particulars  are  known 


Ormsby 


235 


Ormsby 


of  O'Neill's  fate,  but  on  the  24th  Essex  re- 
ferred to  him  as  dead,  and  according  to  the 
'  Four  Masters '  O'Neill  and  his  wife  were 
summarily  executed.  Even  English  officials 
disliked  the  proceeding,  and  the  Irish  writers 
naturally  charged  Essex  with  the  blackest 
treachery. 

O'Neill's  wife  was  a  daughter  of  Brian 
Carragh  Macdonnell,  '  captain  of  Glencon- 
kene'  (Cal.  State  Papers,  Ireland,  1509-73, 
pp.  372-3) ;  his  son,  Shane  MacBrian  O'Neill, 
was  on  4  Sept.  1583  made  captain  of  Nether 
Clandeboye  (Cal.  Fiants,  No.  4201). 

[Cal.  State  Papers,  Ireland,  1509-75;  Cal. 
Carew  MSS.  vol.  i. ;  Cal.  Fiants,  Elizabeth, 
passim;  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.  15thKep.  A  pp.  iii. ; 
Annals  of  the  Four  Masters,  ed.  O'Donovan  ; 
Montgomery  MSS.  ed.  George  Hill,  pp.  58-9 ; 
Hill's  Macdonnells  of  Antrim,  pp.  147,  152-3, 
289,  420-1 ;  G.  F.  A.'s  Savages  of  the  Ards,  pp. 
176-7;  Ulster  Journal  of  Archaeology,  iii.  45  ; 
Devereux's  Lives  of  the  Devereux;  Metcalfe's 
Book  of  Knights  ;  Bagwell's  Ireland  under  the 
Tudors.]  A.  F.  P. 

ORMSBY,  JOHN  (1829-1895),  author, 
born  at  Gortner  Abbey,  co.  Mayo,  on  25  April 
1829,  was  the  eldest  son  of  George  Ormsby 
(d.  1836),  a  captain  in  the  3rd  dragoons  and 
high  sheriff  of  co.  Mayo  in  1827,  and  his 
wife  Marianne,  third  daughter  of  Humphrey 
Jones  of  Mullinabro, co.  Kilkenny.  He  was 
a  direct  descendant  of  the  Ormsby  family 
which  migrated  from  Lincolnshire  to  co. 
Mayo  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  On  the 
death  of  both  parents  during  his  childhood, 
he  was  placed  under  the  guardianship  of 
Denis  Brown,  dean  of  Emly.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Dr.  Roman's  private  school  at  Sea- 
point,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where 
he  graduated  B.A.  in  1843,  and  he  won  a 
silver  medal  for  chemistry  at  the  university 
of  London  in  1846.  Two  years  later  he  was 
admitted  at  the  Middle  Temple,  but  he  was 
never  called  to  the  bar.  His  literary  tastes 
were  developed  early,  and  he  contributed 
papers  of  travel  to  '  Eraser's  Magazine,'  to 
the  '  Saturday  Review,'  and  to  the  early 
numbers  of  the  '  Cornhill '  and  the  '  Pall 
Mall  Gazette.'  He  lived  at  this  period  in 
King's  Bench  Walk  in  the  Temple,  a  '  deni- 
zen of  Bohemia,  but  of  the  cultivated  and 
scholarlike  Bohemia,'  and  his  friends  often 
remarked  that  he  would  be  an  '  excellent 
representative  of  Warrington  in  "  Pen- 
dennis." '  He  was  extremely  well  read  in 
eighteenth-century  literature,  and  especially 
in  Defoe,  Fielding,  and  Boswell. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Alpine  Club 
almost  from  its  inauguration  in  1858.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  party  to  climb  the  Pic 
de  Grivola  in  August  1859,  and  he  contri- 


buted an  amusing  paper  on  '  The  Ascent  of 
the  Grivola '  to  the  second  volume  of  the 
second  series  of  'Peaks,  Passes,  and  Gla- 
ciers,' by  members  of  the  Alpine  Club 
(1862).  In  1864  he  published  •  Autumn 
Rambles  in  North  Africa,'  travel  sketches 
from  La  Grande  Kabylie  and  Tunis  during 
1863-4,  originally  contributed  for  the  most 
part  to  'Fraser,'  with  illustrations  by  the 
author.  In  1876  he  collected  in  volume 
form  his  '  Stray  Papers,'  including  some 
amusing  pieces,  '  Sandford  and  Merton,' 
'  Mme.  Tussaud's,'  and  '  Swift  on  the 
Turf.' 

Ormsby  is  memorable  chiefly  for  his  work 
in  the  domain  of  Spanish  literature.  His 
acquaintance  with  Spain,  with  its  political 
and  literary  history,  was  both  deep  and 
wide.  He  had  thoroughly  explored  the 
country,  and  during  one  prolonged  expedi- 
tion through  its  mountainous  districts  he 
suffered  privations  which  had  the  effect  of 
entirely  destroying  his  power  of  hearing. 
For  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years  of  his  life 
excessive  deafness  cut  him  off  almost  en- 
tirely from  social  intercourse;  buthispenwas 
never  idle,  and  he  mainly  devoted  himself 
to  translations  from  the  Spanish.  Published 
in  1879,  his  translation  of  the  '  Poema  del 
Cid '  is,  if  we  except  Frere's  fragmentary 
renderings,  the  only  version  in  English. 
The  condensation  into  prose  of  the  less 
interesting  passages  leaves  it  to  some  extent 
incomplete  ;  but  '  in  all  essentials — in  spirit, 
grace,  fidelity — Ormsby's  verses  come  as 
near  the  spirit  of  the  great  Spanish  epic  as 
a  translation  may.'  His  rendering  of  '  Don 
Quixote '  (4  vols.  8vo,  1885)  is  another  ex- 
cellent piece  of  work,  valuable  both  for  its 
accurate  scholarship  and  for  the  biblio- 
graphical and  other  appendices — one  upon 
'  The  Proverbs  of  Don  Quixote.'  Among  his 
predecessors  Ormsby  accords  a  generous 
appreciation  to  Shelton  (whom  it  had  been 
his  first  design  merely  to  edit),  to  Jervas 
(1742),  and  to  Alexander  J.  Duffield  (1881) ; 
but  is  unable  to  say  much  for  either  John 
Phillips  (1687),  Peter  Motteux  (1701),  or 
Smollett  (1755).  Ormsby's  health  began  to 
fail  in_  June,  and  he  died  at  Ramsgate  on 
30  Oct.  1895.  Dying  unmarried,  he  was 
succeeded  at  Gortner  Abbey  by  his  sister, 
Miss  Marianne  Ormsby. 

[Burke's  Landed  Gentry  ;  Athenaeum,  9  Nov. 
1895;  Times,  8  Nov.  1895;  Alpine  Journul 
(memoir  by  Mr.  Leslie  Stephen),  February 
1896;  Ann.  Keg.  1895;  Dublin  Graduates; 
Don  Quixote,  translated  by  H.  E.  Watts,  1888 
and  1895,  introduction  ;  Burke's  Sancho  Panza's 
Proverbs,  1892;  Allibone's  Diet,  of  English 
Literature.]  T.  S. 


Osborne  Morgan         236 


Orton 


OSBORNE  MpRGAN,  SIR  GEORGE 
(1826-1897),  politician.  [See  MORGAN.] 

ORTON,  ARTHUR  (1834-1898),  the 
Tichborne  claimant,  born  at  Wapping  in 
1834,  was  the  twelfth  and  youngest  child 
of  George  Orton,  a  butcher  there.  At  the 
age  of  fifteen  he  was  sent  to  sea,  and,  having 
deserted  at  Valparaiso,  made  his  way  up 
country  to  Melipilla,  where  he  remained  for 
eighteen  months,  receiving  much  kindness 
from  a  family  named  Castro.  In  1851  he  was 
back  in  England,  and,  entering  his  father's 
business,  became  an  expert  slaughterman.  In 
November  1852  he  emigrated  to  Australia, 
and  after  March  1854  ceased  to  correspond 
with  his  family. 

In  the  spring  of  1866  it  was  rumoured 
that  Roger  Tichborne,  the  eldest  son  of  Sir 
James  Francis  Doughty  Tichborne,  tenth 
baronet  (d.  11  June  1862),  who  was  believed 
to  have  been  drowned  at  sea,  had  been  dis- 
covered in  Australia.  The  Tichbornes  were 
a  Hampshire  Roman  catholic  family  of  great 
wealth.  Sir  James  Doughty  Tichborne, 
by  his  marriage  with  Henriette  Felicite,  the 
daughter  of  Henry  Seymour  of  Knoyle,  had, 
besides  his  elder  son  Roger  Charles,  who  was 
born  on  5  Jan.  1829,  the  younger  son  Alfred 
Joseph,  who  succeeded  his  father  as  eleventh 
baronet  in  1862  and  died  in  February  1866, 
leaving  a  posthumous  heir,  Sir  Henry,  the 
twelfth  baronet.  The  elder  son,  Roger,  spent 
his  early  years  with  his  parents  at  Paris,  pro- 
ceeded to  Stonyhurst,  and  finally  obtained  a 
commission  in  the  6th  dragoon  guards  (the 
Carabineers).  He  sold  out  in  1852,  after  three 
years'  service,  and  went  to  South  America 
for  sport  and  travel.  In  1854  he  embarked 
at  Rio  in  the  Bella,  a  ship  which  was  never 
again  heard  of ;  but  the  discovery  of  her  long 
boat  and  other  articles  of  wreckage  left  no 
doubt  she  had  foundered  with  all  hands,  and 
in  July  1855  Roger's  will  was  proved.  Alone 
among  the  family  his  mother  persisted  in 
believing  that  he  was  not  dead,  and  in  in- 
serting advertisements  for  him  in  the  Eng- 
lish and  colonial  papers. 

In  November  1865  she  learnt  through  an 
agency  in  Sydney  that  a  man  answering  the 
description  of  her  son  had  been  found  at 
Wagga  Wagga  in  Queensland.  A  long  cor- 
respondence ensued,  the  tone  and  substance 
of  which  ought  to  have  put  her  on  her  guard ; 
but  with  an  eagerness  bordering  on  insanity 
she  had  made  up  her  mind,  before  seeing  a  line 
of  bis  handwriting  or  learning  a  single  par- 
ticular of  his  life,  that  her  correspondent  was 
her  son.  In  accordance  with  her  repeated  en- 
treaties he  was  induced  toleave  Australia,  and 
he  arrived  in  London  on  Christmas  day  1866. 


Of  the  identity  of  this  claimant  with 
Arthur  Orton  there  is  no  doubt.  At  Wagga 
AVagga  he  bore  the  name  of  Tom  Castro, 
borrowed  from  his  South  American  bene- 
factors, and  ho  had  passed  the  twelve  pre- 
vious years  in  humble  positions,  acting  as 
stockman,  mail-rider,  and  in  all  probability 
bushranger  and  horse-thief.  He  was  now 
carrying  on  a  small  butcher's  business,  and 
was  just  married  to  an  illiterate  sen-ant 
girl.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  his  claim 
were  so  enormous  that  in  all  probability  he 
was  only  driven  to  England  by  the  fact  that 
he  had  raised  large  sums  in  Australia  on  his 
expectations.  His  idea,  apparently,  was  to 
obtain  some  sort  of  recognition  from  Lady 
Tichborne  and  to  return  to  Sydney  with  what 
money  he  could  collect. 

After  paying  a  flying  visit  to  Tichborne 
House — he  had  never  before,  been  in  Hamp- 
shire in  his  life — the  claimant  met  the  dow- 
ager in  Paris.  She  professed  to  recognise  him 
at  their  first  meeting,  which  took  place  in  his 
hotel  bedroom  on  a  dark  January  afternoon. 
Unsatisfactory  as  this  identification  was,  she 
never  departed  from  her  belief.  She  lived 
under  the  same  roof  with  him  for  weeks  at 
a  time,  accepted  his  wife  and  children,  and 
allowed  him  1,000/.  a  year.  Her  recognition 
was  not  followed  by  any  of  the  rest  of  the 
family,  who  declared  unanimously  that  the 
claimant  was  an  impostor,  and  that  he  failed 
to  recognise  them  or  to  recall  any  incident 
in  Roger's  life. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  claimant  secured 
important  allies  in  the  old  family  solicitor, 
Mr.  Hopkins,  and  a  Winchester  antiquary 
named  Baigent,  who  was  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  the  Tichborne  family  history. 
This  had  a  powerful  effect  in  Hampshire. 
A  large  number  of  the  county  gentry  be- 
came converts,  while  the  villagers  hailed 
the  return  of  one  of  the  old  stock.  Start- 
ing with  a  faint  glimmering  of  knowledge 
acquired  from  Bogle,  the  old  negro  servant 
of  a  former  baronet,  who  had  accompanied 
him  from  Sydney,  and  aided  by  a  most 
tenacious  memory,  the  claimant  succeeded 
in  eliciting  isolated  facts  which  he  used  with 
startling  effect.  He  took  into  his  employ- 
ment a  couple  of  old  carabineers,  who  had 
been  servants  to  Roger  Tichborne,  and  in  a 
short  time  he  was  so  completely  master  of 
small  details  of  regimental  life  that  more 
than  a  dozen  of  Roger's  brother  officers  and 
an  unlimited  number  of  private  soldiers  were 
convinced  of  the  claimant's  identity. 

Bills  were  filed  in  chancery  against  the 
trustees  of  the  Tichborne  estates,  and  in 
June  1868  an  issue  was  directed  to  be  tried 
in  the  common  pleas  as  to  whether  the 


Orton 


237 


Orton 


claimant  was  the  heir  of  Sir  James  Tich- 
borne.  Previously  to  this,  however,  he  had 
been  cross-examined  on  one  of  his  affidavits, 
and  had  committed  himself  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  facts.  He  had  described  his  rescue 
from  the  Bella's  boat  by  a  ship  called  the 
Osprey,  and,  aided  by  Roger's  diaries  and 
letters,  which  had  been  preserved  by  Lady 
Tichborne,  had  transferred  to  the  former  a 
good  many  of  his  own  wanderings  and  ad- 
ventures. 

Meanwhile  the  trustees  learnt  that  it  was 
freely  asserted  in  Australia  that  Tom  Castro 
originally  bore  the  name  of  Orton,  and  their 
attention  was  directed  to  Wapping,  whither 
it  was  discovered  t  hat  the  claimant  had  re- 
paired on  the  first  night  of  his  arrival  in  Eng- 
land. The  parents  were  dead,  but  he  had 
made  inquiries  after  the  surviving  members 
of  the  family.  During  his  absence  from  Eng- 
land to  attend  an  inquiry  in  South  America 
for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  alleged  visit  to 
Melipilla,  Charles  Orton  declared  to  the  trus- 
tees that  the  claimant  was  his  brother  Arthur, 
and  had  ever  since  his  return  kept  up  close 
relations  with  himself  and  his  sisters. 

In  consequence  of  this  and  of  the  Meli- 
pilla inquiry  establishing  the  fact  that  Roger 
had  never  been  there,  but  that  Arthur  Orton 
had,  the  claimant's  solicitor  and  a  large 
number  of  his  supporters  withdrew  from  the 
case.  The  claimant  was  penniless  and  owed 
huge  sums.  Lady  Tichborne  had  died  in 
April  1868,  and  Mr.  Hopkins  was  also  dead. 
Left  to  himself,  he  might  have  thrown  up 
the  attempt ;  but  behind  him  were  a  number 
of  creditors.  Fresh  sums  were  obtained  by 
the  issue  of  'Tichborne  Bonds,'  and  even- 
tually, after  a  long  delay  to  take  evidence  in 
Australia,  his  ejectment  action  against  the 
trustees  of  the  Tichborne  estate  came  on 
before  Chief-justice  Bovill  and  a  special 

Jur7- 

The  trial  of  this  action  lasted  for  102  days, 
between  11  May  1871  and  5  March  1872. 
Serjeant  Ballantine  led  for  the  claimant,  Sir 
John  (afterwards  Lord  chief-justice)  Cole- 
ridge [q.  v.  Suppl.]  and  Mr.  Hawkins,  Q.C. 
(afterwards  Sir  Henry  Hawkins,  Lord 
Brampton),  for  the  trustees.  The  claimant 
himself  was  not  put  in  the  box  until  some- 
thing like  forty  of  his  witnesses  had  been 
called.  His  cross-examination  at  the  hands 
of  Sir  John  Coleridge  lasted  twenty-two  days, 
and  was  remarkable  alike  for  the  colossal 
ignorance  displayed  by  him  and  for  the  acute- 
ness  and  bulldog  tenacity  with  which  he 
faced  the  ordeal.  To  quote  Sir  John's  own 
words :  '  Did  you  ever  see  a  more  clever  man, 
more  ready,  more  astute,  or  with  more  ability 
in  dealing  with  information  and  making  use  of 


the  slightest  hint  dropped  by  cross-examin- 
ing counsel  ? '  His  deficiencies  are  summed 
up  by  the  same  authority :  '  The  first  six- 
teen years  of  his  life  he  had  absolutely  for- 
gotten; the  few  facts  he  had  told  the  jury 
were  already  proved,  or  would  hereafter  be 
shown,  to  be  absolutely  false  and  fabricated. 
Of  his  college  life  he  could  recollect  nothing. 
.  .  .  About  his  amusements,  his  books,  his 
music,  his  games,  he  could  tell  nothing. 
Not  a  word  of  his  family,  of  the  people 
with  whom  he  lived,  their  habits,  their  per- 
sons, their  very  names.'  '  When  he  reap- 
pears in  1865  he  has  undergone  a  physical 
and  a  moral  miracle  :  a  slight,  delicate,  un- 
dersized youth  has  developed  into  an  enor- 
mous mass  of  flesh.' 

Indeed,  this  physical  discrepancy  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  whole 
imposture.  Roger  Tichborne  had  been  slight 
and  delicate  with  narrow  sloping  shoulders, 
a  long  narrow  face,  and  thin  straight  dark 
hair.  The  claimant,  though  about  the  same 
height,  was  of  enormous  bulk,  scaling  over 
twenty-four  stone,  big-framed  and  burly, 
with  a  large  round  face  and  abundance  of 
fair  and  rather  wavy  hair.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  he  did  present  points  of 
resemblance  to  several  male  members  of  the 
Tichborne  family,  but,  curiously  enough, 
Roger  was  described  by  the  witnesses  as  a  bad- 
looking  copy  of  his  beautiful  French  mother, 
and  utterly  unlike  the  Tichbornes.  Moreover, 
Roger,  born  and  educated  in  France,  spoke 
and  wrote  French  like  a  native ;  the  claimant 
did  notknow  a  word  of  French.  Roger's  Eng- 
lish correspondence  was  often  ungrammatical, 
with  traces  of  foreign  idiom;  the  claimant's 
letters  were  monuments  of  vulgar  illiteracy  ; 
yet  there  were  strange  coincidences  both  in 
spelling  and  expression. 

Over  one  hundred  persons  swore  to  the 
claimant's  identity ;  they  were  drawn  from 
every  class  and  with  few  exceptions  were 
perfectly  genuine  in  their  belief,  though  the 
most  influential  and  respectable  of  them  were 
called  prior  to  the  claimant's  cross-examina- 
tion. It  was  not  until  Sir  John  Coleridge, 
in  a  speech  of  unparalleled  length,  laid  bare 
the  whole  conspiracy  and  placed  the  incep- 
tion of  the  fraud  before  the  world,  that  the 
result  ceased  to  be  doubtful.  Up  till  then 
educated  and  legal  society  had  been  evenly 
divided.  The  first  witness  called  for  the 
defendant  trustees  swore  to  having  tattooed 
Roger  at  Stonyhurst,  whereas  the  claimant 
had  denied  having  been  tattooed  and  his 
arm  showed  no  marks.  After  several  mem- 
bers of  the  Tichborne  and  Seymour  families 
had  been  in  the  box,  the  jury  declared  that 
they  required  no  further  evidence,  on  which 


Orton 


238 


Ottley 


Serjeant    Ballantine    elected    to    be    non- 
suited (5  March  1872). 

The  chief-justice,  Bovill,  ordered  the  imme- 
diate arrest  of  the  claimant  for  perjury,  and 
he  was  detained  in  Newgate  until  bail  for 
10,OOOJ.  was  forthcoming ;  but  he  was  not 
brought  to  trial  until  April  1873.  The  trial 
took  place  at  bar  before  Chief-justice  Cock- 
burn  and  Justices  Mellor  and  Lush,  Mr. 
Hawkins  leading  for  the  crown,  and  the 
claimant  being  represented  by  Edward 
Vaughan  Hyde  Kenealy  [q.  v.l  An  enor- 
mous mass  of  evidence  was  called  on  both 
sides,  but  the  better-class  witnesses,  in- 
cluding nearly  all  Roger's  brother  officers, 
had  forsaken  the  claimant.  The  Orton  part 
of  the  case  was  now  for  the  first  time  gone 
into,  and  there  was  a  vast  amount  of  cross- 
swearing,  but  the  testimony  of  Arthur's  for- 
mer sweetheart  and  the  refusal  of  Kenealy 
to  put  the  Orton  sisters  into  the  box  were 
fatal  to  the  claimant.  Kenealy's  mismanage- 
ment of  the  case,  his  altercations  with  the 
bench,  and  the  fatal  policy  of  attempting 
to  establish  the  claimant's  identity  instead 
of  leaving  the  prosecution  to  prove  their 
case,  destroyed  all  chance  of  acquittal.  On 
28  Feb.  1874,  the  188th  day  of  the  trial, 
the  jury  after  half  an  hour's  deliberation 
found  that  the  claimant  was  Arthur  Orton, 
and  he  was  sentenced  to  fourteen  years' 
penal  servitude. 

The  verdict  and  sentence  caused  enormous 
excitement  in  the  country  among  the  half- 
educated  classes  who  had  subscribed  largely 
to  the  defence,  and  who  were  assured  that 
the  prosecution  was  the  outcome  of  a  con- 
spiracy fomented  by  the  Jesuits.  An  agita- 
tion spread  through  the  country  which  at 
one  time  threatened  to  become  dangerous. 
Kenealy,  disbarred  for  his  flagrant  breaches 
of  professional  etiquette,  was  returned  to  par- 
liament in  order  to  advocate  the  claimant's 
cause,  and  on  23  April  1875  he  moved  in  the 
House  of  Commons  to  refer  the  conduct  of 
the  trial  and  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the 
prisoner  to  a  royal  commission.  The  motion 
was  rejected  by  433  votes  to  1,  and  the 
agitation  gradually  subsided. 

Orton,  whose  conduct  in  prison  had  been 
exemplary,  was  released  in  1884.  All  prac- 
tical interest  in  the  case  had  died  away,  and 
his  efforts  to  resuscitate  it  ended  in  ridi- 
cule. He  survived  for  fourteen  years,  gra- 
dually sinking  into  poverty,  and  he  died  in 
obscure  lodgings  in  Marylebone  on  2  April 
1898. 

In  1895  he  had  published  in  the  '  People ' 
newspaper  a  signed  confession  in  which  were 
described  the  inception  of  the  fraud  and  the 
means  by  which  it  was  carried  into  effect. 


He  is  said  to  have  afterwards  recanted,  and 
the  name  engraved  on  his  coffin  was  '  Sir 
Roger  Charles  Doughty  Tichborne.'  The 
possibility  of  the  claimant  having  been 
Roger  Tichborne  has  been  long  since  aban- 
doned by  all  sane  persons,  but  there  are  still 
some  who  maintain  that  he  was  an  illegiti- 
mate member  of  the  Tichborne  family.  Of 
this  theory  no  proof  has  ever  been  adduced, 
and  the  facts  elicited  at  the  two  trials  render 
the  identity  of  the  claimant  with  Arthur 
Orton  as  clear  as  a  proposition  in  Euclid. 
The  resistance  of  his  claim  cost  the  Tich- 
borne estates  90,000/.,  and  the  cost  of  the 
trial  at  bar  was  not  less. 

[There  is  no  complete  report  of  the  ejectment 
action ;  the  printed  shorthand  notes  only  contain 
the  cross-examination  of  the  claimant  and  the 
speech  of  Sir  John  Coleridge ;  the  rest  of  the  pro- 
ceedings are  to  be  found  in  the  newspapers  of  the 
date.  The  complete  shorthand  notes  of  the  crimi- 
nal trial  have  been  printed.  See  also  the  summing- 
up  of  the  Lord  Chief  Justice,  revised  by  himself; 
The  Trial  at  Bar  of  Sir  Roger  Tichborne,  edited 
by  Dr.  Kenealy ;  Famous  Trials,  ed.  J.  B.  Atlay, 
1899;  Reminiscences  of  Serjeant  Ballantine ;  Life 
of  Lord  Bowen,  by  Sir  H.  Cunningham ;  '  People  ' 
for  June  and  July  1895  ;  Annual  Register,  1871- 
1874  ;  and  Law  Reports,  6  App.  Ca.  229.] 

J.  B.  A. 

OTTLEY,  SIK  FRANCIS  (1601-1649), 
royalist,  born  in  1601,  was  son  and  heir  of 
Thomas  Ottley  of  Pitchford,  Shropshire. 
The  family  claimed  to  be  a  younger  branch 
of  the  Oteleys  of  Oteley,  near  Ellesmere,  but 
had  been  settled  at  Shrewsbury  in  the 
fifteenth  century  (BuRKE,  Visitation  of  Seats 
and  Arms,  2nd  ser.  i.  193;  Visitation  of 
Shropshire,  1623,  pp.  173,  382),  and  his 
mother  was  Mary,  daughter  of  Roger  Gifford, 
M.D.  He  matriculated  from  Lincoln  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  on  4  Dec.  1618,  but  left  the 
university  without  a  degree,  and  in  1620 
was  entered  as  a  student  of  the  Inner  Temple. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  local  affairs,  and 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  became  one 
of  the  leading  royalists  in  Shropshire ;  he 
was  knighted  on  21  Sept.  1642.  He  was 
made  governor  of  Shrewsbury,  and  on  2  Jan. 
1642-3  compelled  the  inhabitants,  under 
threats  of  death,  to  sign  a  declaration  against 
parliament  (Cal.  State  Papers,  Dom.  1642- 
1643,  p.  437).  In  1644  he  resigned  the 
governorship,  possibly  in  resentment  at  Prince 
Rupert's  harsh  dealing  with  the  townspeople 
(OwEN  and  BLA.KEWAT,  Hist,  of  Shrewsbury, 
ii.  445),  and  was  nominated  by  the  royalists 
as  sheriff  of  Shropshire,  Thomas  My  tton  [q.  v.] 
being  the  parliamentary  and  officially  re- 
cognised tenant  of  the  post  (List  of  Sheriffs, 
1898,  p.  120).  Ottley  was  therefore  not  in 


Paget 


Shrewsbury  when  it  was  surprised  on  23  Feb.  j 
1644-5.  He  continued  to  fight  on  the  royalist 
side  in  Shropshire  (cf.  WEBB,  Civil  War  in  \ 
Herefordshire,!.  241, 290, 381,  ii.!28),but  sur- 
rendered to  the  parliamentarians  at  Bridge- 
north  on  26  April  1646.  The  conditions 
were  that  he  was  to  be  allowed  to  go  to 
Pitchford,  and  at  the  end  of  two  months  to 
make  his  choice  between  submission  and 
banishment  (articles  printed  in  Cal.  State 
Papers,  Dom.  1645-7,  pp.  422-3).  He  chose 
to  submit,  and  on  16  June  following  peti- 
tioned to  be  allowed  to  compound  for  his 
delinquency.  His  fine  was  eventually  fixed 
at  1,200/.  on  25  June  1649,  but  Ottley  died 
in  London  on  11  Sept.  following.  He  married 
(Harleian  MS.  1241,  f.  336)  Lucy,  daughter 
of  Thomas  Edwards,  sheriff  of  Shropshire  in 
1621,  and  by  her  had,  besides  other  issue,  a 
son,  Sir  Richard,  who  was  gentleman  of  the 
privy  chamber  to  Charles  II,  and  represented 
Shropshire  in  parliament  from  1661  till  his 
death  on  10  Aug.  1670.  The  family  died 
out  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  when 
Pitchford  passed  to  Charles  Cecil  Cope  Jen- 


;9  Paget 

kinson,  third    and   last    earl  of  Liverpool 
[q.  v.] 

Ottley  carefully  preserved  the  papers  which 
passed  through  his  hands,  and  they  are  of 
some  importance  for  the  history  of  the  civil 
war  in  Shropshire  and  the  neighbouring 
counties.  Carte  had  access  to  them  (cf.  his 
History,  iv.  455),  but  made  little  use  of  them. 
They  were,  however,  utilised  by  Owen  and 
Blakeway  in  their  '  History  of  Shrewsbury 
(i.  4J5-44),  and  have  recently  been  printed 
in '  Collectanea  Topographica  et  Genealogica,' 
v.  291-304,  vi.  21-37,  vii.  84-110  and  303- 
319. 

[Cal.  State  Papers,  Dom.  ;  Cal.  Comm.  for 
Compounding,  pp.  1331,  1541,  1641,  1817; 
Owen  and  Blakeway's  Hist.  Shrewsbury;  Blake- 
way's  Sheriffs  of  Shropshire ;  Visitation  of 
Shropshire,  1623  (Harleian  Soc.) ;  Le  Neve's 
Pedigrees  of  Knights,  p.  79 ;  Collectanea  Top. 
et  Gen.  vols.  v.  vi.  and  vii. ;  Burke's  Visitation 
of  Seats  and  Arms ;  Webb's  Civil  War  in  Here- 
fordshire; Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1500-1714; 
Notes  and  Queries,  2nd  ser.  iv.  331,  358,  408, 
8th  ser.  viii.  387.]  A.  F.  P. 


P 


PAGET,  SIR  AUGUSTUS  BERKELEY 
(1823-1896),  diplomatist,  the  fourth  son  of 
Sir  Arthur  Paget  [q.  v.],  who  was  second 
son  of  the  first  earl  of  Uxbridge,  and  a 
brother  of  Henry  William  Paget,  first  mar- 
quis of  Anglesey  [q.  v.]  and  of  Sir  Edward 
Paget  [q.  v.],  was  born  on  16  April  1823. 
He  was  privately  educated,  and  in  1840  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  crown  as  clerk 
in  the  secretary's  department  of  the  general 
post  office.  He  was  soon  transferred  to  the 
audit  office,  and  again  on  21  Aug.  1841  to 
the  foreign  office. 

Paget  then  decided  to  enter  the  diplomatic 
service,  and  on  2  Dec.  1843  obtained  an 
appointment  as  temporary  attache  at  Madrid, 
where  he  remained  till  1846.  On  6  Feb. 
1846  he  was  appointed  precis  writer  to  the 
foreign  secretary,  Lord  Aberdeen,  but  on 
26  June  became  second  paid  attache  to  the 
British  embassy  at  Paris.  Here  he  wit- 
nessed the  coup  d'etat  of  1848,  and  the 
establishment  of  the  second  empire ;  on 
18  Dec.  1851  he  became  first  paid  attached 
On  12  Feb.  1852  he  was  promoted  to  be 
secretary  of  legation  at  Athens  at  a  time 
when  diplomatic  relations  with  Greece  were 
more  or  less  in  abeyance,  so  that  his  position 
was  peculiar  and  required  much  tact.  On 
8  Dec.  1852  he  went  on  to  Egypt  and  acted 
as  consul-general  till  19  Feb.  1853,  returned 


to  England  on  leave  of  absence  on  27  May 
1853,  and  was  transferred  to  the  Hague  as 
secretary  of  legation  on  14  Jan.  1854.  Here 
he  acted  as  chargS  d'affaires  from  7  May  to 
21  Oct.  1855,  and  again  from  3  July  to 
24  Aug.  1856.  He  was  transferred  to  Lisbon 
on  18  Feb.  1857,  and  acted  as  charg6 
d'affaires  from  9  July  1857  to  14  Jan.  1858. 
On  1  April  1858  he  was  sent  to  Berlin  and 
acted  as  charge  d'affaires  from  17  June  to 
20  Nov.  1858.  On  13  Dec.  1858  he  was 
appointed  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  the  king  of  Saxony.  On 
6  June  1859  he  was  gazetted  to  the  post  of 
minister  at  the  court  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way, but  on  6  July  this  appointment  was 
cancelled  in  favour  of  that  to  Denmark. 

As  minister  at  Copenhagen  Paget  saw  the 
accession  of  Christian  IX  at  the  close  of 
1863,  and  had  to  play  a  leading  part  in  re- 
gard to  the  Schleswig-Holstein  difficulty  in 
1864;  nor  was  his  position  much  less  difficult 
when  in  1866  Prussia  meditated  war  against 
Austria.  On  9  June  1866  he  was  sent  to 
Portugal  as  envoy  extraordinary.  Appointed 
on  6  July  1867  to  Italy  as  envoy  extra- 
ordinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
Victor  Emmanuel,  he  represented  Great 
Britain  in  Italy  during  one  of  the  most 
critical  periods  of  Italian  history ;  he  saw  the 
entry  of  the  Italian  troops  into  Rome  and 


Paget 


240 


Paget 


the  beginning  of  a  new  era  of  national  life. 
It  is  admitted  that  in  this  trying  period  his 
tact  was  conspicuous.  He  remained  in  Italy 
for  a  long  time,  becoming  ambassador  ex- 
traordinary on  24  March  1876.  On  12  Sept. 
1883  he  relinquished  this  post  and,  after  a 
short  period  of  leave,  became  ambassador  at 
Vienna  on  1  Jan.  1884.  From  that  post  he 
retired  on  1  July  1893.  He  devoted  much 
of  the  leisure  which  now  came  to  him  to  the 
preparation  of  his  father's  memoirs.  These 
he  published  in  1895  under  the  title  of  'The 
Paget  Papers.') 

He  died  at  Hatfield  suddenly,  at  the  close 
of  a  short  visit  to  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury, 
on  11  July  1896.  He  is  buried  at  Tarde- 
bigg,  Bromsgrove,  near  the  seat  of  his  son- 
in-law,  Lord  Windsor. 

Paget's  upright  and  manly  character  was 
much  valued  by  the  sovereigns  with  whom 
he  had  to  deal ;  his  influence  was  rather 
that  of  the  English  gentleman  than  of  the 
astute  diplomatist.  He  was  created  C.B.  on 
10  Feb.  and  K.C.B.  on  16  March  1863,  a 
privy  councillor  in  1876,  and  G.C.B.  in  1883. 

Paget  married,  on  20  Oct.  1860,  the 
Countess  Walpurga  Ehrengarde  Helena  de 
Hohenthal,  maid  of  honour  to  the  princess 
royal  of  Prussia,  and  left  three  children — 
one  son  in  the  army,  another  in  the  diplo- 
matic service ;  his  daughter  married  the 
present  Lord  Windsor. 

[Foreign  Office  List,  1895  ;  Annual  Register, 
1896;  Times,  13  July  and  17  July  1896.] 

C.  A.  H. 

PAGET,  SIR  JAMES  (1814-1899),  sur- 
geon, born  at  Great  Yarmouth  on  11  Jan. 
1814,  was  the  eighth  of  the  seventeen 
children  of  Samuel  Paget  and  Sarah  Eliza- 
beth, his  wife,  daughter  of  Thomas  Tolver  of 
Chester.  Sir  George  Paget  [q.  v.]  was  an 
elder  brother.  The  father  was  a  brewer  and 
shipowner,  who  served  the  office  of  mayor  of 
Great  Yarmouth  in  1817.  James  was  edu- 
cated at  Yarmouth  at  a  private  school,  and 
•was  apprenticed  in  1830  to  Charles  Costerton, 
a  St.  Bartholomew's  man,  in  practice  as  a 
surgeon  at  Yarmouth.  He  found  time  dur- 
ing his  apprenticeship  to  write  and  publish 
jointly  with  one  of  his  brothers  a  book  on  the 
natural  history  of  Great  Yarmouth.  Paget 
came  to  London  in  the  autumn  of  1834  to 
enter  as  a  student  at  St.  Bartholomew's 
hospital,  and  in  February  1835,  while  he  was 
working  in  the  dissecting-room,  he  called 
the  attention  of  his  teachers  to  some  little 
white  specks  in  the  muscles  of  one  of  the 
subjects.  He  borrowed  a  microscope,  showed 
that  the  specks  were  cysts  containing  worms, 
and  read  a  paper  on  the  subject  before  the 
Abernethian  Societv  on  6  Feb.  1835.  His 


observations  were  afterwards  confirmed  by 
Professor  (Sir)  Richard  Owen  [q.  v.],  and  the 
parasite  has  been  well  known  ever  since 
under  the  name  Trichina  spiralis.  In  1835- 
1836  Paget  filled  the  post  of  clinical  clerk 
under  Dr.  Peter  Mere  Latham  (1789-1875) 
[q.  v.],  because  he  was  unable  to  afford  the 
fee  demanded  by  the  surgeons  of  the  hospital 
for  the  office  of  dresser.  He  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of 
England  on  13  May  1836,  and,  after  a  short 
visit  to  Paris,  he  settled  in  London,  and 
supported  himself  by  teaching  and  writing. 
He  was  sub-editor  of  the  '  Medical  Gazette ' 
from  1837  to  1842,  and  in  1841  he  was 
elected  surgeon  to  the  Finsbury  dispensary. 
At  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Paget  was 
appointed  curator  of  the  museum  in  succes- 
sion to  W.  J.  Bayntin  in  1837,  and  in  1839  he 
was  chosen  demonstrator  of  morbid  anatomy, 
in  which  position  he  proved  himself  so  good 
a  teacher  that  on  30  May  1843  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  lecturer  on  general  anatomy  and 
physiology.  On  10  Aug.  1843  he  was  elected 
warden  of  the  college  for  students,  then 
first  established  at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hos- 
pital, a  post  he  resigned  in  October  1851.  In 

1846  he  drew  up  a  catalogue  of  the  anato- 
mical museum  of  the  hospital,  and  on  24  Feb. 

1847  he  was   chosen   an  assistant  surgeon 
after  a  severe  contest,  the  opposition  being 
based  upon  the  ground  that  he  had  never 
served  the  office  of  dresser  or  house-surgeon, 
posts  which  had  been   considered  hitherto 
essential  qualifications  in  every  candidate  for 
the  surgical  staff.     He  lectured  on  physio- 
logy in  the  medical  school  from  1859  to  1861, 
was  promoted  full  surgeon  in  July  1861,  held 
the  lectureship  on  surgery  from  1865  to  1869, 
resigned  the  office  of  surgeon  in  May  1871, 
and  was  immediately  appointed  a  consulting 
surgeon  to  the  hospital. 

At  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Eng- 
land Paget  was  admitted  one  of  the  first 
fellows,  when  that  order  was  established  in 
1843,  and  he  prepared  the  descriptive  cata- 
logue of  the  pathological  specimens  con- 
tained in  the  Hunterian  Museum,  which 
appeared  at  intervals  between  1846  and  1849. 
He  was  Arris  and  Gale  professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  from  1847  to  1852,  a  member  of 
the  council  from  1865  to  1889,  a  vice-presi- 
dent in  1873  and  1874,  chairman  of  the 
midwifery  board  in  1874,  president  in  1875, 
representative  of  the  college  at  the  General 
Medical  Council  from  1876to  1881,  Hunterian 
orator  in  1877,  the  first  Bradshaw  lecturer 
'  on  some  new  and  rare  diseases '  in  1882,  and 
the  first  Morton  lecturer  on  cancer  and  can- 
cerous diseases  in  1887. 

As  early  as  1858,  and  while  he  was  still 


Paget 


241 


Paget 


only  an  assistant  surgeon  at  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital,  Paget  was  appointed  surgeon- 
extraordinary  to  the  queen.  He  attended 
Queen  Alexandra,  when  princess  of  Wales, 
during  a  long  surgical  illness,  and  was  made 
surgeon  to  King  Edward  VII,  when  prince 
of  Wales ;  from  1867  to  1877  he  held  the 
post  of  serjeant-surgeon-extraordinary,  and 
in  1877  he  became  Serjeant-surgeon  to  Queen 
Victoria  on  the  death  of  Sir  William  Fer- 
gusson  [q.  v.]  He  was  created  a  baronet  in 
August  1871. 

Paget  was  president  of  the  three  chief 
medical  societies  in  London  ;  he  filled  the 
chair  of  the  Clinical  Society  in  1869,  of  the 
Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society  in 
1875,  and  of  the  Pathological  Society  of  Lon- 
don in  1887.  He  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  senate  of  the  university  of  London  in 
1860,  and  on  the  death  of  Sir  George  Jessel 
[q.  v."|  in  1883  Paget  became  vice-chancellor 
of  the  university,  a  post  he  retained  until 
1895.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Medicine  at  the  meeting 
held  in  London  in  1881.  He  was  elected 
F.R.S.  in  1851,  and  among  many  other  dis- 
tinctions he  held  the  honorary  degrees  of 
D.C.L.  (Oxford),  LL.D.  (Cambridge), 
F.R.C.S.  (Edinburgh  and  Ireland),  and 
M.D.  (Dublin,  Bonn,  and  Wiirzburg). 

Sir  James  Paget  died  at  his  house,  5  Park 
Square  AVest,  Regent's  Park,  on  30  Dec.  1899, 
and  was  buried  at  Finchley  cemetery,  after 
a  funeral  service  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
There  is  an  excellent  likeness  of  Paget  in 
the  great  hall  at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital. 
It  is  a  three-quarter-length  in  oils  by  (Sir) 
J.  E.  Millais,  R.A.,  painted  by  subscription 
in  1873.  A  bust,  by  Sir  J.  Edgar  Boehm, 
bart.,  R.A.,  stands  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  England ;  and  there  is  a  replica 
in  the  museum  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Hos- 
pital, dated  1887. 

He  married,  in  1844,  Lydia,  daughter  of 
the  Rev.  Henry  Xorth,  domestic  chaplain  to 
the  Duke  of  Kent,  and  by  her  had  four  sons 
and  two  daughters,  the  second  son  becoming 
successively  dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
and  bishop  of  Oxford,  and  the  third  son  the 
vicar  of  St.  Pancras,  London.  Lady  Paget 
died  in  1895. 

Paget  was  a  surgeon  who  advanced  his 
art  by  showing  how  pathology  might  be  ap- 
plied successfully  to  elucidate  clinical  pro- 
blems, when  as  yet  there  was  no  science  of 
bacteriology.  He  may  therefore  be  fairly 
considered  as  one  of  the  links  connecting 
Hunterian  surgery  with  the  developments 
which  have  taken  place  during  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century,  owing  to  a  recognition 
of  the  part  played  by  micro-organisms  in  the 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


production  of  disease.  The  position  which 
Paget  occupied  as  a  teacher  in  a  large  medi- 
cal school,  his  persuasive  eloquence,  and  the 
classical  English  of  his  writings,  gave  him 
great  authority  among  his  contemporaries, 
and  enabled  him  to  exercise  a  much  wider 
influence  than  would  have  been  expected 
from  his  modest  demeanour  and  somewhat 
retiring  disposition.  He  was  facile  princeps 
as  a  teacher,  not  by  reason  of  his  originality, 
but  because  he  was  able  to  grasp  the 
principle  and  clothe  it  briefly  and  clearly  in 
exquisite  language.  Scrupulously  honest  and 
fair-minded  he  acquired  one  of  the  chief 
surgical  practices  in  London.  During  the 
busiest  period  of  his  life  he  was  invariably 
punctual,  and  was  never  outwardly  in  a 
hurry.  He  had  strong  religious  convictions, 
which  appear  in  many  passages  of  his  writ- 
ings, and  he  was  always  careful  in  the  re- 
ligious observances  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land. 

Paget rs  works  are  :  1.  '  A  Descriptive 
Catalogue  of  the  Pathological  Specimens 
contained  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons  of  England,'  4to  (vol.  i.  1846, 
vol.  ii.  1847,  vol.  iii.  1848,  vols.  iv.  and  v. 
1849).  A  second  edition  of  the  '  Catalogue  ' 
was  published  between  1882  and  1885,  edited 
bv  Sir  James  Paget,  with  the  assistance  of 
J"  F.  Goodhart,  M.D.,  and  A.  H.  G.  Doran, 
F.R.C.S.  2.  'A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of 
the  Anatomical  Museum  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital ; '  new  edit.  vol.  i.  1847, 
vol.  ii.  1852.  These  two  catalogues  laid  the 
foundation  of  Paget's  reputation.  They  made 
him  a  pathologist,  trained  him  to  be  an  ac- 
curate observer,  and  taught  him  to  write 
terse  English.  3.  '  Lectures  on  Surgical 
Pathology,'  London,  1853,  2  vols.  8vo ;  re- 
vised and  edited  by  (Sir)  William  Turner, 
London,  1863,  8vo;  3rd  edit,  1870;  4th 
edit.  1876.  These  volumes  contain,  with 
omissions  and  additions,  the  six  courses  of 
lectures  (1847-52)  delivered  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  of  England  under  the 
Arris  and  Gale  bequests.  They  were  the 
direct  outcome  of  Paget's  work  in  the  Hun- 
terian museum,  and  their  publication  gave  a 
great  impulse  to  the  study  of  pathology, 
which  had  been  flagging  for  some  time  be- 
fore their  appearance.  4.  '  Clinical  Lectures 
and  Essays,'  ed.  Howard  Marsh,  London, 
1875,  8vo ;  translated  into  French,  Paris, 
1877,  8vo.  5.  'Studies  of  Old  Case  Books,' 
London,  1891,  8vo.  Paget  also  communi- 
cated many  papers  to  the  various  medical 
societies  and  journals.  He  wrote  the  lives 
of  eminent  surgeons  and  physicians  in  the 
biographical  division  of  Knight's  '  Penny 
Cyclopaedia  '(London,  1833-44) ;  he  assisted 


Paget 


242 


Palgrave 


Dr.  William  Senhouse  Kirkes  [q.  v.  Suppl.] 
in  the  first  edition  of  the  '  Handbook  of 
Physiology '  (London,  1848,  8vo  ;  15th  edit. 
1899) ;  and  he  wrote  an  interesting  intro- 
duction to  South's  '  Memorials  of  the  Craft 
of  Surgery  in  England '  (London,  1886). 

[Personal  knowledge;  Times,  1  Jan.  1900,  p. 
4;  British MedicalJournal,  1900,  i.  49  ;  Lancet, 
1900,  i.  52  ;  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Journal, 
1900,  vii.  50;  additional  information  kindly 
given  by  Stephen  Paget,  esq.,  F.R.C.S.  Eng.] 

D'A.  P. 

PAGET,  JOHN  (1811-1898),  police 
magistrate  and  author,  was  the  second  son 
of  Thomas  Paget  of  Humberstone,  Leicester- 
shire, where  he  was  born  on  14  May  1811. 
His  father  was  a  banker  in  Leicester,  and 
head  of  the  Huguenot  family  descended 
from  Valerian  Paget  who  fled  to  England 
after  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew 
(SMILES,  The  Huguenots,  p.  517).  The  boy 
was  entirely  educated  at  home.  For  some 

S:ars  he  was  assistant  in  his  father's  bank, 
e  entered  the  Middle  Temple  on  16  Oct. 
1835,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  on  2  Nov. 
1838.  In  1842  he  published  the  '  Income 
Tax  Act,'  with  an  introduction ;  and  in 
1854  a  'Report  of  Dr.  Radcliffe's  Judg- 
ment in  the  Consistorial  Court  of  Dublin,' 
with  '  observations  on  the  practice  of  the 
ecclesiastical  courts.'  From  1850  till  1855 
he  was  secretary  first  to  Lord  Chancellor 
Truro  and  secondly  to  Lord  Chancellor  Cran- 
worth,  and  in  1864  he  was  appointed  a 
magistrate  at  the  Thames  police  court ;  he 
was  transferred  from  it  to  the  Hammersmith 
and  Wandsworth  courts,  and  on  their  separa- 
tion he  presided  over  the  court  at  West 
London  till  his  resignation  in  1889. 

Paget  devoted  his  leisure  to  literary  pur- 
suits. He  was  a  contributor  to  '  Black- 
wood's  Magazine'  between  1860  and  1888. 
His  papers  adversely  criticising  Macaulay's 
views  of  Marlborough,  the  massacre  of  Glen- 
coe,  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  Claverhouse, 
and  William  Penn  were  reprinted  in  1861 
with  the  title  of  <  The  New  Exam  en.'  Other 
articles,  entitled  '  Vindication,'  and  dealing 
with  Nelson,  Lady  Hamilton,  the  Wigtown 
martyrs,  and  Lord  Byron;  'Judicial  Puzzles,' 
dealing  with  Elizabeth  Canning,  the  Camp- 
den  Wonder,  the  Annesley  case,  Eliza  Fen- 
ning,  and  Spencer  Cowper's  case ;  and 
'  Essays  on  Art,'  dealing  with  the  elements 
of  drawing,  Rubens  and  Ruskin,  George 
Cruikshank  and  John  Leech,  were  included 
in  a  volume  and  called  '  Paradoxes  and 
Puzzles :  Historical,  Judicial,  and  Literary,' 
which  appeared  in  1874. 

Paget  was  also  a  skilful  draughtsman,  and 
his  illustrations  to  '  Bits  and  Bearing-reins ' 


(1875),  by  Edward  Fordham  Flower  [q.v.], 
largely  helped  to  make  the  reader  understand 
the  cruelty  caused  to  horses  by  the  method 
of  harnessing  against  which  Flower  protested. 
In  early  days  Paget  was  an  ardent  whig, 
and  enrolled  himself  among  those  who  were 
prepared  to  fight  for  the  Reform  Bill.  He 
joined  the  Reform  Club  when  it  was  founded 
in  1836,  and  was  a  member  of  the  library 
committee  there  for  twenty-four  years,  being 
chairman  of  it  from  1861  to  1865.  On 
1  March  1839  he  married  Elizabeth,  daugh- 
ter of  William  Rathbone  of  Greenbank, 
Liverpool.  He  died  on  28  May  1898  at 
28  Boltona,  London,  leaving  a  widow  and 
two  daughters. 

[Private  information  ;  Foster's  Men  at  the  Bar, 
p.  349 ;  Paget's  Works  in  Brit.  Mus.  Libr.] 

F.  R. 

PALGRAVE,  FRANCIS  TURNER 
(1824-1897),  poet  and  critic,  eldest  son  of 
Sir  Francis  Palgrave  [q.  v.],  the  historian 
and  antiquary,  was  born  at  Great  Yar- 
mouth, in  the  house  of  his  maternal  grand- 
father, Dawson  Turner  [q.  v.],  a  banker  of  that 
town,  on  28  Sept.  1824.  His  childhood  was 
spent  partly  there,  but  chiefly  in  his  father's 
suburban  residence  at  Hampstead.  He  grew 
up,  in  both  houses,  amid  an  atmosphere  of 
high  artistic  culture  and  strenuous  thought. 
He  was  familiar  from  infancy  with  col- 
lections of  books,  pictures,  and  engravings, 
and  when  he  first  visited  Italy  with  his 
parents  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  was  already 
capable  of  appreciating,  and  being  pro- 
foundly influenced  by,  what  he  saw  there 
both  in  art  and  nature.  This  gravity  and 
sensibility  beyond  his  years  was  further  rein- 
forced by  the  fervid  anglo-catholicism  of 
his  family.  His  earlier  education  was  at 
home ;  he  was  afterwards  (1838-43)  a  day 
boy  at  Charterhouse,  from  which  in  1842 
he  gained  a  scholarship  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  and  went  into  residence  there  in 
1843.  There  he  joined  the  brilliant  circle 
which  included  Arnold,  Clough,  Doyle, 
Sellar,  and  Shairp,  and  which  has  been 
commemorated  by  the  last-named  of  these  in 
the  posthumous  volume  of  poems  entitled 
'  Glen  Desseray,'  prefaced  and  edited  by 
Palgrave  himself  forty  years  later.  He  took 
a  first  class  in  classics  in  1847,  having 
already,  some  months  previously,  been  elect  ed 
a  fellow  of  Exeter  College ;  he  did  not  gra- 
duate until  1856,  when  he  took  both  his  B.  A. 
and  M.A. 

Early  in  1 846  Palgrave  had  been  engaged 
for  some  months  as  assistant  private  secre- 
tary to  W.  E.  Gladstone,  then  secretary  of 
state  for  war  and  the  colonies.  Soon  after 
completing  his  probationary  year  at  Exeter 


Palgrave 


243 


Palgrave 


he  returned  to  the  public  service  by  accept- 
ing an  appointment  under  the  education  de- 
partment, in  which  the  rest  of  his  active  life 
was  spent.  From  1850  to  1855  he  was  vice- 
principal,  under  Dr.  Temple,  the  present 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  of  Kneller  Hall,  a 
government  training  college  for  elementary 
teachers  at  Twickenham.  Tennyson  was 
then  living  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the 
acquaintance  begun  in  1849  between  the 
two  grew  into  a  warm  and  lasting  friend- 
ship. In  1855  Palgrave  returned  to  Lon- 
don on  the  discontinuance  of  the  training 
college,  and  served  in  Whitehall,  first  as 
examiner  and  afterwards  as  assistant  secre- 
tary of  the  education  department,  till  his 
retirement  in  1884.  In  1854  he  had  pub- 
lished '  Idyls  and  Songs,'  a  small  volume  of 
poems  which  has  not  achieved  permanence. 
He  was  for  several  years  art  critic  to  the 
*  Saturday  Review,'  and  contributed  a  large 
number  of  reviews  and  critical  essays  deal- 
ing with  art  and  literature  to  the  '  Quarterly 
Review'  and  other  periodicals. 

Much  of  the  inner  history  and  not  a  little 
also  of  the  outward  incident  of  his  life  Up  i 
to  this  time  is  recorded  in  the  remarkable 
volume  published  by  him  pseudonymousty  : 
in  1858,  under  the  title  of  '  The  Passionate 
Pilgrim,'  the  Dichtung  und   Wahrheit  of  a 
highly  cultured  and  delicately  sensitive  mind. 
The  work  is  now  little  known,  but  is  notable 
for  the  mingled  breadth  and  subtlety  of  its 
psychology,  and  is  only  marred  by  a  slight  ] 
overloading  of  quotation.     This  was,  how-  : 
ever  (and  the  same  may  be  said  of  much  of  ! 
his  later  writing),  no  ostentation  of  learning, 
but  the  natural  overflow  of  unusual  know- 
ledge and  a  power  of  critical  appreciation 
which  was  in  excess  of  his  own  creative 
faculty.     Here,  as  so  often  elsewhere,  the 
imaginative  precocity  fostered  in  him  by  his 
early  surroundings  had  to  be  paid  for  by  a 
certain  lack  of  sustained  force  in  his  mature 
work. 

During  annual  holidays  spent  with  Tenny- 
son in  England  or  abroad,  the  scheme  and 
contents  of  the  '  Golden  Treasury '  were  now 
being  evolved.  It  was  published  in  1861, 
and  obtained  an  immediate  and  decisive 
success  which  has  continued  for  forty  years. 
The  enterprise  was  one  often  attempted 
before,  and  often  renewed  since ;  but  it  at 
once  blotted  out  all  its  predecessors,  and 
retains  its  primacy  among  the  large  and 
yearly  increasing  ranks'of  similar  or  cognate 
volumes  towards  which  it  has  given  the  first 
stimulus.  In  itself  it  is,  like  all  anthologies, 
open  to  criticism  both  for  its  inclusions  and 
its  omissions.  In  later  editions  some  of 
these  criticisms  were  admitted  and  met  by 


Palgrave  himself.  But  it  remains  one  of 
those  rare  instances  in  which  critical  work 
has  a  substantive  imaginative  value,  and 
entitles  its  author  to  rank  among  creative 
artists. 

In  1862  Palgrave  was  employed  in  the 
revision  of  the  official  catalogue  "of  the  fine 
art  department  of  the  exhibition  of  that 
year,  and  the  compilation  of  a  descriptive 
handbook  to  the  art  collections  there,  and 
also  wrote  a  memoir  of  Clough,  who  had 
died  the  autumn  before.  In  1866  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  '  Essays  on  Art,'  and  a 
critical  biography  of  Scott  prefixed  to  a  col- 
lected edition  of  his  poems.  Among  other 
productions  of  this  period  were  an  edition 
of  'Shakespeare's  Poems'  (1865),  a  volume 
of  Hymns  (1867),  another  of  '  Stories  for 
Children'  (1868),  and  one  of '  Lyrical  Poems ' 
(1871).  '  The  Children's  Treasury  of  Eng- 
lish Song,'  a  companion  volume  for  children 
to  the  '  Golden  Treasury,'  and  the  result,  like 
it,  of  many  years  of  thought  and  selection, 
appeared  in  1875.  The  other  anthologies 
made  by  him  may  be  ment  ioned(here  together : 
'  Chrysomela,'  a  volume  of  selections  from 
Herrick  (1877),  'Tennyson's  Select  Lyrics' 
(1885),  and  the  'Treasury  of  Sacred  Song' 
(1889).  A  second  series  of  the  'Golden 
Treasury,'  the  response  to  many  appeals  for 
inclusion  of  later  poets,  was  published  only 
in  the  year  before  his  death.  In  it  the  se- 
lection made  failed  to  give  general  satis- 
faction ;  and  indeed  the  judgments  in  poetry 
of  a  man  of  seventy  are  likely  to  have  lost 
much  and  gained  little  in  the  years  of  de- 
clining life.  By  that  time  too  the  way  he 
had  opened  thirty-five  years  before  was 
thronged  with  followers,  and  the  new  volume 
took  a  place  only  as  one  among  the  crowd. 
Two  more  volumes  of  original  poems,  the 
'  Visions  of  England '  (1881)  and '  Amenophis ' 
(1892),  complete  the  list  of  his  own  contri- 
butions to  English  poetry. 

In  1884  Palgrave  resigned  his  assistant 
secretaryship  in  the  education  department. 
The  remainder  of  his  life  was  divided  between 
London  and  the  country  house  at  Lyme 
Regis  which  he  had  bought  in  1872,  with 
almost  annual  visits  to  Italy.  In  1878  he 
had  been  made  an  honorary  LL.D.  of  Edin- 
burgh University,  and  in  1885  he  was  elected 
to  the  professorship  of  poetry  at  Oxford, 
vacated  by  the  death  of  John  Campbell 
Shairp  [q.  v.]  He  had  already  declined  to 
be  put  in  nomination  for  that  chair  in  1867 
as  Arnold's  successor,  and  had  actually  been 
a  candidate  in  1877,  but  had  withdrawn 
then  in  Shairp's  favour.  He  held  the  chair 
for  two  quinquennial  terms  (1885-95).  It 
is  singular  that  during  nearly  forty  vears  its 

"  "B2 


Palmer 


244 


Palmer 


successive  occupants  from  Arnold  to  Pal- 
grave  were  all  contemporaries,  and  all  mem- 
bers of  the  same  group  of  Balliol  scholars. 

A  volume  of  his  Oxford  lectures,  '  Land- 
scape in  Poetry'  (1897),  collected  and  re- 
vised by  him  after  he  vacated  the  chair,  was 
Palgrave's  last  published  work.  His  health 
had  been  for  some  years  failing,  and  he  died 
after  a  brief  illness  on  24  Oct.  1897.  He 
had  married,  in  December  1862,  Cecil,  daugh- 
ter of  J.  Milnes  Gaskell,  M.P.,  who  prede- 
ceased him  on  27  March  1890,  and  left  sur- 
viving him  a  son  and  four  daughters. 

Palgrave  was  one  of  those  men  whose 
distinction  and  influence  consist  less  in  crea- 
tive power  than  in  that  appreciation  of  the 
best  things  which  is  the  highest  kind  of 
criticism,  and  in  the  habit  of  living,  in  all 
matters  of  both  art  and  life,  at  the  highest 
standard.  This  quality,  which  is  what  is 
meant  by  the  classical  spirit,  he  possessed  to 
a  degree  always  rare,  and  perhaps  more  rare 
than  ever  in  the  present  age.  Beyond  this, 
but  not  unconnected  with  it,  were  qualities 
which  only  survive  in  the  memory  of  his 
friends — childlike  transparency  of  character, 
affect  ionateness,  and  quick  human  sympathy. 
[Francis  Turner  Palgrave,  by  Gr.  F.  Palgrave, 
1899  (a  Memoir  by  his  daughter);  Boase's 
Keg.  Coll.  Exon.  (Oxford  Hist.  Soc.) ;  personal 
knowledge.]  J.  W.  M. 

PALMER,  ARTHUR  (1841-1897), 
classical  scholar  and  critic,  born  at  Gwelph, 
Ontario,  Canada,  on  14  Sept.  1841,  was  the 
sixth  child  of  the  Ven.  Arthur  Palmer, 
archdeacon  of  Toronto,  by  his  first  wife, 
Hester  Madeline  Crawford.  He  was  edu- 
cated, first  by  his  father,  then  at  the  gram- 
mar school,  Gwelph,  under  the  Rev.  Edward 
Stewart.  After  about  four  years  at  the 
grammar  school,  he  left  it  in  1856.  In  1857 
he  went  to  Cheltenham,  where  he  remained 
less  than  a  year,  having  had,  as  he  used  to 
say,  'just  a  sweet  taste  of  English  public 
school  life.'  The.  head-master  at  the  time 
was  Arthur  Dobson.  He  entered  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  in  1859,  obtained  a  uni- 
versity scholarship  in  1861,  and  in  1863  he 
graduated  with  senior  moderatorship  and 
gold  medal  in  classics,  as  well  as  a  junior 
moderatorship  and  silver  medal  in  experi- 
mental and  natural  science.  In  1867  he  was 
elected  a  fellow,  and  in  1880  succeeded  Pro- 
fessor Tyrrell  in  the  chair  of  Latin.  In  1888 
he  succeeded  Judge  Webb  as  public  orator. 
He  was  M.A.  (1867)  and  Litt.D.  of  his  own 
university,  and  honorary  LL.D.  of  Glasgow 
(1890)  and  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  (1894).  From 
1867  to  1880  he  was  a  college  tutor,  and  as 
such  exercised  a  marked  influence  of  the 
best  kind  on  a  large  number  of  pupils,  all 


of  whom  remember  him  with  esteem  and 
affection,  many  of  them  having  received  from 
him  substantial  help  in  after  life.  His  con- 
tributions to  classical  scholarship  were  mainly 
emendations  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  texts, 
an  art  in  which  he  may  be  fairly  said  to 
occupy  a  foremost  place  among  modern  scho- 
lars. He  was  most  successful  in  his  cor- 
rections of  the  text  of  Plautus,  Catullus, 
Propertius,  Horace,  and  Ovid,  and  he  has 
made  many  convincing  conjectures  in  Aris- 
tophanes, while  he  aided  largely  in  consti- 
tuting the  text  of  the  editio  princeps  of 
Bacchylides  (1897),  and  made  many  excel- 
lent suggestions  in  the  first  edition  of  He- 
rondas  (1891).  Specimens  of  some  of  his 
cleverest  and  most  convincing  emendations 
will  be  found  in  an  obituary  notice  in  '  Her- 
mathena,'  No.  xxiv.  1898. 

Palmer  had  special  qualifications  for  the 
emendation  of  poetry.  His  memory  was 
stored  with  all  that  is  finest  in  poetry, 
ancient  and  modern,  his  taste  and  ear  were 
perfect,  and  his  feeling  for  style  singularly 
fine  and  just.  His  versions  in  '  Kottabos ' 
and  '  Dublin  Translations,'  few  but  choice, 
exhibit  his  skill  in  reproducing  the  idiom 
and  spirit  of  Latin  poetry. 

In  youth  his  personal  appearance  was  very 
attractive.  He  was  a  fair  cricketer,  and  for 
some  seasons  he  successfully  captained  a 
team  of  old  university  cricketers  who  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Stoics.  He  was  a  good 
racket-player  and  golfer.  As  a  conversa- 
tionalist he  was  delightful,  and  he  greatly 
enjoyed  society  until  failing  health  forced 
him  largely  to  forego  it.  His  health  till 
middle  age  was  excellent,  but  during  the 
last  ten  years  of  his  life  he  suffered  much 
from  disease  of  the  bladder,  and  died  of  a 
cancerous  growth  in  the  region  of  that  organ 
on  14  Dec.  1897. 

On  4  Oct.  1879  he  married  Miss  Frances 
Greene  of  Clevedon.  By  her  he  had  two 
sons:  Arthur,  born  on  13  May  1881,  and 
Uther,  born  on  20  April  1892. 

His  published  works  are:  1.  'Heroides' 
of  Ovid,  1874 ;  new  edit,  (revised  and  en- 
larged, with  the  transl.  of  Planudes),  1898, 
Clarendon  Press  Ser.  2.  '  Elegies '  of  Pro- 
pertius, 1880.  3.  '  Satires '  of  Horace,  Lon- 
don, 1883,  8vo  ;  5th  edit.  1893.  4.  '  Amphi- 
truo'  of  Plautus,  1888.  5.  '  Records  of  the 
Tercentenary  Festival  of  the  Dublin  Uni- 
versity,' 1892.  6.  '  Catullus'  in  Macmillan's 
Parnassus  Series,  1896.  Palmer  also  contri- 
buted articles,  chiefly  critical,  to  '  Herma- 
thena,'  the  'Journal  of  Philology,' '  Classical 
Review,'  and  other  periodicals. 

[Personal  knowledge  ;  private  information.] 

K.  y.  T. 


Palmer 


245 


Palmer 


PALMER,  SIB  ARTHUR   HUNTER 

(1819-1898),  colonial  politician,  born  at 
Armagh  on  28  Dec.  1819,  was  the  elder  son  of 
Lieutenant  Arthur  Palmer,  R.N.  (d.  30  April 
1836),  by  his  second  wife  Emily  (1791-1826), 
daughter  of  Robert  Hunter  of  Dublin  and 
Downpatrick.  He  was  educated  at  Youghal 
grammar  school,  emigrated  to  New  South 
Wales  in  1838,  and  for  twenty-three  years 
was  associated  with  Henry  Dangar's  stations, 
of  which  he  ultimately  became  general 
manager.  In  1866  Palmer  was  returned  to 
the  legislative  assembly  of  Queensland  for 
Port  Curtis,  and  in  August  1867  became 
colonial  secretary  and  secretary  for  public 
works  in  the  government  of  Sir  Robert 
Ramsey  Mackenzie.  In  September  he  took 
the  additional  portfolio  of  secretary  for 
lands,  and  in  November  1868  he  retired  with 
his  colleagues.  In  May  1870  he  formed  an 
administration  in  which  he  was  premier  and 
colonial  secretary,  and  in  1873  he  also  acted 
as  secretary  for  lands.  In  1874  his  govern- 
ment resigned  office,  and  Palmer  himself, 
leaving  Port  Curtis,  was  elected  for  Bris- 
bane. In  the  first  administration  of  Sir 
Thomas  Mcllwraith  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  he  was 
colonial  secretary  and  secretary  for  public 
instruction  from  January  1879  to  December 
1881,  when  he  was  appointed  president  of 
the  legislative  council.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  created  K.C.M.G.  He  administered  the 
government  of  Queensland  on  several  occa- 
sions during  a  vacancy  in  the  governorship. 
He  was  honorary  colonel  of  the  Queensland 
defence  force,  a  trustee  of  the  Queensland 
Museum,  and  a  director  of  the  Queensland 
National  Bank.  He  died  at  Brisbane  on 
20  March  1898.  On  8  June  1865  he  mar- 
ried Cecilia  Jessie  (d.  31  Aug.  1885),  daugh- 
ter of  Archibald  Mosman  of  Armidale,  New 
South  Wales.  By  her  he  had  three  sons 
and  two  daughters. 

[Sydney  Morning  Herald,  21  March  1898; 
Mennell's  Diet,  of  Australasian  Biogr.  1892; 
Burkes  Colonial  Gentry,  1891,  i.  47-8.] 

E.  I.  C. 

PALMER,  GEORGE  (1818-1897),  bis- 
cuit manufacturer,  born  on  18  Jan.  1818  on 
Upton  farm  in  Long  Sutton,  Somerset, 
which  had  long  been  the  property  of  his 
yeomen  ancestors,  was  the  son  of  William 
Palmer  (d.  1826)  and  his  wife  Mary  (d. 
1880),  daughter  of  William  Isaac,  both  being 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  The 
boy  was  educated  for  a  time  in  the  school  at 
Sidcot,  near  Weston-super-Mare,  which  be- 
longed to  that  religious  body,  and  about  1832 
was  apprenticed  to  a  relative  at  Taunton  to 
learn  the  business  of  a  miller  and  confec- 
tioner. 


At  midsummer  1841  Palmer  entered  into 
partnership  at  Reading  with  Thomas  Hunt- 
ley,  and  established  the  biscuit  business  of 
Huntley  &  Palmer,  near  the  upper  part  of 
London  Street.  Not  long  afterwards  they 
purchased  some  property  in  King's  Road, 
Reading,  and  applied  steam-machinery  to 
the  manufacture  of  their  biscuits.  The  re- 
sult was  a  marvellous  success,  and  the  pro- 
fits grew  to  large  proportions.  Huntley 
died  in  1857,  when  the  concern  became  the 
sole  property  of  Palmer  and  his  two  brothers, 
Samuel  and  William  Isaac  Palmer.  This 
vast  establishment,  the  largest  of  its  kind  in 
existence,  has  been  for  many  years  of  world- 
wide fame.  It  covers  many  acres  in  the 
King's  Road,  and  more  than  6,000  persons 
are  employed  in  it. 

Palmer  took  much  interest  in  the  British 
schools  established  at  Reading  by  Joseph 
Lancaster,  and  was  a  member  of  the  first 
school-board  in  the  town.  From  December 
1850  he  was  a  member  of  the  town  council : 
he  became  alderman  in  1859,  and  remained 
so  until  his  retirement  in  1883.  In  1857 
he  was  elected  mayor  of  Reading.  At  a 
by-election  in  May  1878  he  was  returned 
to  parliament  in  the  liberal  interest  for  the 
borough  of  Reading,  and  sat  for  it  until  1885, 
when  he  retired  from  the  representation  on 
the  constituency  losing  one  of  its  members. 
He  then  contested  the  south  or  Newbury 
division  of  Berkshire,  but  was  defeated  after 
a  close  contest. 

Palmer  married,  at  the  Friends'  meeting- 
house, Basingstoke,  on  17  Jan.  1850,  Eliza- 
beth Sarah,  daughter  of  Robert  Meteyard  of 
that  town.  She  died  at  Reading,  30  March 
1894,  and  her  husband  never  recovered  from 
the  shock  of  her  death.  He  died  at  his 
house,  The  Acacias,  Reading,  on  19  Aug. 
1897,  and  was  buried  on  23  Aug.  in  the 
same  grave  with  her  in  the  Friends'  burial- 
ground,  Church  Street,  Reading.  He  left 
four  sons  and  three  daughters.  His  eldest 
son,  Mr.  George  William  Palmer,  has  been 
M.P.  for  Reading  since  1898. 

Palmer  was  a  munificent  benefactor  to  his 
adopted  town,  and  to  all  its  charitable  insti- 
tutions. He  and  his  brother  Samuel  gave  a 
site  for  an  art  gallery  at  the  corner  of  Valpy 
Street,  Reading,  as  a  memorial  of  their 
brother,  William  Isaac.  He  presented  to 
the  town  two  recreation-grounds,  the  first 
being  part  of  the  ground  known  as  the 
'  King's  Meadow/  and  the  other  being  the 
'  Palmer  Park,'  comprising  forty-nine  acres 
at  the  east  end  of  Reading.  On  the  day  of 
the  opening  of  the  Palmer  Park,  on  4  Nov. 
1891,  he  was  made  the  first  honorary  free- 
man of  the  borough,  and  an  inartistic  statue 


Parkes 


246 


Parkes 


of  him,  erected  by  public  subscription  in  re- 
cognition of  bis  services  and  gifts,  was  un- 
veiled at  the  east  end  of  Broad  Street, 
Heading. 

[Reading  Observer,  21  and  28  Aug.  1897; 
private  information.]  W.  P.  C. 

PARKES,  SIK  HENRY  (1815-1896), 
Australian  statesman,  was  born  on  27  May 
1815  on  Lord  Leigh's  Stoneleigh  estate, 
Warwickshire,  where  his  father,  Thomas 
Parkes,  was  a  small  tenant  farmer.  Parkes 
received  his  early  education  at  village 
schools  in  the  neighbourhood.  Owing  to 
the  misfortunes  of  his  parents  he  was  com- 
pelled to  earn  his  own  living  as  a  child  of 
eight.  Yet  by  assiduous  self-culture  in  after 
years  Parkes  became  one  of  the  most  widely 
read  of  Australian  public  men,  and  a  devoted 
lover  of  English  literature.  In  very  early 
manhood  Parkes  migrated  from  Stoneleigh 
to  Birmingham,  where  he  was  apprenticed, 
and  ibecame  an  ivory  turner.  On  11  July 
1836  he  married,  at  the  parish  church,  Edg- 
baston,  Clarinda,  daughter  of  Robert.  Yarney 
of  Birmingham.  The  father  of  the  bride, 
a  well-to-do  man,  promptly  disowned  her. 
1  They  married  without  any  provision  for 
their  wedded  life  except  the  work  they  could 
obtain  from  day  to  day,  and  went  back  from 
Edgbaston  to  live  in  the  little  room  at  Bir- 
mingham where  she  had  lodged  when  alone ' 
(An  Emigrant's  Home  Letters,  p.  10). 

After  losing  two  children  and  passing 
through  many  hardships,  Parkes  and  his 
wife  went  to  London  preparatory  to  emi- 
grating to  Australia.  They  remained  in 
the  metropolis,  suffering  much  privation, 
from  November  1838  to  March  1839,  when 
they  sailed  as '  bounty  emigrants '  to  Sydney, 
arriving  on  25  July  1839.  The  young  wife 
gave  birth  to  a  child  a  few  days  before  land- 
ing, and  they  reached  Sydney  without  a 
friend  to  greet  them  or  a  letter  of  introduc- 
tion to  'unlock  a  door.' 

Parkes's  first  experiences  in  Australia  were 
disappointing.  '  For  fully  twelve  months  I 
could  not  muster  sufficient  fortitude  to  write 
to  my  friends  in  Engknd  of  the  prospect 
before  us.  Finding  nothing  better,  I  ac- 
cepted service  as  a  farm  labourer  at  30/.  a 
year,  and  a  ration  and  a  half,  largely  made 
up  of  rice.  Under  this  engagement  I  worked 
for  six  months  on  the  Regentsville  estate  of 
Sir  John  Jamison,  about  thirty-six  miles 
from  Sydney,  assisting  to  wash  sheep  in  the 
Nepean,  joining  the  reapers  in  the  wheat 
field,  and  performing  other  manual  labour 
on  the  property '  (Fifty  Years  of  Australian 
History,  p.  4). 

Returning    to    Sydney,    Parkes     found 


various  humble  employments  :  he  worked  in 
an  ironmonger's  store,  and  then  in  an  iron 
foundry,  and  was  for  a  while  a  tide-waiter 
in  the  customs.  At  last  he  fell  back  on  his 
own  trade  and  opened  a  shop  as  an  ivory 
and  bone  turner,  adding  the  sale  of  toys  and 
fancy  goods.  In  this  historic  shop  in  Hunter 
Street  began  Parkes's  career  as  a  public 
man.  Here  he  was  wont  to  write  amatory 
verses  for  the  '  Atlas,'  edited  by  Robert 
Lowe  (afterwards  Viscount  Sherbrooke)  [q.v.l, 
and,  reverting  to  an  earlier  sympathy  with 
chartism  in  England,  became  known  as  a 
powerful  working-class  agitator.  From  Hun- 
ter Street  he  issued  a  manifesto  in  favour  of 
Lowe's  candidature  for  Sydney,  which  re- 
sulted in  his  election  in  1848  (Life  and 
Letters  of  Lord  Sherbrooke}. 

The  great  question  then  agitating  the 
Australian  public  was  the  transportation  of 
criminals.  On  8  June  1848  the  convict  ship 
Hashemy  entered  Port  Jackson,  when  a 
monster  demonstration  to  oppose  the  land- 
ing of  the  criminals  took  place,  at  which 
Lowe  was  the  principal  speaker.  On  this 
occasion,  speaking  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
working-class  colonist,  Henry  Parkes  made 
his  first  public  oration  to  an  audience  of 
some  eight  thousand  enthusiastic  citizens. 
Henceforth  he  was  recognised  as  a  leader  of 
the  anti-transportation  movement  which 
finally  triumphed  against  the  forces  of  Eng- 
lish and  colonial  officialism. 

In  1849  Parkes  founded  the  'Empire' 
newspaper  as  the  organ  of  liberalism  in  New 
South  Wales.  The  first  number  appeared 
on  28  Dec.  1850,  and  Parkes  was  editor  and 
chief  proprietor  of  the  journal  throughout 
its  stormy  career  until  its  death  in  1857. 
His  account  of  his  journalistic  struggles 
(Fifty  Years  of  Australian  History,  chap,  iv.) 
is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  passage  in 
prose  from  his  pen.  The  truth  is  that  Parkes 
lacked  not  only  money,  but  prudence,  expe- 
rience, and  foresight,  so  that  his  ambitious 
enterprise,  despite  his  own  great  abilities  and 
untiring  energy,  was  foredoomed  to  financial 
failure. 

During  this  troubled  period  Parkes  was 
returned  to  the  legislative  council  by  a  two 
to  one  majority  for  Sydney.  Referring  to 
his  labours  on  the '  Empire/  and  his  activity 
in  the  legislative  council,  he  himself  charac- 
teristically remarks :  '  I  at  once  entered  into 
the  work  with  an  astonishing  amount  of 
zeal.  Sitting  up  all  night  was  a  recreation 
to  me.  I  did  not  know  what  weariness 
could  mean.  I  would  leave  the  council 
when  it  adjourned  and  go  to  the  "  Empire  " 
office,  where  I  would  remain  until  daylight. 
Day  and  night  I  was  at  work.  Very  often 


Parkes 


247 


Parkes 


I  was  thirty-six  and  forty- eight  hours  with- 
out going  to  bed.  I  believe  in  those  days  I 
could  have  gone  into  the  fire 

As  blithely  as  the  golden-girdled  bee 
Sucks  in  the  poppy's  sleepy  flower 

for  the  sake  of  my  convictions '  (Fifty  Years 
of  Australian  History}. 

Parkes  threw  himself  with  unbounded 
energy  into  the  great  struggle  for  the  esta- 
blishment of  responsible  government  in  New 
South  Wales.  It  was  on  this  question  that 
he  found  himself  in  the  fiercest  conflict 
with  the  actual  founder  of  that  system, 
William  Charles  Wentworth  [q.  v.],  whose 
aim  was  to  copy  as  far  as  possible  the  Eng- 
lish system  with  an  upper  house  of  colonial 
peers,  while  Parkes  insisted  on  a  democracy 
pure  and  simple.  In  this  struggle  it  was 
inevitable  that  Parkes  should  conquer. 

On  the  establishment  in  1858  of  responsi- 
ble government,  Parkes  was  elected  for  East 
Sydney  (1858-61).  During  this  period  he 
was  an  active  supporter  of  (Sir)  John  Ro- 
bertson [q.v.]  as  a  land  reformer,  and  became 
on  most  questions  the  recognised  leader  of 
the  democratic  party.  In  1861  Parkes  and 
William  B.edeJ3alley  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  came  to 
England  ascommissioners  of  emigration. 
Parkes  addressed  large  public  meetings  in 
the  north  of  England  and  the  midlands,  and 
made  the  personal  acquaintance  of  Carlyle, 
Oobden,  Bright,  and  Thomas  Hughes.  He 
sent  a  number  of  interesting  letters  to  the 
'  Sydney  Morning  Herald,'  which  were  sub- 
sequently published  in  London  under  the 
title  'Australian  Views  of  England'  (1869). 
These  letters  display  keen  political  insight, 
and  present  a  number  of  faithful  portraits 
of  the  leading  English  public  men  of  the 
day  (see  '  Sir  Henry  Parkes  in  England  '  in 

/A.  PATCHETT  MARTIN'S  Australia  and  the 
Empire,  1889). 

Returning  to  Sydney  in  1863  Parkes  soon 
re-entered  parliament,  and,  in  January  1866, 
accepted  office  for  the  first  time  as  colonial 
secretary  in  Martin's  ministry  [see  MARTIN, 
Sin  JAMES].  During  his  term  of  office  he 
passed  the  Public  Schools  Act  in  the  teeth 
of  fierce  clerical  opposition,  especially  from 
the  influential  Roman  catholic  body.  On 
12  March  1868  a  murderous  attack  on  the 
Duke  of  Edinburgh  was  made  by  an  alleged 
fenian  named  O'Farrell  in  Sydney  Harbour; 
Parkes,  from  his  official  position,  was  mainly 
responsible  for  the  execution  of  the  criminal, 
and  for  the  passage  of  the  Treason  Felony 
Act  (1868).  Resigning  office  in  1868,  Parkes 
was  in  1871  elected  for  Mudgee,  and  in  the 
next  year  became  prime  minister  of  New 
South  Wales,  having  formed  a  coalition 


with  Sir  John  Robertson.  It  was  mainly 
owing  to  the  enormous  influence  of  Parkes 
at  this  time  that  New  South  Wales,  unlike  s 
the  other  Australian  colonies,  adhered  to 
free  trade.  In  1875  the  Parkes  ministry 
resigned  ove"r  the  subject  of  the  release  of 
Gardiner,  a  notorious  bushranger;  but  in 
1878  he  was  again  prime  minister  and  colo- 
nial secretary.  In  the  previous  year  he  had 
been  created  K.C.M.G. 

Parkes  revisited  England  in  1882  while 
still  holding  office  as  prime  minister,  and 
was  received  with  much  distinction  in  Lon- 
don. But  on  his  return  to  Sydney  his 
government  was  defeated,  and  he  himself 
was  rejected  at  the  polls  for  East  Sydney. 
Thereupon  he  again  revisited  England  and 
spent  much  time  in  congenial  political  and 
literary  society,  including  that  of  Lord 
Tennyson,  who  formed  a  high  regard  for 
him.  Parkes  himself  published  two  or  three 
slender  volumes  of  verse,  in  which,  among  , 
much  that  is  crude  and  unfinished  as  to 
mere  technique,  there  are  occasional  evi- 
dences of  poetic  ability  and  fervour. 

In  January  1887  he  once  more  became 
the  dominant  power  in  New  South  Wales, 
forming  his  fourth  administration  and  bring- 
ing the  colony  back  again  to  free-trade  prin- 
ciples, from  which  it  had  temporarily  de- 
parted. He  was  created  G.C.M.G.  in  1888, 
and  very  fittingly,  as  the  statesman  who  had 
kept  the  banner  of  free  trade  floating  in  his 
own  colony,  he  was  awarded  the  gold  medal 
of  the  Cobden  Club.  In  January  1889  he 
retired  from  the  administration  of  New 
South  Wales  in  favour  of  Mr.  (afterwards 
Sir)  George  Dibbs,  who  held  office  for  only 
a  couple  of  months,  when  Parkes  became  for 
the  fifth  and  last  time  prime  minister.  It 
was  during  this  period  that  the  question  of 
Australian  federation  first  assumed  a  prac- 
tical shape.  Although  Parkes  displayed  con- 
siderable antagonism  to  Service's  scheme  of 
a  federal  council,  he  was  nevertheless  recog- 
nised throughout  Australia  as  the  foremost 
advocate  of  the  wider  scheme  of  federation 
[see  SERVICE,  JAMES,  Suppl.]  In  February 
1890  Parkes  attended  the  intercolonial  con- 
ference in  Melbourne,  while  he  presided  over 
the  Sydney  convention  of  1891,  which  prac- 
tically laid  the  foundations  of  the  Australian 
commonwealth.  Parkes's  attitude  towards 
both  Australian  and  imperial  federation  is 
eloquently  set  forth  in  the  volume  of  his 
speeches  on  'The  Federal  Government  of  Aus- 
tralasia,' published  in  1890,  and  dedicated  to 
Lord  Carrington.  It  was  in  his  Melbourne 
oration  that  Parkes  summed  up  the  matter 
in  a  single  famous  phrase — '  the  crimson 
thread  of  kinship.'  When  the  common- 


Parkes 


248 


wealth  was  inaugurated  (January  1901),  the 
invaluable  life-work  of  Sir  Henry  Parkes 
was  specially  marked  at  the  state  banquet 
in  Sydney  by  the  entire  company  rising  and 
drinking  to  his  honoured  memory  in  solemn 
silence. 

In  1895,  at  the  time  of  his  second  wife's 
death,  Parkes  opposed  Mr.  G.  H.  Reid,  who 
had  succeeded  him  as  the  free-trade  leader, 
but  was  defeated  for  the  King  division  of 
Sydney.  This  was  the  end  of  his  political 
career.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  and 
partly  as  the  result  of  a  severe  accident, 
Parkes  suffered  great  pain  :  while  despite,  or 
perhaps  in  consequence  of,  his  long  life  of 
devotion  to  the  public  interest,  he  was  left 
in  most  straitened  circumstances.  He  died 
on  27  April  1896.  Of  all  contemporary 
public  men,  except  perhaps  Gladstone,  Sir 
Henry  Parkes  was  the  most  frequently  photo- 
graphed and  caricatured.  A  fine  marble 
bust  was  executed  of  him  by  his  friend  Tho- 
mas "VVoolner,  R.A.,  as  well  as  many  por- 
traits by  local  artists. 

Parkes  was  thrice  married.  After  the  death 
in  1888  of  his  first  wife,  he  married  succes- 
sively Mrs.  Dixon  in  1889  (who  died  in 
1895),  and  almost  on  his  deathbed  he  mar- 
ried his  servant.  His  eldest  son,  Mr.  Var- 
ney  Parkes,  is  a  well-known  public  man 
in  the  colony. 

Outside  politics,  which  was  the  business 
of  Parkes's  life,  his  restless  energies  were 
much  engrossed  with  literary  subjects,  and 
his  most  cherished  friendships  were  among 
men  of  letters.  In  Australia,  almost  alone 
among  prominent  public  men,  he  generously 
befriended  struggling  authors ;  while  the  list 
of  his  own  published  works  is  by  no  means 
unimportant  or  scanty. 

He  published:  1.  'Stolen  Moments,' 
1842.  2.  ' Murmurs  of  the  Streamlet '  (vo- 
lumes of  early  poems).  3.  '  Australian  Views 
of  England,'  London,  1869,  8vo  (a  selection 
of  letters  by  Parkes  written  to  the  '  Syd- 
ney Morning  Herald'  in  1861  and  1862). 
4.  '  Speeches  of  Henry  Parkes,  collected  and 
edited  by  David  Blair,'  Melbourne,  1876, 
8vo.  5. '  The  Beauteous  Terrorist  and  other 
Poems.  By  a  Wanderer,'  Melbourne,  1885, 
8vo.  6.  ' Fragmentary  Thoughts'  (poems 
dedicated  to  Alfred,  Lord  Tennyson),  Syd- 
ney, 1889,  8vo.  7.  '  Federal  Government 
of  Australia ; '  speeches  delivered  1889-90, 
Sydney,  1890,  8vo.  8.  '  Fifty  Years  in  the 
making  of  Australian  History '  (Parkes's 
autobiography), London,  1892, 8vo.  9.  'Son- 
nets and  other  Verse  '  (dedicated  to  Hallam, 
Lord  Tennyson),  London,  1895, 8vo.  10.  'An 
Emigrant's  Home  Letters,'  English  edit. 
London,  1897,  8vo. 


[Parkes's  published  works ;  Lyne's  Life  of 
Sir  Henry  Parkes,  1897;  Dilke's  Problems  of 
Greater  Britain ;  Patchett  Martin's  Life  and 
Letters  of  Lord  Sherbrooke,  and  Australia  and 
the  Empire  ;  Gilbert  Parker's  Round  the  Com- 
pass in  Australia ;  Froude's  Oceana,  p.  1 95 ; 
-ilfiint'll's  Diet,  of  Australasian  Biogr. ;  Heaton's 
Australian  Diet,  of  Dates ;  Melbourne  Review; 
Atlas;  Empire ;  and  Sydney  Morning  Herald; 
personal  knowledge.]  A.  P.  M. 

PARR,  HARRIET  (1828-1900),  no- 
velist, who  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  of 
HOLME  LEE,  was  born  at  York  on  31  Jan. 
1828.  Her  father,  William  Parr,  was  a  tra- 
veller in  silks,  satins,  and  coloured  kids, 
and  her  mother  was  Mary  Grandage  of 
Halifax,  Yorkshire.  Miss  Parr  was  educated 
at  York,  and  early  in  life  devoted  herself  to 
literature  as  a  profession.  In  1854  she  pub- 
lished, under  the  pseudonym  Holme  Lee, 
her  first  novel,  '  Maud  Talbot.'  It  did  not 
attract  much  attention,  but  she  sent  her 
second  novel,  '  Gilbert  Massinger,'  to  Charles 
Dickens,  who  was  much  impressed  by  it 
(FoRSTEE,  Life  of  Dickens,  ii.  474-5).  Its 
length  prevented  its  appearance  in  '  House- 
hold Words,'  and  in  1855  it  was  separately 
published.  Even  in  this  form  it  had  a  con- 
siderable sale,  which  was  much  increased 
when  it  was  reissued  in  a  cheap  single 
volume  in  1862.  It  was  translated  into 
Italian  in  1869.  Another  novel,  published 
in  1855,  '  Thorney  Hall,'  reached  a  second 
edition  in  1862,  and  was  translated  into 
French  in  1860.  Between  1854  and  1882 
Miss  Parr  published  some  thirty  novels, 
all  of  them  refined  in  tone,  somewhat  sen- 
timental, and  written  in  an  easy,  unaf- 
fected stvle  (cf.  Athenceum,  1862  i.  186, 
1871  ii.  79,  367, 1872  i.  687).  These  merits, 
supplemented  by  the  enthusiastic  support  of 
Charles  Edward  Mudie  [q.  v.],  secured  Miss 
Parr  considerable  popularity  as  a  writer 
of  fiction  virginibus  puerisque.  Her  more 
serious  work  consisted  of  three  books  pub- 
lished under  her  own  name:  1.  'The  Life 
and  Death  of  Jeanne  d'Arc,'  2  vols.  1866 ; 
2.  'Maurice  and  Eugenie  de  Guerin,'  1870; 
and  3.  '  Echoes  of  a  Famous  Year,'  1872. 
The  first  of  these  was  a  solid  and  creditable 
performance  (cf.  Athenceum,  1866  ii.  9,  1870 
i.  386). 

Miss  Parr  passed  her  later  years  at  Shank- 
lin,  Isle  of  Wight,  where  she  died  on  18  Feb. 
1900.  An  oil  portrait  of  her,  painted  about 
1848  by  George  Lance  [q.  v.],  belongs  to  her 
brother,  Mr.  George  Parr,  of  31  Canonbury 
Park. 

[Private  information ;  Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ;  Lit. 
Year  Book,  1901,  pp.  101-2;  authorities  cited.] 

A.  F.  P. 


» 


Pat  more 


249 


Patmore 


PATMORE,  COVENTRY  KERSEY 
DIGHTON  (1823-1896),  poet,  the  eldest  son 
of  Peter  George  Patmore  [q.  v.],  was  born  at 
Woodford  in  Essex  on  23  July  1823.  He  was 
educated  privately  and  with  no  view  to  any 
special  profession ;  in  the  main  his  own 
teacher,  but,  as  he  warmly  acknowledged, 
profiting  greatly  by  his  father's  precepts  as 
regarded  English  literature.  In  1839  he 
spent  six  months  at  a  French  school  at  St. 
Germains.  Upon  his  return  he  addicted 
himself  for  a  time  to  scientific  pursuits,  and 
afterwards  thought  of  taking  holy  orders, 
but  was  discouraged  partly  by  his  father's 
inability  to  support  him  at  the  university, 
partly  by  scruples  relating  solely  to  the 
position  of  the  church  of  England ;  for, 
although  his  father  was  a  free-thinker,  his 
own  studies  and  reflections  had  already  re- 
conciled him  to  orthodox  Christianity.  He 
had  begun  to  write  poetry  in  1840,  and  in 
1844  published  a  slender  volume  containing, 
with  minor  pieces,  four  narrative  poems  : 
'The  River,'  'The  Woodman's  Daughter,' 
'  Lilian,'  and  '  Sir  Hubert,'  strikingly  ori- 
ginal and  individual  in  style  and  thought, 
though  not  without  traces  of  Tennyson  and 
Coleridge.  As  narratives  they  are  wholly 
uninteresting,  almost  vapid;  but  the  weak- 
ness of  construction  is  relieved  by  strokes  of 
psychological  insight  and  descriptive  power 
altogether  surprising  at  the  author's  age.  In 
many  respects  the  volume  anticipated  the 
principles  and  the  work  of  the  pre-Raphaelites 
in  another  sphere  of  art,  and  paved  the  way 
for  the  writer's  subsequent  relations  with 
the  leaders  of  that  movement.  It  brought 
a  letter  of  warm  praise  and  sound  advice 
from  Bulwer,  and  an  absurd  denunciation  j 
enlivened  by  a  clever  parody  from  '  Black-  I 
wood,'  but  otherwise  attracted  little  notice 
beyond  the  author's  own  circle. 

In  the  following  year  (1845)  the  embar- 
rassment of  Patmore's  father,  due  to  unfortu- 
nate railway  speculations,  threw  him  entirely 
upon  his  own  resources.  Up  to  this  time  his 
circumstances  had  been  good,  and  he  had 
made  no  serious  effort  to  earn  a  living.  He  now 
earned  a  scanty  subsistence  by  translations 
and  contributions  to  periodicals  until,  in  No- 
vember 1846,  the  recommendation  of  Richard 
Monckton  Milnes  (afterwards  Lord  Hough- 
ton)  [q.  v.],  at  the  instance  of  Mrs.  Procter, 
obtained  for  him  an  appointment  as  assistant 
in  the  printed  book  department  of  the  British 
Museum.  The  post  was  congenial  to  Pat- 
more,  and  he  proved  himself  highly  efficient. 
He  appears  to  have  about  this  time  assisted 
Milnes  in  the  preparation  of  the  '  Life  and 
Letters  of  Keats'  (1848),  but  to  what  ex- 
tent is  difficult  to  determine.  No  part  of 


it  can  have  been  written  by  him.  Feel- 
ing now  comparatively  at  ease  in  his  cir- 
cumstances, he  married,  in  September  1847, 
Emily  Augusta  Andrews  (b.  29  Feb.  1824), 
daughter  of  a  congregationalist  minister, 
a  lady  possessed  of  mental  and  personal 
charms  far  beyond  the  common,  and  a  model 
of  gracious  geniality  and  clear  common  sense. 
She  was  herself  the  author  of  some  small 
useful  books,  under  the  pseudonym  of '  Mrs. 
Motherly,'  and  assisted  her  husband  in  the 
compilation  of  his  excellent  collection  of 
poetry  for  children,  'The  Children's  Gar- 
land,' published  in  1862.  The  union  was 
most  happy,  although  the  cares  and  ex- 
penses of  an  increasing  family,  and,  after  a 
time,  of  Mrs.  Patmore's  declining  health, 
frequently  made  Patmore's  situation  one  of 
considerable  anxiety.  He  never  compro- 
mised his  independence,  and  laboured  hard 
to  provide  for  his  family  by  writing  in 
reviews,  especially  the  '  Edinburgh '  and 
'  North  British,'  efforts  the  more  creditable 
as  the  work  was  uncongenial  to  him.  He 
wanted  the  first  qualification  of  a  literary- 
critic,  sympathy  with  his  author.  An 
egotist  and  a  mystic,  he  could  take  no  vital 
interest  in  any  one's  ideas  but  his  own,  and 
hence  his  treatment  of  other  authors  is  in 
general  unsatisfactory :  while  his  fine  taste, 
intuitive  insight,  and  careful  study  of 
aesthetic  laws  frequently  render  his  isolated 
observations  of  great  value.  One  exception 
to  this  habitual  indifference  to  other  men's 
work  was  the  admiration  he  at  this  time 
entertained  for  Tennyson,  with  whom  he 
had  as  much  intercourse  as  the  elder  poet's 
distance  from  town  and  dislike  to  letter- 
writing  would  allow.  Another  friendship, 
which  had  more  important  results,  was  his 
acquaintance  with  Ruskin.  who  had  been 
the  pupil  of  Mrs.  Patmore's  father  ;  Ruskin's 
enthusiasm  for  architecture  was  fully  shared 
by  Patmore,  who  wrote  on  this  subject  with 
far  more  enjoyment  and  spontaneity  than  upon 
literature.  Patmore  had  made  in  1849  the 
acquaintance  of  the  pre-Raphaelite  group  of 
artists,  with  whom  he  had  much  in  common, 
and  to  whose  organ,  'The  Germ,'  he  contri- 
buted a  remarkable  essay  on  Macbeth,  as  well 
as  verses.  They  were  almost  succumbing  to 
the  universal  hostility  aroused  by  their  ori- 
ginality and  their  peculiarities,  when,  at 
Patmore's  prompting,  Ruskin  wrote  the  me- 
morable letter  to  the  'Times'  which  turned 
the  tide  of  public  opinion.  Another  important 
service  rendered  by  Patmore  was  his  promo- 
tion of  the  volunteer  movement  after  Louis 
Napoleon's  coup  d'etat  in  December  1851. 
Others  came  forward  simultaneously,  but  the 
idea  was  original  with  him. 


Patmore 


250 


Patmore 


Meanwhile  neither  private  cares  nor  public 
interests  had  interrupted  Patmore's  poetical 
work.  In  1858  he  published  'Tamerton 
Church  Tower,'  which  he  had  begun  as  early 
as  1848.  Like  his  former  productions,  it  is 
a  narrative  poem,  and  as  such  quite  point- 
less and  uninteresting,  but  full  of  exquisite 
vignettes  of  scenery.  The  volume,  which 
reached  a  second  edition  in  the  same  year, 
included  revised  versions  of  the  poems  of 
1844  and  new  pieces,  some  of  great  beauty. 
Among  these  were  specimens  of '  The  Angel 
in  the  House,'  the  long  poem  now  occupy- 
ing all  the  time  and  thought  he  could  de- 
vote to  it,  and  designed  to  be  the  apotheo- 
sis of  married  love.  The  first  part,  'The 
Betrothal,'  was  published  anonymously  in 
1854.  The  anonymity  was  owing  to  Pat- 
more's alarm  at  the  unfavourable  reception 
of  his  father's  book,  'My  Friends  and 
Acquaintance,'  published  earlier  in  the  same 
year.  The  name  alone,  he  fancied,  would 
condemn  him;  although,  as  portions  of  the 
poem  had  already  appeared  in  'Tamer- 
ton  Church  Tower,'  his  precaution  was  in 
reality  quite  futile.  It  would  have  been 
wiser  to  disarm  criticism  by  removing  the 
numerous  trivialities  which  disfigured  a 
beautiful  poem;  but  this  could  not  be  ex- 
pected, for  Patmore  could  not  see  them. 
He  had  no  perception  of  the  sublime  in  other 
men's  writings  or  of  the  ridiculous  in  his 
own.  The  great  writers  whom  he  sincerely 
admired  were  admired  by  him  for  any  other 
quality  than  their  grandeur ;  and  although 
the  reverse  of  conceited  as  regarded  his  own 
works,  and  continually  labouring  to  amend 
their  defects,  the  worst  defect  they  had  was 
never  admitted  by  him.  Although,  however, 
the  'Angel's' occasional  lapses  into  bathos 
afforded  a  handle  to  detractors,  the  voice  of 
the  higher  criticism  was  always  for  it.  Ten- 
nyson, Browning,  Ruskin,  Carlyle  were  lavish 
of  sincere  praise,  and  even  its  commercial  suc- 
cess (though  the  author  himself  was  disap- 
pointed) was  greater  than  could  have  been 
reasonably  expected  in  the  case  of  a  book  so 
entirely  original  and  so  devoid  of  meretricious 
allurement.  '  The  Betrothal '  was  followed 
in  1856  by  'The  Espousals'  (new  editions  of 
both  parts  appeared  in  1858,  1863  two  ed., 
and  1866) ;  in  1860  by  '  Faithful  for  Ever,' 
a  poem  of  disappointed  love ;  and  in  1862  by 
'  The  Victories  of  Love,'  a  poem  of  bereave- 
ment. In  the  collected  edition  of  his  works 
'  Faithful  for  Ever '  was  amalgamated  with 
'  The  Victories  of  Love.'  It  must  be  said 
that  the  quality  of  poetical  achievement 
went  on  decrescendo,  though  there  are  ex- 
ceedingly fine  things  in  '  Faithful  for  Ever.' 
The  four  poems  nevertheless  constitute 


among  them  such  a  body  of  deep  and  tender 
and  truly  poetical  thought  on  love  and  lovers, 
embellished  with  charming  pictures  of  Eng- 
lish scenery  and  household  life,  as  no  other 
poet  has  given  us.  The  obvious  and  un- 
answerable criticism  is  that  the  poet's  pro- 
fessed subject  of  married  life  is  only  ap- 
proached in  the  least  successful  parts  of  the 
poem,  and  hardly  grappled  with  even  there. 
The  reason  is  plain:  its  domesticities  were 
found  incapable  of  poetical  treatment. 

If  Patmore  retained  any  desire  to  pursue 
the  subject  of  connubiality  further,  it  must 
have  been  checked  by  his  irreparable  loss  in 
the  death  of  his  wife  on  5  July  1862.  She 
had  long  been  sinking  from  consumption, 
and  her  life  had  been  prolonged  only  by  his 
devoted  care.  She  left  him  three  sons  and 
three  daughters.  His  feelings  found  an 
inadequate  expression  in  '  The  Victories  of 
Love,  but  he  had  reached  the  turning-point 
of  his  career,  and  the  break  with  his  past 
was  irreparable.  He  went  abroad  for  his 
health,  embraced  (1864)  the  Roman  catholic 
religion,  which  he  would  probably  have  pro- 
fessed many  years  earlier  but  for  the  influ- 
ence of  his  wife,  and  found  a  second  mate  in 
Marianne  Caroline  Byles  (b.  23  June  1822), 
a  lady  of  noble  though  reserved  manners, 
and  singular  moral  excellence.  His  family 
followed  his  example,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  sons  old  enough  to  go  forth  into 
life,  and  a  daughter  who  after  a  while  entered 
a  convent,  remained  under  his  roof.  He 
retired  from  the  British  Museum,  and,  after 
short  residences  in  Hampstead  and  Highgate, 
bought  the  estate  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Heron's  Ghyll,  near  Uckfield  in  Sussex. 
This  he  so  improved  by  building  and  planting 
as  to  be  able  after  some  years  to  dispose  of  it 
at  a  greatly  enhanced  price.  He  then  settled 
at  The  Mansion,  Hastings,  a  fine  old  house 
which  had  attracted  his  fancy  when  a  child. 
Tranquillity  and  retirement  had  brought  back 
the  poetical  impulse;  in  1868 he  had  printed 
for  private  circulation  nine  odes,  remarkable 
alike  for  their  poetry  and  for  their  metrical 
structure,  or  rather,  perhaps,  their  musical 
beauty  in  the  absence  of  definite  metrical 
form.  They  may  be  regarded  as  rhythmical 
voluntaries,  in  which  the  length  of  the  lines 
and  the  incidence  of  the  rhymes  are  solely  de- 
termined by  the  writer's  instinctive  percep- 
tion of  the  requirements  of  harmony,  and  the 
rich  and  varied  music  thusattained  contrasted 
no  less  strikingly  with  the  metrical  sim- 
plicity of  '  The  Angel  in  the  House '  than 
did  the  frequent  loftiness  of  the  thoughts 
and  audacity  of  the  diction  with  the  quiet 
feeling  and  unostentatious  depth  of  the 
earlier  work.  Other  similar  compositions 


Patmore 


251 


Patmore 


were  gradually  added,  and  in  the  collective 
edition  of  the  poet's  works  in  1877  the 
whole  took  shape  as '  The  Unknown  Eros  and 
other  Odes '  (another  edit.  1878 ;  3rd  edit. 
1890),  forty-two  odes  in  two  books.  It  is  not 
likely  that  these  will  ever  attain  the  popu- 
larity eventually  won  by  '  The  Angel  in  the 
House,'  nor  are  they  nearly  so  well  adapted 
for  '  human  nature's  daily  food.'  But  they 
frequently  exhibit  the  poet  at  greater  heights 
than  he  had  reached  before,  or  without  them 
would  have  been  deemed  capable  of  reach- 
ing ;  and  the  lofty  themes  and  fine  metrical 
form  have  in  general  acted  as  an  antidote  to 
his  worst  defect,  his  tendency  to  lapse  into 
prose.  The  effusions  of  inward  feeling,  fre- 
quently most  pathetic  in  expression,  and  the 
descriptions  of  external  nature,  of  mirror- 
like  fidelity,  are  alike  admirable,  and  often 
transcendently  beautiful.  The  weak  parts 
are  the  expressions  of  political  and  ecclesias- 
tical antipathies,  mere  splenetic  outbursts 
alike  devoid  of  veracity  and  of  dignity ;  and 
a  few  mystical  pieces  in  which,  endeavouring 
to  express  things  incapable  of  expression, 
the  poet  has  only  accumulated  glittering  but 
frigid  conceits.  The  gulf  between  '  The 
Angel  in  the  House '  and  the  '  Odes '  is 
partly  filled  by  '  Amelia,'  first  published  in 
1878,  an  exquisite  little  idyll  akin  to  the 
former  in  subject,  and  to  the  latter  in 
metrical  structure, and  not  unjustly  esteemed 
by  the  author  his  most  perfect  work.  He 
meditated  a  much  more  ambitious  poem, 
which,  taking  the  Virgin  for  its  theme,  was 
to  have  embodied  his  deepest  convictions  on 
things  divine  and  human.  Finding  the 
necessary  inspiration  denied,  he  recorded  his 
thoughts  in  a  prose  volume  entitled '  Sponsa 
Dei,'  which  he  ultimately  destroyed,  pro- 
fessedly upon  a  hint  from  a  Jesuit  that  he 
was  divulging  to  the  uninitiated  what  was 
intended  for  the  elect,  but  in  reality,  no 
doubt,  because  he  had  failed  to  satisfy  him- 
self; and  partly,  perhaps,  from  apprehension 
of  censure  in  his  own  communion.  His 
relations  with  the  church  of  which  he  had 
become  a  member  were  curious ;  he  detested 
and  despised  her  official  head  in  his  own 
country,  abused  the  priesthood  as  individuals, 
and  made  no  point  of  the  pope's  temporal 
power,  while  he  performed  four  pilgrim- 
ages to  Lourdes,  and  desired  to  be  buried 
in  the  garb  of  a  Franciscan  friar.  There 
can  be  no  question  of  the  perfect  sincerity 
of  his  Roman  catholic  profession,  and  as 
little  that  this  was  but  the  exterior  manifes- 
tation of  the  mysticism  which,  as  he  tells  us 
in  an  interesting  autobiographical  fragment, 
had  possessed  his  being  from  his  youth. 
Patmore's  latter  years  passed  in  tranquil- 


lity, except  for  family  bereavements.  In 
1880  he  lost  his  second  wife,  in  memory  of 
whom  he  erected  an  imposing  Roman  catho- 
lic church  at  Hastings,  designed  by  Mr. 
Basil  Champneys,  afterwards  his  biographer. 
In  1882  his  daughter  Emily  died,  and  in 
1883  his  son  Henry  (see  below).  In  1881 
he  married  Miss  Harriet  Robson,  by  whom 
he  had  a  son.  In  1891  a  change  in  the  owner- 
ship of  his  Hastings  residence  obliged  him  to 
remove,  and  he  settled  at  Lymington.  His 
poetical  works  had  been  definitively  collected 
in  1886,  with  a  valuable  appendix  on  English 
metrical  law,  enlarged  from  an  early  essay  in 
the '  North  British  Review.'  In  1877  he  wrote 
a  memoir  of  his  old  friend  Bryan  Waller 
Procter  [q.  v.],  at  the  desire  of  Mrs.  Procter. 
About  1885  he  became  a  frequent  contributor 
of  essays  and  reviews  to  the  '  St.  James's 
Gazette,'  then  edited  by  his  intimate  friend, 
Mr.  Frederick  Greenwood.  Selections  from 
these  contributions,  with  additions  from 
other  sources,  were  published  in  1889  and 
1893,  under  the  respective  titles  of  'Principle 
in  Art '  and  'Religio  Poetae.'  In  1895  Pat- 
more  published  '  Rod,  Root,  and  Flower,' 
observations  and  meditations,  chiefly  on  re- 
ligious subjects,  which  probably  embody  much 
of  the  destroyed  '  Sponsa  Dei.'  He  died  at 
Lymington  after  a  brief  attack  of  pneumonia 
on  26  Nov.  1896. 

Patmore's  character  was  curiously  unlike 
the  idea  of  it  generally  derived  from  '  The 
Angel  in  the  House.'  Instead  of  an  insipid 
amiability,  his  dominant  characteristic  was 
a  rugged  angularity,  steeped  in  Rembrandt- 
like  contrasts  of  light  and  gloom.  Haughty, 
imperious,  combative,  sardonic,  he  was  at 
the  same  time  sensitive,  susceptible,  and 
capable  of  deep  tenderness.  He  was  at  once 
magnanimous  and  rancorous ;  egotistic  and 
capriciously  generous  ;  acute  and  credulous ; 
nobly  veracious  and  prone  to  the  wildest 
exaggerations,  partly  imputable  to  the  ex- 
uberance of  his  quaint  humour.  His  capacity 
for  business  was  as  remarkable  as  his  intel- 
lectual strength,  and  was  not  like  this  warped 
and  flawed  by  eccentricity.  This  inequality 
of  character  is  reflected  in  his  poetry.  No  one 
had  sounder  views  on  the  laws  of  art,  no  one 
strove  more  earnestly  after  worthiness  of  sub- 
ject and  unity  of  impression,  and  yet  the 
themes  of  all  his  objective  poems  are  trivial 
orunsuited  to  his  purpose,  and  his  subjective 
pieces,  with  few  exceptions,  attract  chiefly 
by  the  beauty  of  isolated  details.  He  was 
the  last  man  to  write,  as  he  aspired  to  do, 
the  poem  of  his  age,  but  no  contemporary 
poet  offers  such  a  multitude  of  thoughts  '  as 
clear  as  truth,  as  strong  as  light,'  and  de- 
scriptions of  exquisite  charm  and  photo- 


Patmore 


252 


Patterson 


graphic  accuracy,  easily  detached  from  their 
context  and  remembered  for  their  own  sakes. 
His  prose  style,  without  attaining  to  elo- 
quence, which  he  never  attempted,  is  a 
pattern  of  dignified  simplicity,  and  of  lucidity 
slightly  tinted  by  the  hues  of  feeling.  His 
critical  powers  were  of  the  highest,  but  were 
impaired  by  his  besetting  sin  of  egotism.  A 
few  of  the  greatest  writers  excepted,  he 
could  take  no  strong  interest  in  any  man's 
work  but  his  own ;  his  attitude  towards 
other  men's  ideas  was  that  of  Omar  towards 
the  Alexandrian  library,  and  his  essays  on 
their  writings  affect  with  a  painful  sense  of 
inadequacy.  They  are,  nevertheless,  well 
worth  reading  for  the  detached  remarks, 
often  most  subtle  and  penetrating.  His 
religious  and  moral  aphorisms  also  have  much 
worth :  and  this  is  even  more  true  of  those 
casually  expressed  in  the  fragments  of  cor- 
respondence published  by  Mr.  Champneys 
than  of  those  which  he  himself  gave  to  the 
world.  In  other  departments  of  thought  he 
is  little  better  than  a  wasted  force,  chiefly 
on  account  of  his  disharmony  with  his  own 
age. 

Patmore's  portrait,  painted  in  1894  by  Mr. 
J.  S.  Sargent,  R.A.,  is  in  the  National  Por- 
trait Gallery.  Several  other  portraits,  as 
well  as  likenesses  of  members  of  his  family, 
are  reproduced  in  Mr.  Champnevs's  biography. 

HENRY  JOHN  PATMORE  (1860-1883),  the 
youngest  son  of  Coventry  Patmore  by  his 
first  wife,  was  born  on  8  May  1860.  He 
was  chiefly  educated  at  Ushaw  College, 
where  he  obtained  numerous  prizes,  but 
which,  to  judge  by  his  youthful  letters 
published  by  Mr.  Champneys,  cannot  have 
done  much  to  stimulate  his  intellectual 
powers.  Apparently,  however,  this  child- 
ishness was  but,  in  Emersonian  phrase, 
'  the  screen  and  sheath  in  which  Pan  pro- 
tects his  well-beloved  flower; '  for  the  little 
poems  published  after  his  death  are  not  only 
excellent  in  themselves,  but  constitute  a 
psychical  phenomenon.  They  possess  in  an 
eminent  degree  those  qualities  of  ease,  sym- 
metry, and  finish  which  are  usually  the  last 
to  be  expected  in  the  work  of  so  young  a 
man;  they  are  sufficiently  like  the  elder 
Patmore's  work  to  seem  almost  written  by 
him,  while  yet  differentiated  from  his  by  a 
subtle  and  indefinable  aroma  of  their  own. 
That  Henry  Patmore  would  have  proved  a 
charming  lyrical  poet  can  hardly  be  doubted ; 
whether  he  would  have  been  anything  more 
can  scarcely  be  conjectured  in  the  absence 
of  any  clear  evidence  how  far  his  limitations 
were  natural,  and  how  far  due  to  a  mistaken 
system  of  education.  His  health  had  always 
been  feeble,  and,  debilitated  by  a  serious 


illness  in  1881,  he  succumbed,  on  24  Feb. 
1883,  to  an  attack  of  pleurisy.  A  selection 
from  his  poems  was  privately  printed  at 
Mr.  Daniell's  Oxford  press,  and  partly  incor- 
porated with  the  edition  of  his  father's  works 
published  in  1886. 

[Almost  all  attainable  information  respecting 
Patmore  is  to  be  found  in  the  Memoirs  and 
Correspondence  (1900),  edited  by  his  friend  Mr. 
Basil  Champneys.  Mr.  Edmund  Gosse  has  con- 
tributed two  highly  interesting  papers  of  recol- 
lections to  the  Contemporary  Review  (January 
1897)  and  North  American  Review  (March 
1897).  Selections  from  Patmore's  poetry,  respec- 
tively entitled  '  Florilegium  Amantis'  (1879) 
and  '  Poetry  of  Pathos  and  Delight,'  have  been 
edited  by  Dr.  R.  Garnett,  C.B.,  and  by  Mrs. 
Meynell.]  R.  G. 

PATRICK,  ROBERT  WILLIAM 
COCHRAN-  (1842-1897),  under-secretary 
of  state  for  Scotland.  [See  COCHRAN- 
PATRICK.] 

PATTERSON,  SIB  JAMES  BROWNE 
(1833-1895),  Australian  statesman,  born  at 
Link  Hall  in  Northumberland  on  18  Nov. 
1833,  was  the  youngest  son  of  James  Patter- 
son, a  district  road  inspector.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Alnwick,  and  emigrated  to  Victoria 
in  1852  on  the  discovery  of  gold.  After 
mining  unsuccessfully  at  the  Forest  Creek 
goldfields,  he  engaged  in  farming  on  the 
river  Loddon  at  Glenlyon,  near  Daylesford, 
in  1856,  and  finally  settled  in  the  Castle- 
maine  district,  where  he  conducted  the  busi- 
ness of  a  slaughterman  at  Chewton.  On 
5  Dec.  1870  Patterson,  after  two  unsuccess- 
ful candidatures,  was  returned  to  the 
colonial  legislative  assembly  for  Castle- 
maine,  a  seat  which  he  retained  until  his 
death.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  pro- 
tection in  trade,  supported  the  ministry  of 
Sir  James  McCulloch  [q.  v.]  in  1870  and 
1871,  and  was  an  active  opponent  of  (Sir) 
Charles  Gavan  Duffy's  administration  in 
1871  and  1872.  He  supported  James 
Goodall  Francis  [q.  v.],  who  came  into  power 
in  June  1872,  but  not  very  strenuously; 
and  when,  in  July  1874,  Francis  transferred 
the  premiership  to  George  Biscoe  Kerferd, 
Patterson  joined  the  opposition,  led  by  (Sir) 
Graham  Berry.  On  the  resignation  of  the 
Kerferd  ministry  in  August  1875,  Berry 
took  office  and  gave  Patterson  the  position 
of  commissioner  of  public  works  and  president 
of  the  board  of  land  and  works.  On  7  Oct. 
the  ministry  were  defeated  by  a  coalition 
between  McCulloch  and  Kerferd,  and  Patter- 
son remained  out  of  office  until  May  1877, 
when  Berry,  being  returned  with  an  immense 
majority,  restored  Patterson  to  the  same 


Patterson 


253 


Payn 


offices,  giving  him  the  additional  charge 
of  postmaster-general.  In  that  ministry 
there  was  a  small  inner  cabinet  consisting 
of  Berry,  Major  William  Collard  Smith, 
Patterson,  and,  afterwards,  Sir  Bryan 
O'Loghlen.  Of  these  Patterson  was  the 
most  active  and  carried  most  weight  in  the 
government.  In  March  1880  Berry's  mini- 
stry fell,  but  in  July  another  general  election 
on  the  question  of  the  reform  of  the  consti- 
tution brought  him  back  to  power.  On  re- 
turning to  office  he  retained  only  Patterson 
and  Smith  among  his  former  colleagues. 
Patterson  was  appointed  minister  of  railways. 
Profiting  from  experience  he  was  extremely 
moderate  in  his  counsels.  Largely  owing  to 
his  advocacy  a  compromise  on  the  subject  of 
the  reform  of  the  constitution  was  effected, 
by  which  the  legislative  council  was  enlarged 
and  strengthened.  He  also  made  an  un- 
successful effort  to  exempt  the  railway  sys- 
tem from  political  influence. 

On  the  defeat  of  the  ministry  in  July  1881 
Patterson  went  into  opposition,  but  he  had 
ceased  to  be  a  strong  partisan.  Convinced 
that  the  colony  required  a  stable  government, 
he  and  Simon  Fraser  succeeded  in  bringing 
about  a  coalition  in  1883  between  Berry  and 
James  Service  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  Under  these 
leaders  the  country  enjoyed  a  period  of  poli- 
tical tranquillity.  In  April  1889  he  accepted 
the  portfolio  of  minister  of  the  customs  in 
Duncan  Gillies's  ministry,  which  he  had  at 
one  time  strongly  opposed,  and  succeeded  in 
passing  a  new  tariff,  which  consisted  almost 
entirely  of  new  or  increased  duties.  This 
tariff  he  subsequently  acknowledged  he  re- 
gretted more  than  anything  in  his  political 
career.  From  June  to  September  1890  he 
filled  the  additional  office  of  minister  of  pub- 
lic works,  and  from  September  to  November 
that  of  postmaster-general.  The  energy  with 
which  he  persuaded  his  colleagues  to  call 
out  the  troops  in  Melbourne  in  consequence 
of  the  disorders  of  the  great  maritime  strike 
hastened  the  downfall  of  the  ministry  at  the 
close  of  1890.  On  23  Jan.  1893,  after  a  visit 
to  England,  he  overthrew  the  administration 
of  William  Shiels,  and  was  invited  to  form  a 
ministry  in  which,  besides  the  office  of  premier, 
he  held  that  of  minister  of  railways.  Realis- 
ing the  unsound  financial  position  of  the 
colony,  he  sought  a  remedy  in  retrench- 
ment and  the  development  of  the  export 
trade.  Early  in  his  ministry,  however,  an 
astonishing  succession  of  bank  failures 
shattered  public  credit.  He  resisted  incite- 
ments to  extreme  measures  of  relief  for 
particular  institutions,  prepared  by  in- 
terested or  panic-stricken  persons,  but  he 
consented  to  the  doubtful  expedient  of  de- 


claring a  bank  holiday  of  five  days  to  give 
the  banks  time  to  collect  their  resources. 
Government's  popularity  was  impaired  by 
the  financial  distress,  and  in  August  1894 
Patterson  was  defeated  on  the  budget.  His 
successors,  however,  continued  his  financial 
policy. 

Patterson  was  created  K.C.M.G.  in  1894, 
and  died  at  Murrumbeena,  near  Melbourne, 
on  30  Oct.  1895.  He  was  buried  in  Mel- 
bourne cemetery  on  1  Nov.  In  1857  he 
married  Miss  Walton.  His  wife  died  on 
2  Dec.  1894,  leaving  an  only  child,  who 
married  Mr.  A.  Kaeppel. 

[Melbourne  Argus,  31  Oct.  1895;  Mennell's 
Diet,  of  Australian  Biogr.  1892;  Annual  Re- 
gister.] E.  I.  C. 

PAYN,  JAMES  (1830-1898),  novelist, 
was  born  at  Cheltenham  on  28  Feb.  1830. 
His  father,  William  Payn,  was  clerk  to  the 
Thames  commissioners,  and  lived  at  Maiden- 
head. He  was  popular  in  the  county,  kept 
the  Berkshire  harriers,  and  was  compared  to 
a  hero  of  the  old  English  comedy.  He  died 
too  early  to  be  distinctly  remembered  by 
his  son,  who  became  the  pet  of  his  mother, 
an  affectionate  and  beautiful  woman.  Payn's 
father  had  begun  to  initiate  him  in  various 
country  sports ;  but  from  a  very  early  age 
he  preferred  books,  and  devoured  such  fiction 
as  he  could  obtain.  He  was  known  as  a 
story-teller  at  a  preparatory  school,  to  which 
he  was  sent  at  the  age  of  seven.  He  suffered 
much  bullying,  and  did  not  find  Eton,  to 
which  he  was  sent  at  eleven,  more  congenial. 
He  was  hurt  by  the  rejection  of  an  article 
written  for  a  school  magazine,  and  the  classi- 
cal lessons  gave  him  a, permanent  dislike  of 
Greek  and  Latin.  He  was  always  a  very 
poor  linguist.  He  was  taken  from  Eton  to 
be  sent  to  a  'crammer'  for  the  Woolwich 
academy,  to  which  he  had  received  nomina- 
tion. He  passed  third  in  the  examination 
for  the  academy,  but  had  to  leave  it  after  a 
year  on  account  of  his  health.  It  was  then 
decided  that  he  should  take  orders,  and  he 
passed  a  year  with  a  private  tutor  in  Devon- 
shire. Here  he  found  himself  for  the  first 
time  in  congenial  surroundings.  He  had 
been  disgusted  with  the  rigid  discipline  and 
the  coarse  amusements  of  his  comrades  at 
Wroolwich,  and  had  relieved  himself  by  boy- 
ish escapades  and  by  nursing  his  literary 
tastes.  From  Devonshire  he  sent  an  article  de- 
scribing the  academy  to  '  Household  Words,' 
then  edited  by  Dickens.  Its  publication  pro- 
duced a  remonstrance  from  the  governor  of 
the  academy,  and  incidentally  led  to  Payn's 
first  communication  with  Dickens,  for  whom 
he  always  entertained  the  warmest  regard 


Payn 


254 


Payn 


and  admiration.  While  in  Devonshire 
he  also  succeeded  in  gaining  admittance  of 
various  pieces  of  verse  to  periodicals.  In 
October  1847  he  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  cared  nothing  for  the  regular 
course  of  study.  He  became  president  of 
the  union,  and  was  a  popular  member  of 
various  societies.  He  made  many  warm 
friendships  among  his  contemporaries,  and 
was  kindly  welcomed  by  some  of  the  college 
authorities,  especially  William  George  Clark 
[q.  v.l  and  George  Brimley  [q.  v.]  He  re- 
tained many  of  his  college  friendships  to  the 
last.  During  his  undergraduate  career  he 
published  two  volumes  of  verse,  the  first  of 
which, '  Stories  from  Boccaccio'  (1852),  was 
warmly  praised  by  Brimley  in  the  '  Specta- 
tor.' *Payn  was  greatly  encouraged,  and 
soon  determined  to  devote  himself  to  the 
profession  of  literature. 

He  took  a  first  class  in  the  examination 
for  the  ordinary  degree  at  the  end  of  1852. 
He  was  already  engaged  to  Miss  Louisa 
Adelaide  Edlin,  and  the  marriage  took  place 
on  28  Feb.  1854.  He  had  now  to  make  his 
living.  He  first  settled  in  the  Lakes  at 
Rydal  Cottage,  '  under  the  shadow  of  Nab 
Scar.'  He  was  already  known  to  Miss  Mit- 
ford,  a  neighbour  and  friend  of  his  father  in 
early  years.  She  introduced  him  to  Miss 
Martineau,  then  residing  at  Grasmere,  and 
both  literary  ladies  encouraged  and  advised 
him.  He  soon  became  a  regular  contributor 
to  'Household  Words'  and  'Chambers's 
Journal.'  In  1858  he  became  '  co-editor' 
with  Leitch  Ritchie  [q.  v.]  of  '  Chambers's 
Journal,'  and  settled  in  Edinburgh.  A  year 
later  he  became  sole  editor.  He  became  a 
warm  friend  of  Robert  Chambers  [q.  v.],  one 
of  the  proprietors,  and  made  some  pleasant  ac- 
quaintances at  Edinburgh.  Both  the  climate 
and  the  puritanism  of  Scotland  were  uncon- 
genial to  him,  and  he  was  glad  to  remove  to 
London  in  1861,  where  he  continued  to  edit 
the  journal.  Payn  now  settled  in  the  Maida 
Vale  district,  and  remained  there  for  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  thoroughly  enjoyed 
London  life.  He  has  described  some  im- 
pressions of  his  rambles  in  a  volume  called 
'  Meliboeus  in  London.'  He  had  met  Dickens 
in  1856,  and  soon  made  himself  known  in  j 
the  literary  circles  in  which  Dickens  was 
the  great  light.  Payn  rarely  left  London, 
and  says  that  for  the  twenty- five  years  pre- 
ceding 1884  he  had  only  taken  three  days  of 
consecutive  holiday  once  a  year.  Upon  the 
death  of  Robert  Chambers  in  1871,  William 
Chambers  became  the  chief  proprietor  of  the 
journal.  Differences  of  opinion  arose,  and  j 
Payn  resigned  the  editorship  in  1874.  He 
then  became  reader  to  Messrs.  Smith,  Elder,  & 


|  Co.,  and  from  1883  till  1896 edited  the  'Corn- 
hill  Magazine'  for  the  firm.  Payn's  first 
novel,  'The  Foster  Brothers,' founded  on  his 
college  experiences,  appeared  in  1859.  From 
that  date  he  was  a  most  industrious  writer 
of  novels,  long  and  short.  His  'Lost  Sir 
Massingberd,' which  appeared  in '  Chambers's 
Journal'  in  1864,  is  said  to  have  raised  the 
circulation  by  twenty  thousand  copies,  and 
permanently  advanced  his  popularity.  '  By 
Proxy,'  published  independently  in  1878, 
was,  he  says,  the  most  popular  of  his  novels, 
and  fully  established  his  position.  At  a  later 
period  Payn  became  widely  known  by  a 
weekly  column  of  lively  anecdote  and  gossip 
contributed  to  the  '  Illustrated  London 
News.'  As  a  novelist  Payn  was  much  in- 
fluenced by,  though  he  did  not  imitate, 
Dickens.  In  his  writing,  as  in  his  life,  he 
was  the  simplest  and  least  affected  of  men. 
He  made  no  pretence  to  profound  views  of 
human  nature,  but  overflowed  with  spon- 
taneous vivacity  and  love  of  harmless  fun. 

I  He  had  a  singularly  quick  eye  for  the  comic, 
and  remarkable  skill  in  constructing  in- 
genious situations.  The  same  qualities  marked 
his  short  essays  and  his  conversation.  He 
had  a  great  store  of  anecdote,  and  was 
most  charming  in  conversation.  He  took  a 
lively  interest  in  most  subjects  of  the  day, 

:  though  literary  matters  always  held  the  first 

i  place  in  his  mind.  Nobody  could  be  more  gene- 
rous in  recognising  the  merits  of  his  contem- 
poraries ;  and,  as  an  editor,  he  took  a  special 

!  pleasure  in  helping  young  aspirants  in  the 
profession  to  which  he  was  always  proud  of 

;  belonging.  In  later  years  he  became  crippled 
by  rheumatism.  Constant  pain  produced 

i  occasional  fits  of  depression,  but  never  soured 
his  temper  or  weakened  his  elasticity  of  spirit. 
He  had  been  on  friendly  terms  with  most  of 
the  literary  men  of  his  time.  He  was  most 
retentive  of  old  friendships,  and  constantly 
adding  new  ones  to  the  number.  He  had 
been  a  good  whist  player  from  his  college 
days,  and  in  London  a  daily  rubber  was  his 
main  recreation.  When  he  was  confined  to 
his  house,  members  of  his  club  arranged  to 
get  up  a  game  there  twice  a  week.  The 
personal  charm  was  heightened  by  the  gal- 
lantry with  which  he  met  his  sufferings,  and 
few  men  have  been  so  deservedly  popular  in 
a  large  circle.  After  his  health  had  com- 
pelled him  to  give  up  his  editorship  he  still 
devoted  himself  to  literary  work ;  but  his 
strength  was  failing,  and  he  died  on  25  March 
1898  at  his  house  in  Warrington  Crescent, 
Maida  Vale. 

Payn's  domestic  life  had  been  thoroughly 
happy.  His  sense  of  the  blessing  is  patheti- 
cally indicated  in  the  essay  called  'The  Back- 


Payn 


255 


Pearson 


water  of  Life,'  which  gives  the  title  to  a 
posthumous  volume  of  essays.  Mrs.  Payn 
survived  him,  with  two  sons  and  five  daugh- 
ters, the  third  of  whom,  Alicia  Isobel,  mar- 
ried in  1885  Mr.  G.  E.  Buckle,  editor  of  the 
'  Times,'  and  died  in  1898. 

Payn's  publications  include:  1.  *  Stories 
from  Boccaccio,'  1852.  2.  '  Poems,'  1853.  j 
3.  '  Stories  and  Sketches,'  1857.  4.  '  Leaves 
from  Lakeland,'  1858.  5.  'The  Foster 
Brothers : '  a  novel,  1859.  6.  '  The  Bateman 
Household,'  1860.  7.  'Richard  Arbour,' 
1861  (republished  under  the  title  of  '  A 
Family  Scapegrace,'  1869).  8.  '  Melibceus 
in  London,'  1862.  9.  '  Furness  Abbey  and 
Neighbourhood,'  1862 ;  new  edit.  1869,  4to. 

10.  '  Lost  Sir  Massingberd :  a  Romance  of 
Real  Life,'  1864,  2  vols. ;   4th  edit.  1878. 

11.  'Married   beneath   him,'  1865,  3  vols. 

12.  '  People,  Places,  and  Things,'  1865;  new 
edit.  1876.     13.  'The  Cliffards  of  Clyffe,' 
1866, 3  vols.   14.  '  Mirk  Abbey,'  1866, 3  vols. ; 
new  edit.  1869.     15.  '  Lights  and  Shadows 
of  London  Life,'  1867,  2  vols.     16.  'The 
Lakes  in  Sunshine,'  Illustr.  1867 ;  new  edit. 
1870.     17.  'Carlyon's  Year,'  1868,  2  vols. 
18.  '  Blondel  Parva,'  1868,  2  vols.    19.  '  Ben- 
tinck's    Tutor:'    a    novel,    1868,    2    vols. 
20.  '  Found  Dead,'  1869.     21.  '  A  County 
Family/   1869,   3  vols. ;     new    edit.  1871. 

22.  '  Maxims  by  a  Man  of  the  World,'  1869. 

23.  '  A  Perfect  Treasure ;  or,  Incident  in  the 
Early  Life  of  Marmaduke  Drake,  Esq.,'  1869. 

24.  '  Gwendoline's  Harvest : '  a  novel,  1870, 

2  vols.     25.  '  Like  Father,  like  Son,'  1870, 

3  vols.     26.   'Won— not    Wooed,'    1871. 

27.  'Cecil's  Tryst:' a  novel,  1873,  3  vols. 

28.  '  A  Woman's  Vengeance,'  1872,  3  vols, ; 
new  edit.  1874, 1  vol.  29.  '  Murphy's  Master,' 

1873,  2  vols.     30.  '  The  Best  of  Husbands,' 

1874.  31.  '  At  her  Mercy,'  1874,  3  vols. 
32.  '  Walter's  Word,'  1875,  3  vols. ;    new 
edit.  1879.    33.  '  Halves,'  1876, 3  vols. ;  new 
edit,  1880.     34.   'Fallen   Fortunes,'  1876, 
3  vols.     35.  '  What  he  cost  her : '  a  novel, 

1877,  new  edit.   1880.     36.    '  By  Proxy,' 

1878,  2  vols. ;  1880, 1  vol. ;  new  edit.  1898. 
37.  '  Less  Black  than  we're  painted,'  1878, 
3  vols.     38.  '  High   Spirits :    being  certain 
Stories  written  in  them,'  1879, 3  vols. ;  1880, 
1  vol.    39.  '  Under  one  Roof:  a  Family  Epi- 
sode,' 1879,  3  vols. ;   1880,  1  vol.     40.  '  A 
Marine  Residence,  and  other  Tales,'  1879, 
12mo;  new  edit.  1881.    41. '  A  Confidential 
Agent,'  1880,  3  vols.     42.   'From   Exile,' 
1881,  3  vols. ;  new  edit.  1883.    43.  '  A  Grape 
from  a  Thorn,'  1881, 3  vols.    44.  '  Some  Pri- 
vate Views :  Essays  from  the  "  Nineteenth 
Century  Review,"'  1882;   new  edit.  1883. 
45.  ' For  Cash  only:'  a  novel,  1882,  3  vols. ; 
new  edit.  1882,  1  vol.   46.  '  Kit :  a  Memory,' 


1883,  3  vols.;  new  edit.  1885.   47.  'Thicker 
than  Water,'  1883,  3  vols. ;  new  edit.  1884. 
48.   '  Some   Literary  Recollections,'   1884 ; 
new  edit.  1885.     49.  '  The  Canon's  Ward,' 

1884.  50.  '  In  Peril  and  Privation,'  1885. 

51.  '  The  Talk  of  the  Town'  (or  the  story  of 
the  forger,  William  Henry  Ireland),  1885. 

52.  '  The  Luck  of  the  Darrells,'  1885 ;  new 
edit.  1886.     63.  'The  Heir  of  the  Ages,' 
1886.  54. 'Glowworm Tales,' 1887.  55. 'Holi- 
day Tasks,'  1889.      56.  'A  Prince   of  the 
Blood,'  two   edits.  1888.     57.  '  The  Eaves- 
dropper,' 1888.      58.  '  A  Mystery  of  Mir- 
bridge,'   1888.      59.  'The    Burnt  Million,' 
1890.     60.  '  The  Word  and  the  Will,'  1890. 
61 . '  Notes  from  the  "  News," '  1890.  62. '  The 
Modern  Dick  Whittington,'  1892 ;   another 
edit.  1893.     63.  '  A  Stumble  on  the  Thres- 
hold,' 1892  ;  2nd  edit.  1893.    64.  'A  Trying 
Patient,'  1893.     65.  '  Gleams  of  Memory, 
1894.  66.  '  In  Market  Overt,'  1895.  67. 'The 
Disappearance     of    George    Driffel,'    1896. 
68.  'Another's    Burden,'   1897.     69.  'The 
Backwater  of  Life,'  with  an  Introduction 
by  Leslie  Stephen,  1899. 

[Introduction  by  the  present  writer  to  the 
'Backwater  of  Life,'  1899;  written  on  informa- 
tion from  the  family.  See  also  autobiographical 
notices  in  'Some  Literary  Recollections,' 1884, 
and  '  Gleams  of  Memory,'  1896.]  L.  S. 

PEAHSON,  JOHN  LOUGHBOROUGH 

(1817-1897),  architect,  born  in  Brussels  in 
1817,  was  the  son  of  William  Pearson,  etcher 
and  water-colourist,  whose  father,  a  solicitor, 
belonged  to  a  family  possessing  property 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Durham.  After 
pupilage  (1831)  in  the  office  of  Ignatius 
Bonomi  [see  BOJTOMI,  JOSEPH,  the  elder]  at 
Durham,  young  Pearson  continued  his  archi- 
tectural training  in  London,  first  under 
Anthony  Salvin  fq.  v.],  and  next  with  Philip 
Hardwick  [q.  v.]  ;  under  Hardwick  he  was 
engaged  upon  the  drawings  of  the  hall  and 
library  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  which  are  said 
to  owe  at  least  as  much  to  the  assistant 
as  to  the  master.  In  1843  Pearson  began 
independent  practice.  His  first  office  was 
in  Keppel  Street,  Bloomsbury,  and  his  first 
works  were  for  Yorkshire,  such  as  Ellerker 
Chapel  in  1843,  the  churches  of  EUoughton 
and  Wauldby  in  1844,  Ellerton  in  1846, 
and  North  Ferriby,  completed  in  the  same 
year.  In  1850  Pearson  began  the  first  of 
the  London  churches  with  which  his  name 
is  associated.  Holy  Trinity,  Bessborough 
Gardens,  designed  for  Archdeacon  Bentinck, 
was  looked  upon  by  the  contemporary 
leaders  of  the  Gothic  revival  as  a  conspi- 
cuous example  of  good  work.  The  style 
adopted  was  the  '  geometric'  type  of  Gothic, 


Pearson 


256 


Pearson 


and  the  church  is  remarkable  for  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  chancel,  which,  owing  to  a  pecu- 
liarity of  the  site,  is  made  wider  than  the 
nave. 

Pearson  had  already  begun  his  work  as  a 
restorer  on  the  churches  of  Lea,  Lincoln- 
shire, Llangasty  Tallylyn,  and  others.  He 
had  also  (1848)  done  his  first  domestic  work, 
a  house  at  Treberfydd.  In  1863  he  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
Various  works  of  church  restoration  belong 
to  this  period — such  as  Exton  in  Rutland- 
shire, Braintree  and  Ashen  in  Essex,  and 
Stinchcombe  in  Gloucestershire,  the  reseating 
of  Fairford  Church  in  the  same  county,  and 
the  reconstruction  of  the  groining  of  Stow 
Church,  Lincolnshire ;  this  last  gave  him  an 
introduction  to  a  branch  of  art  in  which  he 
achieved  great  success.  Pearson's  second 
London  church,  St.  Peter's,  Vauxhall,  begun 
about  1859,  showed  (like  Freeland  Church, 
Dalton  Holme,  Scorborough,  Daylesford, 
and  others)  traces  of  the  French  study  then 
in  vogue  with  Sir  George  Gilbert  Scott  [q.  v.] 
and  his  school.  It  has  a  nave  and  chancel 
equal  in  width  and  height,  aisles,  a  baptis- 
tery, a  narthex,  and  an  apse.  It  draws  its 
light  almost  entirely  from  the  clerestory,  is 
vaulted  throughout  with  stone  ribs  and  brick 
tilling,  and  is  said  to  have  cost  little  more 
than  6,000/.  Pearson  was  by  this  time  in 
full  practice,  and  works  followed  one  another 
with  rapidity.  Yorkshire  still  supplied  many 
opportunities,  a  new  church  at  Broomfleet 
in  1857,  and  another  with  vicarage  at  Ap- 
pleton-le-Moors  (1863),  restorations  in  the 
same  year  at  Bishop  Wilton  and  South  Cave, 
shortly  followed  by  Bishop  Burton  (1859), 
Hilston  (I860),  Lastingham  (1862,  a  par- 
ticularly interesting  work),  and  both  Riccall 
and  Hemsworth  in  1864. 

Babworth,  Nottinghamshire,  was  restored 
in  1858,  Nibley,  Gloucestershire,  in  the  next 
year,  and  in  1860,  the  year  in  which  Pearson 
became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Institute  of 
British  Architects,  he  designed  the  new 
church  of  Rhydydwmyn,  and  subsequently 
many  similar  works  in  Wales. 

It  was  not  till  1870  that  Pearson  received 
his  first  appointment  as  architect  to  a  ca- 
thedral fabric.  In  that  year  he  was  con- 
sulted at  Lincoln,  where  he  restored  the 
groining  of  the  north  transept,  rebuilt  part 
of  the  south-west  tower,  and  repaired  the 
chapter-house  and  cloister.  About  the  same 
time  he  was  engaged  on  the  building  of 
another  great  London  church,  that  of  St. 
Augustine,  Kilburn,  remarkable  for  its  size, 
for  its  moderate  price  (11,200/.  in  the  first 
instance),  for  its  new  treatment  of  the 
gallery  problem,  and  for  its  highly  suc- 


cessful use  of  stock-brick  for  the  interior 
wall  surface.  It  is  of  a  thirteenth-century 
type,  though  not  exclusively  English  in  its 
plan.  In  1872  Pearson  built  Wentworth 
Church,  Yorkshire,  for  Lord  Fitzwilliam,  a 
good  imitation  of  fourteenth-century  work. 
In  1874  he  built  his  fourth  great  London 
church,  that  of  St.  John,  Red  Lion  Square, 
with  its  vicarage.  Here  Pearson  showed 
his  skill  in  occupying  an  unpromising  site, 
and  the  church  is  as  remarkable  in  point 
of  plan  as  in  the  beauty  of  the  Early  English 
detail  employed. 

Horsforth  Church,  near  Leeds,  in  the 
thirteenth-century  manner,  belongs  to  the 
same  year,  and  Headingley  Church  in  the 
same  neighbourhood  to  1885.  In  1878 
Pearson  received  a  gold  medal  at  Paris  and 
the  knighthood  of  the  legion  of  honour. 
In  1879  he  was  selected  as  architect  for  the 
new  cathedral  of  Truro ;  this  appointment 
may  be  said  to  have  coupled  Pearson  with 
Sir  Christopher  Wren  as  the  only  architects 
of  English  cathedrals  consecrated  since  the 
middle  ages.  Except  for  the  fact  that  a 
portion  of  the  old  parish  church  was  in- 
corporated as  one  of  the  south  choir  aisles, 
the  building  is  an  entirely  new  one,  thus 
distinguishing  the  task  from  those  works  of 
alteration  which  have  been  undertaken  in 
other  towns  to  suit  parish  churches  to  the 
needs  of  new  dioceses.  It  is  the  greatest 
ecclesiastical  opportunity  which  has  been 
offered  to  any  modern  architect,  and  it 
was  used  by  Pearson  in  a  manner  which 
showed  him  a  consummate  master  of  the 
art  of  building  according  to  mediaeval  pre- 
cedent. 

The  outer  walls  are  faced  with  Penrhyn 
granite,  the  dressings  being  of  Bath  stone. 
The  internal  ashlar  is  also  of  granite,  con- 
trasted with  columns  of  polyphant.  The 
incorporation  of  the  portion  of  old  building 
(which  in  date  is  later  than  the  style  adopted 
for  the  main  fabric)  not  only  gives  rise  to 
interesting  changes  of  level,  but  also  controls 
the  disposition  of  the  columns  in  the  choir 
which  was  made  to  follow  the  spacing  of 
the  bays  in  the  old  church.  It  was  the 
necessity  of  supporting  the  south  buttresses 
of  the  choir  that  gave  rise  to  the  picturesque 
double  row  of  shafts  which  separate  the  old 
work  from  the  new.  The  total  length  of 
the  cathedral  when  completed  will  be  three 
hundred  feet,  the  height  of  the  central  spire 
250  feet,  the  width  of  nave  twenty-nine  feet, 
and  the  height  of  vaulting  seventy  feet.  The 
part  first  completed  (which  omitted  all  the 
nave  except  two  bays  and  the  upper  part 
of  the  tower)  cost  74,000/.,  and  the  fittings 
cost  15,0001.  more.  It  was  consecrated  on 


257 


Pearson 


3  Nov.  1887,  the  foundation-stone  having 
been  laid  by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  as  duke 
of  Cornwall,  on  20  May  1880.  In  this  same 
year,  1880,  Pearson  received  the  gold  medal 
of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects, 
on  the  council  of  which  he  at  one  time 
served,  and  was  honoured  by  the  full  mem- 
bership of  the  Royal  Academy,  having  been 
an  associate  since  1874.  In  1879  he  had 
designed  St.  Alban's  Church,  Birmingham, 
in  which  town  he  also,  in  1896,  built  the 
church  of  St.  Patrick.  St.  Agues,  Liver- 
pool, dates  from  1883,  Speke  in  the  same 
county  from  1873,  and  Norley  Church  in 
Cheshire  from  1878. 

Of  Pearson's  works  of  restoration  the  best 
known  is  the  north  transept  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  the  front  of  which  (though  largely 
designed  from  fragments  found  in  the  old 
walls)  he  may  be  said  to  have  rebuilt.  The 
portals  bad  already  been  handled  by  Sir 
George  Gilbert  Scott.  His  other  work  in  the 
abbey  consisted  of  general  repairs.  Pear- 
son's proposals  for  the  restoration  at  West- 
minster Hall  were  the  subject  of  a  select 
parliamentary  committee  in  1885,  before 
which  the  architect  argued  against  much 
opposition,  but  with  ultimate  success,  in 
favour  of  re-erecting  between  the  buttresses 
on  the  west  side  a  building  such  as  in  his 
opinion  had  once  existed  there  before.  This 
building  was  carried  out,  in  Ketton  stone, 
and  the  committee-rooms  and  other  apart- 
ments of  which  it  consists  are  approached 
by  a  staircase  from  the  floor  of  Westminster 
Hall.  Pearson's  report  to  this  committee 
was  fully  illustrated  with  plans  and  dia- 

frams,   and  disclosed  very  completely  the 
istory  of  the  building. 
Other  small  works  by  Pearson  in  the  same 
neighbourhood  were  the  replacement  of  the 
nondescript  porch  of  St.  Margaret's  Church 
by  a  new  one  of  correcter  Gothic,  sundry 
alterations  in  Westminster  School,  and  some 
new  canons'  houses. 

Besides  Lincoln,  already  mentioned,  Pear- 
son was  engaged  in  cathedral  restoration  at 
Peterborough,  Canterbury,  Bristol,  Roches- 
ter, Chichester,  and  Exeter.  At  the  last- 
named  he  rebuilt  part  of  the  cloister  and 
formed  a  chapter-library  above  it.  The  Chi- 
chester appointment  came  only  just  before 
his  death,  though  he  completed  a  design  for 
the  new  tower.  At  Rochester  he  restored 
the  Norman  west  front  and  ornamented  the 
screen.  At  Canterbury  he  reinstated  St. 
Anselm's  Chapel.  At  Bristol,  besides  vari- 
ous repairs,  he  finished  the  western  towers 
from  the  design  of  George  Edmund  Street 
[q.v.],  rearranged  the  choir  with  a  new  marble 
floor,  and  designed  the  altar  screen,  sedilia, 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


and  choir  screen,  and  restored  the  ancient 
gateway.  At  Peterborough  he  twice  had 
to  face  the  storm  of  criticism.  The  central 
tower  was  bound  to  come  down,  and  it  was 
restored  on  the  numbered-stone  system ;  but 
controversy  arose  over  the  question  whether 
the  pointed  arches  of  the  tower  piers  should 
be  restored  as  pointed  arches,  or  whether 
the  Norman  character  of  the  surrounding 
work  should  be  a  sufficient  argument  for 
making  the  new  arches  circular.  The  ques- 
tion was  referred  to  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, who  decided  for  the  pointed  form, 
and  also  gave  his  vote  against  Pearson's 
original  design  for  a  new  tower.  The  later 
controversy,  which  concerned  itself  with  the 
great  narthex  at  the  west  front,  began  in 
1896.  A  strong  opposition,  which  took  the 
form  of  newspaper  correspondence  (see 
Times,  December  1896,  January  1897),  com- 
bated Pearson's  intention  of  reconstructing 
the  arches,  which  were  evidently  insecure, 
and  argued  for  the  retention  in  situ  of  all  the 
existing  external  stones.  With  characteristic 
unconcern  Pearson,  who  was  sure  of  his 
ground,  took  no  part  in  the  controversy,  if 
he  even  read  the  letters  of  his  opponents, 
and  before  his  death  carried  out  a  great  part 
of  the  work,  in  which  of  course  he  preserved 
every  possible  portion  of  the  ancient  masonry. 
His  interior  work  at  this  cathedral  included 
the  elaborate  marble  pavement  of  the  sanctu- 
ary, the  bishop's  throne,  the  stalls,  and  the 
baldachino. 

Pearson's  art  was  neither  exclusively 
Gothic  nor  wholly  ecclesiastical.  Treber- 
fydd,  a  country  house  already  mentioned, 
was  of  a  late  fifteenth-century  type.  Quar 
Wood  (Gloucestershire),  which  followed, 
was  certainly  Gothic,  but  Roundwick  (Sus- 
sex) was  Tudor  in  character,  and  Lechlade 
Manor  Jacobean.  Westwood  House,  Syden- 
ham,  shows  something  of  a  Francois  I  treat- 
ment, while  the  offices  for  the  Hon.  W.  W. 
Astor  on  the  Thames  Embankment  display 
a  free  type  of  Renaissance  work.  This  build- 
ing is  an  excellent  and  rich  design,  exhibit- 
ing to  the  full  the  versatility  of  its  author's 
genius.  For  the  same  employer  Pearson 
carried  out  works  at  Carlton  House  Terrace 
and  Cliveden,  Buckinghamshire,  previously 
owned  by  the  Duke  of  Westminster. 

Among  Pearson's  other  works  in  London 
and  neighbourhood  should  be  mentioned  the 
Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  near  the  Regent's 
canal,  noticeable  externally  for  a  deeply 
recessed  west  window ;  the  sedilia,  font,  and 
font-cover  at  St.  Andrew's,  Wells  Street ;  a 
chapel  at  the  Middlesex  Hospital ;  the  re- 
storation of  St.  Mary-the-Less,  Lambeth  ; 
St.  Helen's,  Bishopsgate ;  and  All  Hallows, 


Pearson 


258 


Fender 


Barking;  the  new  and  important  churches 
of  St.  Michael,  Croydon  (1880),  and  St.  John, 
Upper  Norwood  (1881);  the  building  of  St. 
Peter's  Home,  Kilburn,  and  various  schools. 
He  did  little  work  at  Oxford,  only  additions 
to  a  hospital  in  the  suburb  of  Cowley  and 
the  rereaos  at  New  College;  but  at  Cam- 
bridge he  carried  out  extensions  at  Sidney 
Sussex  and  Emmanuel  Colleges,  and  did  a 
similar  task  at  the  university  library,  where 
the  existing  fragment  of  the  fifteenth-century 
gateway  was  cleverly  incorporated. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  here  a  complete 
list  of  Pearson's  works,  but  the  following 
entirely  new  churches  are  worthy  of  special 
notice :  St.  Barnabas  and  All  Saints  at  Hove, 
Brighton  (the  latter  with  a  striking  tower)  ; 
St.  Matthew  at  St.  Leonards-on-Sea ;  St. 
Stephen,  Bournemouth;  High  Cliffe,  near 
Winchester;  All  Saints,  Torquay  (St.  Mat- 
thias in  the  same  town  was  only  remodelled 
by  Pearson);  Sutton-Veney,  Chute  Forest, 
Porton,  and  Laverstoke — all  in  "Wiltshire ; 
Oakhill,  Somerset ;  St.  James,  Weybridge ; 
Titsey,  near  Godstone;  Hersham,  Surrey; 
Freeland,  Oxfordshire  (with  vicarage  and 
school);  Daylesford,  Worcestershire ;  Norley, 
Winnington,  and  Thurstaston  in  Cheshire ; 
Daybrook,  near  Nottingham ;  Wentworth,  for 
the  Earl  of  Fitzwilliam ;  Darlington;  Culler- 
coats,  for  the  Duke  of  Northumberland ;  and 
two  churches  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  Kirk- 
braddan,  and  St.  Matthew,  Douglas.  St. 
John,  Redhill,  was  practically  rebuilt  by  j 
Pearson,  as  was  also  the  church  at  Chiswick.  j 
Pearson  made  a  complete  design  for  Brisbane  j 
Cathedral,  under  the  instructions  of  Bishop 
Webber,  his  former  employer  at  Red  Lion 
Square;  this  was  opened  in  1901. 

In  Scotland  Pearson's  only  works  were  the 
Glenalmond  infirmary  and  a  new  church  at 
Ayr.  In  Wales,  besides  the  church  already 
mentioned,  he  designed  those  of  Solva,  Port 
Talbot,  and  Tretower.  His  principal  domestic 
works  not  already  mentioned  were  St.  Peter's 
Convalescent  Home  at  Woking,  a  residence 
for  the  Hon.  C.  Lawley  at  Exminster,  and 
two  others  at  Rustington,  Sussex,  and  Great 
Warley  near  Brentwood,  besides  numerous 
vicarages  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
He  designed  a  mausoleum  at  Tunbridge 
Wells  and  a  chapel  in  Byzantine  style  for 
the  cemetery  at  Malta. 

Pearson  was  fully  engaged  in  work  to  the 
end  of  his  life,  and,  dying  after  a  short  illness 
at  13  Mansfield  Street  on  11  Dec.  1897,  was 
honoured  with  a  funeral  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  He  married,  in  1863,  Jemima, 
daughter  of  Henry  Curwen  Christian  (she 
died  in  1865) ;  by  her  he  had  one  son, 
Frank  Loughborough  Pearson,  who  was  for 


many  years  intimately  associated  with  his 
father's  work,  and  has  continued  after  his 
death  the  additions  to  Wakefield  Cathedral, 
the  north-western  tower  of  Chichester 
Cathedral,  and  the  building  in  progress  at 
Truro  Cathedral. 

A  good  portrait  of  Pearson  was  painted  in 
oils  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Ouless,  R.A.,  and  is  now 
in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Frank  Pearson.  He 
was  a  man  of  moderate  height  and  pleasant 
aspect,  with  a  full  beard  and  moustache  and 
gentle  expressive  eyes.  Having  few  interests 
outside  his  art  he  gave  his  whole  mind  to  it, 
was  intensely  industrious,  and  exceptionally 
modest.  Though  far  from  unsociable  he  was 
unusually  retiring.  Unlike  many  of  his 
brother-architects,  he  never  wrote  or  lec- 
tured on  the  subject  of  his  art.  From  the  time 
when  he  first  started  his  work  in  London  he 
never  lived  in  the  country;  his  first  office  was 
changed  for  one  in  Delahay  Street,  West- 
minster, and  before  he  took  his  final  office 
and  residence  in  Mansfield  Street  he  had  for 
a  time  a  home  in  Harley  Street. 

[JohnE.  Newberry's  articles  in  Architectural 
Review,  vol.  i.  1897;  Royal  Inst.  Brit.  Arch. 
Journal,  1897-8,  v.  113;  private  information.] 

P.  W. 

PEMBROKE,  thirteenth  EARL  OF.  [See 
HERBERT  GEORGE  ROBERT  CHARLES,  1850- 

1895.] 

PENDER,  SIR  JOHN  (1815-1896), 
pioneer  of  submarine  telegraphy,  born  on 
10  Sept.  1816,  was  son  of  James  Pender, 
of  the  Vale  of  Leven,  Dumbartonshire,  and 
Marion  Mason.  He  was  educated  at  the  high 
school  of  Glasgow,  where  he  received  a  gold 
medal  for  a  design,  and  after  a  successful 
career  as  a  merchant  in  textile  fabrics  in 
Glasgow  and  Manchester  he  made  the  ex- 
tension of  submarine  telegraphy  his  principal 
study.  On  the  formation  of  the  first  Atlantic 
Cable  Company  in  1856,  Pender  was  one 
of  the  original  345  contributors  of  1,000/. 
towards  the  expenses  of  the  necessary  ex- 
periments, and,  as  a  director  of  that  company, 
he  shared  the  failures  and  disappointments 
which  for  eight  years  baffled  all  attempts  to 
bring  the  scheme  to  a  successful  issue  [see 
BRIGHT,  SIR  CHARLES  TILSTOX,  Suppl.]  The 
snapping  of  the  cable  of  1865  in  mid-ocean 
during  the  historic  voyage  of  the  Great 
Eastern  proved  the  financial  ruin  of  the  At- 
lantic Company.  Many  of  the  original  sup- 
porters of  the  enterprise  were  dead,  many 
more  were  utterly  discouraged  by  repeated 
failures,  and  the  abandonment  of  the  project 
was  imminent,  when,  through  the  efforts  of 
Pender,  Sir  William  Thomson  (now  Lord 
Kelvin),  Sir  Charles  Bright,  and  a  few  others, 


Fender 


259 


Pepper 


the  Anglo-American  Company  was  formed, 
and  negotiations  were  opened  with  Messrs. 
Glass,  Elliot,  &  Co.  and  the  Gutta  Percha 
Company  for  the  manufacture  of  a  new  cable 
of  greater  strength  and  value  than  any  pre- 
vious one ;  but  the  latter  company  refused 
to  proceed  without  a  guarantee.  It  was  at 
this  crisis  that  Fender  offered  his  personal 
security  for  a  quarter  of  a  million  sterling, 
•when  the  two  companies  were  amalgamated 
under  the  name  of  the  Telegraph  Construc- 
tion and  Maintenance  Company,  with  Fender 
as  chairman.  Xot  only  was  the  new  cable 
successfully  laid  in  1866,  but  the  broken  one 
was  recovered.  To  Fender's  energy  was 
afterwards  largely  due  the  formation  of  that 
great  system  of  eastern  telegraphs  which, 
under  the  names  of  the  Eastern  and  East- 
ern Extension  Telegraph  Companies,  link 
together  the  whole  of  our  Asiatic  and  Aus- 
tralasian possessions,  and  through  his  exer- 
tions the  cables  of  the  Eastern  and  associated 
companies  surround  the  continent  of  Africa 
[cf.  CLARK,  LATIMER,  Suppl.]  Successful  as 
a  pioneer,  Fender's  sound  commercial  in- 
stincts always  stood  him  in  good  stead  as  an 
organiser  and  administrator.  In  his  later 
years  he  devoted  much  attention  to  the 
electric  lighting  of  London,  being  chairman 
of  the  Metropolitan  Electric  Supply  Com- 
pany, the  largest  undertaking  of  its  kind  in 
this  country. 

Fender  sat  as  liberal  member  for  Totnes 
in  1865-6,  but  was  unseated  on  petition.  In 
1868  he  unsuccessfully  contested  Linlithgow- 
shire,  but  was  member  for  the  Wick  Burghs, 
as  a  liberal,  from  1872  to  1885,  and,  as  a 
liberal  unionist,  from  1892  to  1896,  when  he 
resigned.  He  unsuccessfully  contested  the 
Wick  Burghs  in  1885,  Stirling  Burghs  in 
1886,  Wick  Burghs  again  in  1886,  and  Govan 
in  1889.  In  recognition  of  his  services  to 
the  empire  Queen  Victoria  made  him  in  1888 
a  K.C.M.G.,  when  Lord  Derby  presided  at  a 
banquet  given  in  his  honour,  and  in  1892  he 
was  promoted  to  a  grand  cross  of  the  same 
order.  Sir  John  held  many  foreign  orders, 
among  them  the  legion  of  honour  and  the 
grand  cordon  of  the  Medjidie.  He  was  also 
a  fellow  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  of  the  Royal  Geogra- 
phical Society,  and  of  the  Scottish  Society 
of  Antiquaries.  In  1869  he  published  '  Sta- 
tistics of  the  Trade  of  the  United  Kingdom 
from  1840.'  He  died  of  paralysis  at  Foots- 
cray  Place,  Kent,  on  7  July  1896,  and  was 
buried  in  the  parish  churchyard.  A  portrait 
by  Mr.  Hubert  Herkomer,  R.A.,  is  in  the 
possession  of  Sir  James  Fender. 

Sir  John  was  twice  married  :  first,  on 
28  Nov.  1840,  to  Marion,  daughter  of  James 


Cairns  of  Glasgow,  and  by  her  (who  died  on 
16  Dec.  1841)  he  had  James,  M.P.  for  Mid- 
Northamptonshire  from  1895,  who  was  cre- 
ated a  baronet  in  1897 ;  and,  secondly,  on 
12  June  1851,  to  Emma,  only  surviving 
child  and  heir  of  Henry  Denison  of  Day- 
brook,  Arnold,  Nottinghamshire,  and  by  her 
(who  died  on  8  July  1890)  he  had  two  sons 
and  two  daughters.  The  elder  son  of  the 
second  marriage,  Henry  Denison,  died  in 
1881 ;  the  younger,  John  Cuthbert  Denison- 
Pender,  is  managing  director,  director,  or 
chairman  of  numerous  telegraph  and  cable 
companies.  The  younger  daughter,  Marion 
Denison,  married  Sir  George  William  des 
Vceux,  governor  of  Hong  Kong,  1887-91. 

[Electrician,  xxxvii.  334-5,  379-80,  469  ;  Men 
of  the  Time ;  New  Monthly  Mag.  vol.  cxvii.  (with 
portrait) ;  Biograph,  iii.  55-62,  new  ser.  i.  268- 
276.]  G.  S-H. 

PEPPER,  JOHN  HENRY  (1821-1900), 
exhibitor  of '  Pepper's  Ghost,'  born  at  West- 
minster on  17  June  1821,  was  educated  at 
Loughborough  House,  Brixton,  and  King's 
College  school,  Strand.  In  1840  he  was 
appointed  assistant  chemical  lecturer  at  the 
Granger  school  of  medicine,  in  1847  he  gave 
his  first  lecture  at  the  Royal  Polytechnic  in 
Regent  Street  (founded  in  1838),  and  in 
1848  he  was  appointed  analytical  chemist 
and  lecturer  to  that  institution.  Some  four 
year  later  he  became  '  honorary '  director  of 
the  Polytechnic  at  a  fixed  salary,  a  post 
which  he  held  for  twenty  years.  He  lec- 
tured frequently  at  the  Polytechnic,  and 
was  invited  to  numerous  schools,  at  which 
he  delighted  juvenile  audiences  by  popular 
experiments,  illusions,  and  magic-lantern 
displays.  He  also  issued  a  series  of  unpre- 
tentious manuals  of  popular  science,  which 
had  a  wide  circulation.  They  include  'The 
Boy's  Playbook  of  Science'  (1860),  'The 
Playbook  of  Metals'  (1861),  'Scientific 
Amusements  for  Young  People '  (1861),  and 
'Cyclopaedic  Science  Simplified'  (1869). 
On  the  title-pages  of  these  he  describes  him- 
self as  fellow  of  the  Chemical  Society,  and 
honorary  associate  of  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers.  His  title  of  professor  was 
conferred  upon  him  '  by  express  minute  of 
the  Polytechnic  board,'  and  was  not  there- 
fore, he  was  careful  to  explain,  that  of  a 
hairdresser  or  a  dancing-master. 

During  the  winter  of  1862,  when  the 
Polytechnic  was  suffering  severely  from  the 
reaction  that  followed  the  heavy  business 
due  to  the  exhibition  of  that  year,  Pepper 
succeeded  in  reviving  the  popularity  of  the 
institution  and  ensuring  its  future  by  means 
of  an  optical  illusion,  described  by  the 

•  I 


Perry 


260 


Perry 


'  Times '  as   the   most   wonderful  ever  put  i 
before  the  public.    In  September  1858  Henry  : 
Dircks  [q.v.]  of  Blackheath  had  communi-  \ 
cated  to  the  British  Association  the  details  | 
of    an   apparatus   for    producing  '  spectral 
optical   illusions'  (see  Meek.  Mag.  7   Oct.  ! 
1858;   Engineer,  1   Oct.  1858).      The  idea  j 
was   rejected  by  several   entertainers,  but 
Dircks  nad  sufficient  faith  in  it  to  have  the 
necessary    apparatus     made.      Pepper    no 
sooner  saw  this  than  he  cordially  welcomed  , 
the  invention,  and,   after   some  not  very  | 
important  modifications  in  the  machinery,  j 
exhibited  the  '  ghost '  for  the  first  time  on 
24  Dec.  1862,  m  illustration  of  Dickens's 
'  Haunted  Man.'    On  5  Feb.  1863  the  appa- 
ratus was  patented  in  the  joint  names  of 
Pepper  and   Dircks,  both  renouncing  any 
pecuniary  claim  upon  the  Polytechnic. 

Dircks  afterwards  complained,  with  some 
apparent  justification,  that  he  had  been 
deluded  into  this  arrangement,  and  that  his 
name  as  that  of  sole  inventor  was  unduly 
obscured  in  the  advertisements  of  the  exhi- 
bition. Popularly  known  as  '  Pepper's 
Ghost,'  the  illusion  had  an  enormous  vogue, 
was  visited  by  the  Prince  and  Princess  of 
Wales  (19  May  1863),  commanded  to  Wind- 
sor, and  transferred  to  the  boards  of  many 
London  theatres,  to  the  Chatelet  at  Paris, 
to  Wallack's  Theatre,  New  York,  and  to 
the  Crystal  Palace.  In  March  1872  Pepper 
temporarily  transferred  his  exhibit  to  the 
Egyptian  Hall.  Shortly  after  this  he  went 
out  to  Australia  and  was  appointed  public 
analyst  at  Brisbane.  In  1890  he  returned  I 
to  England  and  reintroduced  his  '  ghost '  at  j 
the  Polytechnic,  but  the  spectre  failed  to 
appeal  to  a  sophisticated  public,  and  its  pro- 
prietor withdrew  into  private  life  and  wrote 
'  The  True  History  of  Pepper's  Ghost'  (1890). 
The '  Professor '  died  in  Col  worth  Road,  Ley- 
tonstone,  Essex,  on  29  March  1900. 

[Times,  26  and  30  Dec.  1871,  30  March  1900  ; 
Daily  Telegraph,  30  March  1900;  Mechanical 
Magazine,  vol.  Ixxivii.  passim ;  Thorn  bury's 
Old  and  New  London,  iv.  454  ;  All  the  Year 
Round,  June  1863;  Dircks's  Ghost,  or  The 
Dircksian  Phantasmagoria,  1863 ;  The  True 
History  of  Pepper's  Ghost,  1890.]  T.  S. 

PERRY,  GEORGE  GRESLEY  (1820- 
1897),  church  historian,  born  at  Churchill  in 
Somersetshire  on  St.  Thomas's  day,  1820, 
was  the  twelfth  and  youngest  child  of  Wil- 
liam Perry,  an  intimate  friend  and  neighbour 
of  Hannah  More  [q.y.]  He  was  educated  at 
Ilminster  under  the  Rev.  John  Allen,  and  in 
1837  he  won  a  scholarship  on  the  Bath  and 
Wells  foundation  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford.  In  1840  he  graduated  B.A.  with  a 
second  class  in  lit.  hum.  His  fellowship  at 


Corpus  would  have  followed  in  due  course, 
but  meanwhile  a  vacancy  occurred  in  the 
Wells  fellowship  at  Lincoln  College,  for 
which  Perry  was  the  successful  competitor, 
Mark  Pattison  [<l-v-]>  who  was  then  just  be- 
ginning his  intellectual  reform  of  the  college, 
strongly  pressing  his  claims.  He  graduated 
M.A.  in  1843,  and  was  ordained  by  the  bishop 
of  Oxford — deacon  in  1844  and  priest  in 
1845.  He  held  for  a  short  time,  first,  the 
curacy  of  Wick  on  the  coast  of  Somerset, 
and  then  that  of  Combe  Florey,  near  Taun- 
ton  ;  but  in  1847  he  returned  to  Oxford  as 
college  tutor  at  Lincoln,  which  office  he  held 
until  1852.  During  the  last  year  of  his  fel- 
lowship occurred  the  memorable  contest  for 
the  rectorship,  described  with  such  painful 
vividness  iu  Pattison's  '  Memoir.'  In  this 
contest  Perry  took  a  leading  and  charac- 
teristically straightforward  part.  It  was  he 
who  first  told  Pattison  that  the  junior  fel- 
lows wished  to  have  him  for  their  head,  and 
from  first  to  last  he  supported  Pattison 
heartily. 

In  1852  Perry  accepted  the  college  living 
of  Waddington,  near  Lincoln,  and  there  he 
remained  to  the  end  of  his  days.  He  en- 
tered upon  his  duties  on  Low  Sunday,  1852, 
and  in  October  of  the  same  year  married  Miss 
Eliza  Salmon,  sister  of  the  present  provost  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  a  most  happy  union. 
The  life  of  a  country  clergyman  suited  Perry. 
He  was  always  fond  of  country  pursuits, 
understood  the  minds  of  country  people, 
and  could  profitably  employ  the  leisure  which 
such  a  life  affords.  He  attended  well  to  his 
country  parish,  and  also  threw  himself 
heartily  into  the  work  of  the  diocese,  which 
showed,  as  far  as  it  could,  its  appreciation  of 
him.  In  1861  Bishop  Jackson  made  him  a 
non-residentiary  canon  and  rural  dean  of 
Longoboby ;  in  1867  his  brother  clergy  elected 
him  as  their  proctor  in  convocation ;  and 
they  continued  to  re-elect  him  (more  than 
once  after  a  contest)  until  he  voluntarily 
retired  in  1893.  In  1894  Bishop  King  ap- 
pointed him  to  the  archdeaconry  of  Stow, 
which  he  held  until  his  death. 

Perry's  parochial  and  diocesan  work  still 
left  him  abundance  of  time  for  study,  which 
he  employed  conscientiously  for  the  benefit 
of  the  church.  The  earliest  work  which 
brought  him  into  notice  in  the  literary  world 
was  his  '  History  of  the  Church  of  England,' 
in  3  vols.  8vo,  the  first  of  which  appeared  in 
1860,  the  third  in  1864.  Its  fairness  and 
accuracy  were  at  once  recognised,  and  its 
value  was  increased  by  the  fact  that  it  was 
the  first  general  history  which  included  the 
dreary  but  highly  important  period  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  previous  historians,  as  a 


Perry 


261 


Peterson 


rule,  having  stopped  short  at  the  Revolution 
of  1688.  In  1868  he  published  for  S.P.C.K. 
a  short  '  Life  of  Henry  Hammond '  and  a 
similar  '  Life  of  Robert  Boyle,'  and  among 
his  other  minor  works  were  '  The  Bishop's 
Daughter,'  1860;  '  Vox  Ecclesiae  Anglicanae,' 
1868,  being  extracts  from  English  theolo- 
gians ;  '  History  of  the  Crusades,'  no  date  ; 
'  Victor,  a  Story  of  the  Diocletian  Persecu- 
tion,' no  date  ;  '  Croyland  Abbey,'  no  date. 
In  1872  came  a  book  which  greatly  enhanced 
his  reputation,  the  '  Life  of  Bishop  Grosse- 
teste.'  His  intimate  knowledge  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford  and  also  of  the  diocese  of 
Lincoln,  with  both  of  which  Grosseteste  was 
so  closely  connected,  at  once  rendered  the 
task  a  labour  of  love  to  him,  and  enabled 
him  to  carry  it  out  successfully.  This  was 
followed  in  1879  by  an  equally  good  '  Life 
of  St.  Hugh  of  Avalon,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,' 
though  of  course  he  had  here  to  come  into 
competition  with  the  '  Magna  Vita  '  (Rolls 
Ser.)  In  1886  appeared  a  yet  more  successful 
production  of  his  pen,  a  '  History  of  the  Re- 
formation in  England,'  written  for  the 
'  Epochs  of  Church  History '  series  edited 
by  Canon  (afterwards  Bishop)  Creighton[q.v. 
Suppl.]  This  work  gave  scope  for  the  de- 
velopment of  Perry's  most  characteristic 
merits — his  power  of  condensation  and  of 
seizing  the  salient  points  of  a  subject,  his 
fairness,  and  his  accuracy.  Moreover,  although 
Perry  was  a  good  all-round  historian,  the 
Reformation  period  was  that  with  which 
he  was  most  familiar.  The  volume  ranks 
among  the  best  of  an  excellent  series.  The 
same  merits  are  found  in  his  larger  publi- 
cation, '  The  Student's  English  Church  His- 
tory,' the  Second  Period  (1509-1717)  appear- 
ing in  1878,  the  First  Period  (596-1509)  in 
1881,  and  the  Third  Period  (1717-1884)  in 
1887.  He  also  left  two  posthumous  works. 
One  was  the  '  Diocesan  History  of  Lincoln,' 
for  the  series  published  by  S.P.C.K.  This 
he  took  up  after  the  death  of  Edmund  Vena- 
bles  [q.v.],  and  incorporated  in  it  the  work 
which  Venables  had  done.  It  was  not  pub- 
lished until  after  his  death,  in  1897  ;  but  he 
lived  just  long  enough  to  correct  the  final 
proofs.  The  other  was  the  '  Lives  of  the 
Bishops  of  Lincoln  from  Remigius  to  Words- 
worth.' In  this  he  had  been  engaged  for 
several  years  in  conjunction  with  Canon 
Overton,  to  whom  he  proposed  the  joint 
undertaking, '  as  a  pious  tribute  to  our  com- 
mon alma  mater '  (i.e.  Lincoln  College,  of 
which  bishops  of  Lincoln  were  founders, 
benefactors,  and  ex-officio  visitors),  but  the 
work  has  not  yet  (1901)  appeared.  Perry 
was  also  a  contributor  to  periodical  litera- 
ture and  to  the  '  Dictionary  of  National 


Biography.'  He  died  on  10  Feb.  1897,  and 
was  buried  in  Waddington  churchyard.  A. 
tablet  to  his  memory  in  Waddington  church 
and  a  window  in  the  chapter  house  of  Lin- 
coln Cathedral  were  erected  by  public  sub- 
scription. He  lost  his  wife  in  1877.  By 
her  he  had  three  sons  and  four  daughters, 
five  of  whom  are  now  living. 

[Personal  knowledge;  private  information; 
Perry's  Works,  passim ;  Mark  Pattison's  Me- 
moirs ;  Times,  11  Feb.  1897 ;  Athenaeum,  13  Feb. 
1897.]  J.  H.  0. 

PETERSON,  PETER  (1847-1899),  Sans- 
krit scholar,  the  son  of  John  Peterson, 
merchant  of  Leith,  and  Grace  Montford 
Anderson,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  on  12  Jan. 
1847.  His  father  and  paternal  grandfather 
were  natives  of  Shetland,  and  hence  Peter- 
son was  wont  to  describe  himself  as  a  Shet- 
lander.  From  the  high  school  at  Edin- 
burgh he  passed  to  the  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity, where  he  graduated  with  first-class 
honours  in  classics  in  1867.  It  was  here 
that  he  commenced  the  study  of  Sanskrit 
under  Professor  Aufrecht.  After  a  visit, 
partly  for  study,  to  Berlin,  he  proceeded  in 
1869  to  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in  which 
university  he  continued  Sanskrit  under 
Sir  Monier  Monier- Williams  [q.  v.  Suppl.] 
and  Friedrich  Max  Miiller  [q.  v.  Suppl.], 
gaining  the  Boden  (university)  scholarship 
in  Sanskrit  in  1870,  and  then  joining  Balliol 
College,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1872. 
On  2  Jan.  1873  he  joined  the  Indian  edu- 
cational service,  and  went  to  Bombay  as 
professor  in  Elphmstone  College.  He  also 
held  the  post  of  university  registrar  during 
the  greater  part  of  his  career.  During  his 
first  nine  years  in  India  Peterson  seems  to 
have  done  little  original  work.  Indeed  in 
1881  the  Bombay  government  actually  pro- 
posed to  transfer  him  to  a  chair  of  English, 
making  over  the  Sanskrit  teaching  to  Pro- 
fessor Bhandarkar  of  Poona.  In  1882,  how- 
ever, he  commenced  the  work  for  which  he 
will  be  chiefly  remembered,  the  search  for 
Sanskrit  manuscripts  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  Bombay  presidency  and  circle.  Many 
of  his  discoveries  were  of  high  literary  value, 
and  his  six  reports  on  the  search  (1883-99) 
are  in  every  sense  excellent  reading.  His 
exploration  of  Jain  literature  has  been  spe- 
cially appreciated.  Most  of  his  editions  of 
Sanskrit  texts  were  issued  in  the  '  Bombay 
Sanskrit  Series,'  of  which,  with  Professor 
Bhandarkar,  he  was  in  joint  charge.  Of 
these  the  most  important  were :  '  K  adambari ' 
(1883),  with  an  elaborate  introduction  con- 
taining parallels  with  the  analogous  romance 
literature  in  Greek,  and  the  anthologies 


Phayre 


262 


Phayre 


'  Sarngadhara-paddhati '   (1886)   and    '  Su- 
bhashitavali '  (1888),  the  latter  edited  jointly  j 
with  Pandit  Durgaprasad.     He  also  edited, 
mainly  for  educational  purposes,  but  with 
considerable  originality,   the  '  HitopadeSa '  i 
(1887),  portions  of  the  'Ramayana'  (1883),  ' 
and  of  the  '  Rigjeda '  (1888-92),  part  of  the  I 
last-named  being  accompanied  by  transla-  j 
tions   of  noteworthy  ability   as    to    style,  j 
though   the  notes  bear  evidence  of  hasty  ! 
work.     For  the    '  Bibliotheca    Indica '   he 
edited   (1890)   the  '  Nyayabindu '  with  its 
commentary,  a  Buddhist  text  discovered  by 
himself  in  a  Jain  library ;  and  he  was  en-  j 
gaged  at  the  time  of  his   decease   for  the 
same    series    with    a   Jain   Sanskrit    text,  ; 
'  Upamitibhava-prapaiica-katha,' three  num- 
bers of  which  have  been  issued. 

Peterson,  who   was   master  of  a  fluent 
English   style,   wrote    constantly    for    the  \ 
Bombay  daily  press,  and  made  some  attrac-  | 
tive  editions  of  English  classics  for  native  i 
use. 

As  an  official  and  resident  in  India  much 
of  Peterson's  success  was  due  to  his  tact  and  , 
sympathy  with  natives  of  all  classes.     This  j 
is  well  brought  out  in  the  speech  made  to  j 
the  Bombay  Asiatic  Society  on  the  occasion 
of  his  death  by  Professor  Bhandarkar,  whom 
he  was  appointed  to  supersede,  but  who  re-  j 
mained  one  of  his  closest  friends.     To  this 
also  was  due  his  success  in  unearthing  the 
jealously  concealed  manuscripts  of  the  Jains  j 
at  Cambay  and  elsewhere.    In  1883  the  uni-  ! 
versity  of  Edinburgh  conferred  on  him  the  | 
degree  of  D.Sc.  in  philology,  and  in  1895  he 
was  chosen  president  of  the  Bombay  branch 
of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  which  he  had 
often  served  as  secretary.     He  was  also  a 
popular  member  of  the  Bombay  municipal 
corporation. 

He  died  at  Bombay  on  28  Aug.  1899. 
Peterson  married,  on  29  Oct.  1872,  Agnes 
Christall,  who  died  in  September  1900. 
Several  children  of  the  marriage  survive, 
one  being  a  member  of  the  India  civil  ser- 
vice. 

[Personal  knowledge  ;  private  information  ; 
Peterson's  Works ;  Journals  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  (London),  and  of  its  Bombay  branch, 
1899 ;  obituaries  in  Advocate  of  India  and 
Athenaeum.]  C.  B. 

PHAYRE,  SIE  ROBERT  (1820-1897), 
general,  born  22  Jan.  1820,  was  son  of 
Richard  Phayre  of  Shrewsbury,  and  brother 
of  General  Sir  Arthur  Purves  Phayre  [q.  v.] 
He  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  school  and 
commissioned  as  ensign  in  the  East  India 
Company's  service  on  26  Jan.  1839,  being 
posted  to  the  25th  Bombay  native  infantry, 


and  became  lieutenant  on  1  Dec.  1840.  He 
served  in  the  first  Afghan  war  with  his 
regiment,  was  engaged  with  the  Beloochs 
under  Nusseer  Khan  at  Kotra  and  Gandava 
in  December  1840,  and  was  mentioned  in 
despatches.  He  took  part  in  the  Sind  cam- 
paign of  1843,  and  was  severely  wounded 
at  Meeanee.  He  was  again  mentioned  in 
despatches  for  gallant  conduct  by  Sir  Charles 
Napier  (London  Gazette,  9  May  1843).  In 
1844  he  was  appointed  assistant  quarter- 
master-general in  Sind,  and  from  1851  to 
1856  was  specially  employed  in  clearing 
mountain  roads  in  the  Southern  Mahratta 
country.  In  1856-7  he  carried  out  the 
departmental  arrangements  connected  with 
the  Persian  expedition.  In  March  1857  he 
was  appointed  quartermaster-general  to  the 
Bombay  army,  and  acted  in  this  capacity 
throughout  the  mutiny,  his  services  being 
warmly  commended  by  Sir  Hugh  Rose  (Lord 
Strathnairn)  on  15  May  1860.  He  held  this 
office  till  1808.  He  had  become  captain  in 
his  regiment  on  28  Dec.  1848.  and  was  made 
brevet  major  on  16  June  1857,  and  major  in 
the  Bombay  staff  corps  on  18  Feb.  1861. 

He  became  brevet  lieutenant-colonel  on 
6  Jan.  1863,and  colonel  five  years  afterwards. 
He  took  part  in  the  Abyssinian  expedition 
as  quartermaster-general,  was  mentioned  in 
despatches  (London  Gazette,  30  June  1868), 
was  made  C.B.  and  aide-de-camp  to  Queen 
Victoria,  and  received  the  medal. 

From  1868  to  1872  he  was  political 
superintendent  of  the  Sind  frontier,  and 
commandant  of  the  frontier  force.  In  March 
1873  he  was  appointed  resident  at  Baroda. 
He  made  strong  representations  of  the  mis- 
government  of  the  gaekwar,  Malhar  Rao, 
and  a  commission  which  investigated  his 
charges  found  that  they  were  substantially 
proved.  The  gaekwar  received  a  warning 
and  was  advised  to  change  his  minister,  but 
matters  did  not  improve.  The  friction  be- 
tween the  resident  and  the  gaekwar  in- 
creased, and  at  the  instigation  of  the  latter 
an  attempt  was  made  on  9  Nov.  1874  to 
poison  Phayre,  by  putting  arsenic  and  dia- 
mond dust  in  his  sherbet.  The  Baroda 
trial  followed,  and  the  deposition  of  the 
gaekwar  on  23  April  1875.  But  the  Indian 
government  had  previously  decided  to  change 
the  resident  at  Baroda,  and  Phayre,  declin- 
ing to  resign,  was  superseded  by  Sir  Lewis 
Pelly  on  25  Nov.  1874. 

Reverting  to  military  employment,  Phayre 
commanded  a  brigade,  first  in  Bombay  and 
afterwards  in  Rajputana,  from  10  May  1875 
to  4  May  1880.  Having  been  promoted 
major-general  on  1  Jan.  1880,  he  was  then 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  reserve 


Phillips 


263 


Phillips 


division  of  the  army  engaged  in  the  second 
campaign  of  the  second  Afghan  war,  and  had 
charge  of  the  line  of  communication  by 
Quetta  to  Kandahar.  After  the  disaster  of 
Maiwand,  on  27  July,  he  was  directed  to 
push  forward  to  Kandahar,  besieged  by 
Ayoub  Khan ;  but  he  was  delayed  by  want 
of  troops  and  transport,  and  Kandahar  was 
delivered  by  General  (afterwards  Earl)  Ro- 
berts from  Kabul  before  his  arrival.  He  was 
mentioned  in  despatches  {London  Gazette, 
3  Dec.  1880  and  25  Jan.  1881),  was  included 
in  the  vote  of  thanks  of  parliament,  was 
made  K.C.B.  on  22  Feb.  1881,  and  received 
the  medal. 

He  commanded  a  division  of  the  Bombay 
army  from  1  March  1881  to  2  March  1886, 
when  the  Bombay  government  paid  a  high 
compliment  to  his  services  on  his  retire- 
ment. For  some  months  previously  he  had 
acted  as  provincial  commander-in-chief  at 
Bombay.  On  22  Jan.  1887  he  was  placed  on 
the  unemployed  supernumerary  list.  He  had 
become  lieutenant-general  on  1  Nov.  1881, 
and  became  general  on  22  Jan.  1889.  He 
received  the  G.O.B.  on  26  May  1894.  He 
died  in  London  on  28  Jan.  1897.  In  1846 
he  had  married  Diana  Bunbury,  daughter  of 
Arnold  Thompson,  formerly  paymaster  of 
the  81st  regiment.  She  survived  him.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  religious  and  philan- 
thropic movements,  and  published  some 
pamphlets  in  1890:  1.  'The  Bible  versus 
Corrupt  Christianity.'  '  2.  '  The  Foundation 
of  Rock  or  of  Sand :  which  ? '  (in  reply  to 
Henry  Drummond).  3.  '  Monasticism  un- 
veiled.' 

[Times,  29  Jan.  1897  ;  Thornton's  Life  of  Sir 
Richard  Meade  ;  Roberts's  Forty-one  Years  in 
India;  Official  Record  of  the  Expedition  to 
Abyssinia.]  E.  M.  L. 

PHILLIPS,  MOLESWORTH  (1755- 
1832),  lieutenant-colonel  and  companion  of 
Captain  Cook,  born  on  15  Aug.  1755,  was 
son  of  John  Phillips  of  Swords,  co.  Dublin. 
His  father  was  a  natural  son  of  Richard 
Molesworth,  third  viscount  Molesworth 
'  [q.  v.],  whence  Phillips  acquired  his  Chris- 
tian name.  He  first  entered  the  royal  navy, 
but  on  the  advice  of  his  friend  Sir  Joseph 
Banks  [o^.  v.]  he  accepted  a  commission  as 
second  lieutenant  in  the  royal  marines  on 
17  Jan.  1776.  In  this  capacity  he  was 
selected  to  accompany  Captain  Cook  on  his 
last  voyage,  extending  over  nearly  three  years 
[see  COOK,  JAMES].  He  sailed  with  Cook  from 
Plymouth  on  12  July  1776,  and  was  with 
the  marines  who  escorted  Cook  when  he 
landed  at  Hawaii  on  14  Feb.  1779.  In 
Webber's  picture  of  the  '  Death  of  Captain 


Cook '  Phillips  is  represented  kneeling  and 
firing  at  the  native  who  was  clubbing  Cook. 
Phillips  was  himself  wounded,  but,  having 
remained  to  the  last  on  the  shore,  swam  for 
the  boats.  Once  he  turned  back  and  helped 
another  wounded  marine  to^  the  boats.  His 
gallantry  was  in  marked  contrast  with  the 
conduct  of  John  Williamson,  a  fellow-lieu- 
tenant of  marines,  who,  having  remained  a 
passive  spectator  of  the  scene,  frequently 
quarrelled  with  Phillips  on  the  voyage  home, 
and  was  eventually  cashiered  for  cowardice 
at  Camperdown,  a  sentence  which  Nelson 
thought  ought  to  have  been  capital  (NELSON, 
Despatches,  iii.  2). 

On  1  Nov.  1780  Phillips  was  promoted 
captain,  and  on  10  Jan.  1782  he  married 
Susanna  Elizabeth,  third  daughter  of  Dr. 
Charles  Burney  (1726-1814)  [q.  v.],  and 
sister  of  Madame  D'Arblay  and  of  James 
Burney  [q.  v.],  Phillips's  friend,  who,  like 
him,  had  accompanied  Cook  on  his  last 
voyage.  This  marriage  brought  Phillips  into 
connection  with  the  Burneys'  literary  and 
musical  friends — Dr.  Johnson,  Mrs.  Thrale, 
and  others.  He  had  no  further  active  service, 
but  was  promoted  brever  major  on  1  March 
1794,  and  brevet  lieutenant-colonel  on  1  Jan. 
1798.  From  1784,  for  the  sake  of  his  wife's 
health,  he  lived  for  a  time  at  Boulogne,  but 

j  after  the  French  revolution  the  Phillipses 
resided  chiefly  at  Mickleham,  Surrey,  not  far 

!  from  Juniper  Hall,  where  Madame  D'Arblay 
entertained  numbers  of  French  emigres. 
From  1796  to  1799,  during  the  alarm  of  a 
French  invasion  of  Ireland,  Phillips  felt  it 
his  duty  to  reside  on  the  Irish  estates  at 
Beleotton,  which  he  had  inherited  from  an 
uncle.  On  6  Jan.  1800  his  wife  died.  She 
was  buried  at  Neston  on  the  12th. 

After  the  peace  of  Amiens,  Phillips  visited 
France  in  1802,  and  he  was  one  of  those  who 
were  seized  by  Napoleon  on  the  renewal  of 
the  war,  and  detained  in  France  until  the 
peace  of  1814  (ALGER,  Englishmen  in  the 
French  Revolution,  p.  278).  During  this  de- 
tention he  made  friends  with  Talleyrand  and 
other  well-known  Frenchmen.  After  his  re- 
turn to  England  he  became  acquainted  with 
Southey,  Mary  and  Charles  Lamb,  who  de- 
scribed him  as  'the  high-minded  associate  of 
Cook,  the  veteran  colonel,  with  his  lusty 
heart  still  sending  cartels  of  defiance  to 
old  Time'  (LAMB,  Works,  ed.  Fitzgerald,  vi. 
75),  and  with  John  Thomas  Smith  (1766^ 
1833)  [q.  v.],  whom  he  supplied  with  various 
anecdotes  for  his  '  Nollekens  and  his  Times' 
(i.  164,  200,  ii.  218).  He  died  of  cholera 
at  his  house  in  Lambeth  on  11  Sept.  1832, 
and  was  buried  in  St.  Margaret's,  West- 
minster, where  an  inscription  commemorates 


Phipps 


264 


Phipps 


him  and  James  aud  Martin  Burney  (1788- 
1852). 

By  Susanna  Burney  Phillips  had  issue  two 
sons, NorburyandWilliam, and  one  daughter, 
Frances,  who  kept  house  for  her  grandfather, 
Dr.  Burney,  and  married  C.  C.  Raper  (A.  It. 
ELLIS,  Early  Diary  of  Frances  Burney,  1889, 
ii.  270).  Phillips  also  left  issue  by  a  second 
marriage. 

[Gent.  Mag.  1832,  ii.  385-6  ;  Annual  Register, 
1832;  Army  List,  1830,  pp.  22,  361 ;  Ledyard's 
Journal,  1783,  pp.  143-9;  Biogr.  Britannica,  ed. 
Kippis,  iv.  233 ;  Kippis's  Narrative  of  Cook's 
Voyage  round  the  World  ;  Samwell's  Narrative 
of  the  Death  of  Captain  Cook,  pp.  11,  13.  15; 
Cook's  Voyage  to  the  Pacific,  e-l.  James  King, 
iii.42  6,  53-4,  425-36;  William  Ellis's  Authen- 
tic Narrative,  1782,  ii.  110-1]  ;  Manley  Hop- 
kins's  Hawaii  Past  and  Present,  ed.  1866,  p. 
112;  Besant's  Captain  Cook,  pp.  154,160-2, 
179  ;  Diary  and  Letters  of  Madame  D'Arbky, 
ed.  1844-6,  ii.  5,  110-11,  317,  v.  passim;  G.  T. 
Smith's  Nollekens  and  his  Times  ;  A.  R.  Ellis's 
Early  Diary  of  Francis  Bnrney  ;  notes  and  refe- 
rences kindly  supplied  by  Major  G.  H.  Johnston ; 
authorities  cited.]  A.  F.  P. 

PHIPPS,  CHARLES  JOHN  (1835- 
1897),  architect,  son  of  John  Rashleigh 
Phipps  and  his  wife  Elizabeth  Ruth  Neate, 
was  born  at  Lansdowne,  near  Bath,  in  1835, 
and  was  articled  in  the  office  of  Wilcox  & 
Fuller  of  that  city,  with  whom  he  remained 
till  1857.  After  a  year's  travel  he  opened 
practice  in  Bath,  and  was  successful  in  1862 
with  a  design  for  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Bath  Theatre,  which  was  completed  in  1863, 
and  which  marked  the  direction  of  a  future 
career,  at  variance  both  with  the  wishes  of 
his  parents,  who  disapproved  of  theatres, 
and  with  his  training,  which  was  Gothic  and 
ecclesiastical.  Phipps's  early  designs  for 
buildings  and  furniture  may  be  classed  with 
the  school  of  Godwin  and  Burges,  whereas 
the  theatrical  works  which  rapidly  followed 
his  first  success  were  naturally  conceived 
in  the  more  appropriate  classic  manner. 

On  transferring  his  office  to  London  Phipps 
became  recognised  as  an  authority  on  theatre 
construction,  and  erected  or  altered  more 
than  a  score  of  playhouses  in  London  alone. 
The  Gaiety  was  the  first  in  date,  and  it  was 
followed  by  the  construction  or  alteration 
of  the  Queen's,  Long  Acre  (since  destroyed), 
Vaudeville,  Strand,  Sadler's  Wells,  Variety 
(Hoxton),  Haymarket,  Savoy,  Princess's, 
Prince  of  Wales's,  Shaftesbury  (1888),  Lyric 
(1889),  Hengler's  Cirque  (subsequently 
altered  by  Phipps  to  serve  as  a  skating 
palace),  the  theatre  of  the  Lvric  Club,  and 
finally,  his  principal  work  (completed  in 
1897),  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  Haymarket. 


He  reconstructed  the  stage  and  auditorium 
of  the  Lyceum,  Comedy,  St.  James's,  and 
Globe,  and  superintended  the  erection  of 
the  Garrick  in  1889  and  the  Tivoli  in  1890. 
Phipps  was  associated  with  Mr.  T.  E. 
Knightley  in  the  planning  of  the  Queen's 
Hall,  Langham  Place,  but  the  elevations 
are  attributable  to  the  latter  (see  Builder, 
1897,  Ixxii.  519).  Outside  London  Phipps 
designed  the  Theatres  Royal  at  Plymouth, 
Torquay,  Brighton,  Eastbourne,  Swansea, 
Worcester,  Nottingham,  Sheffield,  South 
Shields,  Darlington,  and  Portsmouth,  at 
which  last  he  also  designed  the  Empire 
Palace.  For  Bristol  he  constructed  the 
Prince's  Theatre ;  for  Hastings  the  Gaiety  ; 
for  Wolverhampton  and  Dover  the  Grand 
and  the  Tivoli  respectively ;  and  for  Liver- 
pool he  both  built  the  Rotunda  and  re- 
modelled the  Alexandra.  Phipps  designed 
the  opera  houses  at  Leicester,  Northampton, 
and  Leamington,  and  there  are  further  speci- 
mens of  his  theatre  work  in  Scotland  at  Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow,  Dumfries,  and  Aberdeen,  in 
Ireland  at  Dublin,  Belfast,  Londonderry,  and 
Cork.  He  twice  rebuilt  (1873  and  1883)  the 
Theatre  Royal  at  Glasgow,  and  also  twice 
rebuilt  (1880,  1895)  the  theatre  of  the  same 
name  at  Edinburgh,  where  he  also  carried 
out  the  Lyceum.  His  works  at  Dublin  are 
the  Gaiety  and  the  Leinster  Hall.  Phipps's 
principal  designs  of  a  non-theatrical  cha- 
racter were  the  Devonshire  Club,  St.  James's 
Street ;  the  Carlton  Hotel,  Haymarket, 
part  of  the  same  design  as  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  which  was  carried  out  and  modified 
|  after  his  death;  the  Lyric  Club,  Lyric 
Chambers,  and  flats  in  Shaftesbury  Avenue ; 
various  business  premises  in  the  Strand, 
Ludgate  Hill,  and  Moorgate  Street ;  the 
Savoy  Turkish  Baths  and  the  militia  bar- 
racks at  Bath.  For  fifteen  years  he  was  ad- 
vising architect  to  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  and 
was  consulted  by  committees  of  the  House 
of  Commons  and  by  colonial  governments 
on  questions  of  theatre  construction  and 
acoustics.  He  was  a  fellow  (1866)  of  the 
Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  serv- 
ing on  its  council  in  1875-6,  and  also 
of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  He  died 
at  26  Mecklenburgh  Square  on  25  May 
1897. 

Phipps  married  on  10  April  1860  Miss 
Honnor  Hicks,  by  whom  he  had  issue  two 
sons  and  three  daughters.  For  some  time 
previous  to  his  death  he  had  been  associated 
in  partnership  with  his  son-in-law,  Mr. 
Arthur  Blomfield  Jackson. 

[R.I.B.A.  Journal,  1897,  iv.  380;  Builder, 
1897,  Ixxii.  488;  Biograph.iv.  399-402;  private 
information.]  P.  W. 


Pickersgill 


26; 


Pickersgill 


PICKERSGILL,  FREDERICK  RI- 
CHARD (1820-1900),  historical  painter, 
son  of  Richard  Pickersgill,  a  naval  officer,  and 
Anne  Witherington,  and  nephew  of  Henry 
William  Pickersgill  (1782-1875)  [q.v.],  was 
born  in  London  on  25  Sept.  1820.  He  re- 
ceived his  first  instruction  in  drawing  from 
his  maternal  uncle,  William  Frederick 
Witherington  (1785-1865)  [q.v.],  and  en- 
tered the  Royal  Academy  schools  at  an 
early  age.  In  1839  he  exhibited  his  first 
picture,  '  The  Brazen  Age,'  a  subject  from 
Hesiod,  at  the  Royal  Academy.  This  was 
followed  by  '  The  Combat  between  Hercules 
and  Achelous '  (1840),  '  Amoret's  Deliver- 
ance from  the  Enchanter'  (1841),  'tEdipus 
cursing  his  son  Polynices '  (1842),  and 
'  Dante's  Dream,'  a  subject  from  the '  Purga- 
torio,'  canto  27  (1843).  In  1843  his  cartoon 
'  The  Death  of  King  Lear '  gained  one  of 
the  additional  prizes  of  100/.  at  the  West- 
minster Hall  competition  for  the  decoration 
of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament ;  a  litho- 
graph of  this  composition,  by  Frank  Howard, 
appeared  in  the  same  year.  In  1844  he 
exhibited  at  Westminster  Hall  a  fresco, 
'  Sir  Calepine  rescuing  Serena,'  which  did 
not  obtain  a  prize.  A  series  of  academy 
pictures,  illustrating  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene,'  of  which  the  first  had  appeared  in 
1841,  was  continued  by  'Florimel  in  the 
Cottage  of  the  Witch,'  1843  (engraved  by 
Periam  for  the  'Art  Journal'),  'Amoret, 
^Emylia,  and  Prince  Arthur  in  the  Cottage 
of  Sclaunder,'  1845,  'Idleness'  and  'The 
Contest  of  Beauty  for  the  Girdle  of  Flori- 
mel,'  1848.  Later  pictures  of  this  series 
were  a  second  '  Idleness,'  1852,  and  '  Brito- 
mart  Unarming,'  1855.  A  spirited  scene 
from  '  Comus '  was  exhibited  in  1844,  and  a 
subject  from  the  history  of  Venice  in  1846. 

These  early  works  had  given  evidence  of 
considerable  power,  and  their  colour  showed 
the  influence  of  William  Etty  [q.  v.],  with- 
out suffering  from  the  same  faults  of  draw- 
ing ;  but  it  was  in  1847  that  Pickersgill  first 
became  prominent  as  a  rising  artist.  His 
academy  picture  of  that  year  represented 
early  Christians  in  a  chapel  in  the  catacombs, 
but  a  much  more  important  work  was  '  The 
Burial  of  Harold  at  Waltham  Abbey,'  exhi- 
bited at  Westminster  Hall.  A  first-class 
prize  of  500/.  was  awarded  to  this  picture, 
and  it  was  at  once  purchased  for  an  equal 
sum  for  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  An  en- 
graving of  it  by  F.  Bacon  was  published  in 
1851  for  the  Art  Union  of  London.  As  the 
result  of  his  achievements  of  1847  Pickersgill 
was  elected,  on  1  Nov.  in  that  year,  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy  at  the  unusu- 
ally early  age  of  twenty-seven.  He  then 


removed  from  8  Leigh  Street,  Burton  Cres- 
cent, his  residence  since  1839,  to  36  Morn- 
ington  Crescent,  Hampstead  Road.  This 
was  his  home  till  1865 ;  he  then  lived  at 
East  Moulsey,  Surrey,  till  1873,  when  his 
appointment  as  keeper  of  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy gave  him  an  official  residence  at  Bur- 
lington House. 

In  1849  he  exhibited  'Circe  with  the 
Syrens  Three,'  from  '  Orlando  Furioso  ; '  in 
1850,  his  most  productive  year,  '  Samson 
Betrayed,'  '  The  Rape  of  Proserpine,'  '  A 
Scene  during  the  Invasion  of  Italy  by 
Charles  VIII,'  and  three  sketches  from  the 
story  of  '  Imalda ;'  in  1851,  a  subject  from 
Tasso  ;  in  1852, '  Pan  and  Syrinx  '  and  '  The 
Adoration  of  the  Magi;'  in  1853  and  1854, 
scenes  from  Venetian  history,  one  of  which, 
'The  Death  of  Francesco  Foscari'  (1854), 
was  bought  by  the  prince  consort.  '  Chris- 
tian being  conducted  into  the  Valley  of 
Humiliation'  (engraved  by  Greatbach  for 
the  '  Art  Journal ')  appeared,  with  '  John 
sending  his  Disciples  to  Christ,'  in  1855 ; 
'Christ  blessing  little  Children  '  and  a  scene 
from  '  Love's  Labour's  Lost '  in  1856 ;  '  The 
Duke  Orsino  and  Viola '  in  1857.  In  June 
of  that  year  Pickersgill  was  elected  to  full 
membership  of  the  Royal  Academy.  His 
diploma  picture,  a  Spanish  subject  entitled 
'  The  Bribe,'  was  his  sole  contribution  to 
the  exhibition  of  1858.  '  Warrior  Poets  of 
the  South  of  Europe  contending  in  Song ' 
and  '  Dalila  asking  Forgiveness  of  Samson ' 
were  the  pictures  of  1859;  in  1860  he  was 
absent,  but  in  the  following  year  he  exhi- 
bited subjects  from  'As  you  like  it'  and 
4  The  Tempest,'  and  '  Pirates  of  the  Medi- 
terranean playing  Dice  for  Prisoners,'  which 
was  engraved  by  Ridgway  for  the  'Art 
Journal.'  The  Return  of  a  Crusader'  ap- 
peared in  1862,  '  Isabella,  Duchess  of  Cla- 
rence,' in  1863,  a  subject  from  Shakespeare 
in  1864, '  A  Royalist  Family,  1651,'  in  1865, 
'  Lovers '  in  1866,  '  Columbus  at  Lisbon '  in 

1868,  'A  Honiton   Lace  Manufactory'  in 

1869,  and  '  Mary  Stuart  accused  of  Partici- 
pation in  her  Husband's  Murder'  in  1871. 
Pickersgill  did  not  exhibit  in  1867  or  1870, 
and  the  picture  of  1871  was  his  last,  with 
the  exception  of  a  pathetic  subject  with  a 
quotation  from  Tennyson's  '  Mariana  in  the 
South,'  ending  with  the  words  '  To  live  for- 
gotten and  die  forlorn,'  which  was  exhibited 
in  1875.     He  still,  however,  took  an  active 
interest  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  held 
the  offices  of  keeper  and  trustee  from  1873 
to  1887.     In  1888  he  retired  finally  from 
the  academy,  and  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life  at  the  Towers,  Yarmouth,  Isle  of 
Wight,  where  he  died  on  20  Dec.  1900. 


Pickle  the  Spy  266 


Pitman 


Pickersgill  had  one  son,  who  predeceased 
him,  by  his  marriage,  on  5  Aug.  1847,  with 
Mary  Noorouz  Elizabeth,  eldest  daughter  of 
James  Hook,  judge  in  the  mixed  commis- 
sion courts  of  Sierra  Leone,  Africa,  and 
sisterof  Mr.  J.  C.  Hook,  R.A.  Mrs.  Pickers- 
gill  died  on  21  June  1886. 

A  portrait  of  Pickersgill,  painted  by  Henry 
Gibbs,  is  in  the  possession  of  his  son's  widow, 
and  a  plaster  bust  made  by  H.  Montford  in 
1887,  an  excellent  likeness  of  the  painter, 
belongs  to  Miss  C.  J.  Hook  of  Bognor. 

Pickersgill  was  not  a  prolific  painter,  for 
he  exhibited  only  fifty  pictures  at  the  aca- 
demy, and  six  at  the  British  Institution 
(1841-7),  during  the  thirty-seven  years  of 
his  active  career.  His  British  Institution 
pictures  included  a  subject  from  Spenser, 
scenes  from  '  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew '  and 
'  King  Henry  IV,  Pt.  I,'  actiii.  sc.  1,  'Huon 
and  Amanda '  from  Wieland's  '  Oberon,'  and 
'  Gaston  de  Foix  before  the  Battle  of  Ra-  ] 
venna.'  Among  other  works  may  be  men- 
tioned '  The  Fairy  Yacht,'  an  engraving  of 
which,  by  F.  Bacon,  was  published  in  1856, 
and  'The  Birth  of  Christianity,'  which 
formed  part  of  the  Jones  bequest  (1882)  to 
the  South  Kensington  Museum.  His  design 
for  a  lunette  in  fresco  in  the  large  hall  of 
the  same  museum,  '  The  Industrial  Arts  in 
Time  of  Peace,'  was  not  carried  out ;  a  sketch 
and  a  finished  design  for  this  subject  are  the 
property  of  the  museum.  His  work  was  of 
a  kind  now  out  of  fashion  ;  but  it  had  solid 
technical  merits,  while  few  artists  of  his 
period  had  so  much  genuine  imagination  or 
were  so  happily  inspired  by  the  masterpieces 
of  English  poetry.  In  addition  to  his  oil- 
paintings  Pickersgill  designed  illustrations 
to  Massinger's  '  Virgin  Martyr '  (1844),  Mil- 
ton's '  Comus '  (1858),  and  Poe's  '  Poetical 
Works '  (1858).  He  issued  six '  Compositions 
from  the  Life  of  Christ,'  engraved  on  wood 
by  Dalziel,  in  1850,  and  illustrated  the 
'  Lord's  Prayer,'  jointly  with  H.  Alford,  in 
1870.  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  Dal- 
ziel's  Bible  Gallery  (1881). 

[Morning  Post,  22  Dec.  1900;  Athenaeum, 
29  Dec.  1900:  Royal  Academy  and  British  In- 
stitution Catalogues ;  private  information.] 

C.  D. 

PICKLE  THE  SPY,  pseudonym.  [See 
MACDONELL,  ALASTAIR  RUADH  *  ( 1725  ?- 
1761),  thirteenth  chief  of  Glengarry. 

PITMAN,  SIR  ISAAC  (1813-1897),  the 
inventor  of  phonography,  born  at  Trow-  j 
bridge,  Wiltshire,  on  4  Jan.  1813,  was  son 
of  Samuel  Pitman,  who  then  held  the  post 
of  overseer  in  an  extensive  cloth  factory,  and 
who  afterwards  established  a  factory  of  his 


own.  He  acquired  the  rudiments  of  an 
English  education  in  the  grammar  school  of 
his  native  town,  but  he  left  it  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  and  subsequently  received  lessons 
from  a  private  teacher  in  his  father's  house. 
In  1831  it  was  decided  that  he  should  be- 
come a  schoolmaster,  and  he  accordingly 
went  through  a  brief  course  of  training  at 
the  college  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
School  Society  in  Borough  Road,  London. 
He  was  sent  in  January  1832  to  take  charge 
of  an  endowed  school  at  Barton-on-Humber, 
Lincolnshire.  Four  years  later  he  removed  to 
Wotton-under-Edge,  Gloucestershire,  where 
he  was  invited  by  a  committee  to  establish 
a  school  on  the  model  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  schools.  In  1837  he  was  dismissed 
from  the  mastership  because  he  had  given 
grave  offence  to  the  managers  by  joining1 
the  '  New  Church,'  founded  by  Emmanuel 
Swedenborg,  of  which  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life  he  was  a  devoted  adherent.  He 
was  also  a  strict  vegetarian.  In  June  1839 
he  settled  in  Bath,  and  established  at  5  Nel- 
son Place  a  private  school,  which  he  con- 
ducted till  1843. 

He  had  begun  to  learn  Taylor's  system  of 
shorthand  about  1829  [see  TAYLOR,  SAMUEL], 
and  it  was  this  apparently  trivial  circum- 
stance that  altered  the  whole  tenor  of  his 
career.  Having  derived  great  advantage  from 
the  use  of  the  system  in  the  saving  of  time, 
he  earnestly  desired  to  popularise  the  steno- 
graphic art  by  having  it  taught  in  schools 
as  part  of  the  ordinary  curriculum.  At 
that  period  there  were  no  cheap  shorthand 
manuals  in  existence.  He  therefore  drew 
up  a  brief  exposition  of  Taylor's  method, 
which  was  to  be  illustrated  with  two  plates 
and  sold  for  threepence.  This  he  forwarded 
in  the  spring  of  1837  to  Samuel  Bagster 
(1771-1852)  [q.  v.],  the  London  publisher, 
whose  friendship  he  had  previously  gained 
by  the  gratuitous  correction  of  references  in 
the  '  Comprehensive  Bible.'  The  manuscript 
was  shown  to  an  experienced  reporter,  who 
pronounced  against  the  reproduction  of  a 
system  already  in  the  market,  and  in  for- 
warding this  opinion  Bagster  intimated 
that  if  an  original  system  were  devised  by 
his  correspondent  he  would  undertake  the 
publication  of  it.  Pitman  at  once  set  to 
work,  and  on  15  Nov.  1837  '  Stenographic 
Sound-Hand '  made  its  appearance  in  the 
shape  of  a  little  fourpenny  book  with  two 
neatly  engraved  plates.  In  the  introduction 
the  inventor  set  forth  the  advantages  of  a 
system  of  shorthand  written  by  sound  over 
methods  which  followed  the  current  ortho- 
graphy. He  admitted  that  previous  short- 
hand authors  had  to  a  limited  extent 


Pitman 


267 


Pitman 


adopted  the  phonetic  principle,  though 
mainly  in  regard  to  the  consonants  ;  but  he 
supplied  a  greatly  improved  and  extended 
vowel  scale  which  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
original  feature  of  his  scheme.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  he  altogether  discarded  the 
looped  letters  of  the  Taylor  alphabet,  and 
assigned  the  small  circle,  with  an  alterna- 
tive character,  to  the  representation  of  the 
letter  *,  as  had  been  done  in  the  system  of 
William  Mason  (/.  1672-1709)  [q.  v.],  pub- 
lished in  1682.  He  also  introduced  the  prin- 
ciple of  '  pairing '  the  consonants  and  of 
'  shading,'  or  the  use  of  thin  and  thick 
strokes  for  indicating  cognate  consonants. 
In  this  rare  booklet,  immature  and  incom- 
plete though  it  be,  the  stenographic  expert 
will  at  once  recognise  the  main  features  of 
the  present  highly  developed  system  of 
phonography. 

The  manuscript  of  the  second  edition  was 
ready  in  the  autumn  of  1839,  but  its  publi- 
cation was  deferred  till  the  penny  post  came 
into  operation  on  10  Jan.  1840.  It  then  ap- 
peared in  the  form  of  a  penny  plate  with 
this  title :  '  Phonography,  or  Writing  by 
Sound,  being  also  a  New  and  Natural  Sys- 
tem of  Short  Hand.'  Some  copies,  mounted 
on  canvas  and  bound  in  cloth,  with  two 
chapters  from  the  New  Testament  as  addi- 
tional exercises,  were  sold  at  one  shilling 
each.  Several  important  improvements  were 
introduced  into  this  second  edition.  The 
steel  plate  was  beautifully  engraved,  but  in 
almost  microscopic  characters,  so  that  it  was 
not  well  adapted  to  become  a  medium  for 
learning  the  system.  Copies  were,  however, 
widely  distributed  to  schoolmasters  all  over 
the  country,  and,  when  these  had  been  well 
circulated,  Pitman  began  his  phonographic 
propaganda  by  devoting  his  school  holidays 
to  lecturing  tours.  The  third  edition  of 
'  Phonography '  was  brought  out  at  the  close 
of  1840  in  an  octavo  volume,  with  fuller  ex- 
planations of  the  system,  and  altogether  better 
adapted  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  in  the 
art.  The  fourth  edition  appeared  in  1841, 
the  fifth  in  1842,  the  sixth  in  1844,  the 
seventh  in  1845,  the  eighth  in  1847,  the 
ninth  in  1852,  the  tenth  (with  a  new  vowel 
scale)  in  1857,  the  eleventh  in  1862,  and 
the  twelfth  in  1867.  There  were  many  later 
issues,  but  these  were  not  designated  as 
separate  editions.  In  addition  to  the  manuals, 
a  very  large  number  of  books  were  published 
in  illustration  of  the  system,  such  as  '  Copy 
Books,'  the  '  Class  Book,'  the  '  Exercises,'  the 
'  Teacher,'  the  '  Reporter's  Companion,'  and 
a  '  Phonetic  Shorthand  and  Pronouncing 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.'  Manx- 
standard  works  were  also  printed  in  the 


phonographic  shorthand  characters,  in- 
cluding the  Bible,  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  Bacon's  '  Essays,'  Bunyan's  '  Pil- 
grim's Progress,'  Cowper's  '  Poetical  Works,' 
Craik's  '  John  Halifax,'  Dickens's  '  Pickwick 
Papers '  and  '  Oliver  Twist,'  Goldsmith's 
'  Vicar  of  Wakefield,'  Hughes's  '  Tom 
Brown's  Schooldays,'  Washington  Irving's 
*  Tales  and  Sketches,'  Johnson's  '  Rasselas,' 
Macaulay's  '  Essays '  and  '  Biographies,'  Mil- 
ton's '  Paradise  Lost,'  More's  '  Utopia,' 
Scott's  '  Waverley,'  and  Swift's  '  Gulliver's 
Travels.' 

Meanwhile  the  phonographic  crusade  had 
met  with  extraordinary  success.  Pitman 
found  it  necessary,  in  1843,  to  give  up  his 
school,  and  to  abandon  travelling  and  lec- 
turing, in  order  to  devote  himself  to  the 
production  of  instruction  books  and  other 
literature.  By  this  time  other  labourers 
had  come  into  the  field,  to  whose  co-opera- 
tion the  progress  of  the  new  movement  was 
greatly  indebted.  His  brothers  Joseph  and 
Benjamin  (afterwards  known  in  America  as 
Benn  Pitman)  lectured  throughout  the 
country,  sometimes  together  and  sometimes 
separately.  Thomas  Allen  Reed  joined 
Joseph  Pitman  in  1843,  and,  having  acquired 
great  facility  as  a  phonographic  writer,  was 
able  to  demonstrate  by  practical  experiments 
the  capabilities  of  the  new  system  in  the 
hands  of  an  expert  penman.  Among  the 
other  lecturers  and  teachers  were  Pitman's 
brothers,  Henry  and  Frederick  in  England, 
and  Jacob  in  Australia.  From  time  to  time 
phonographic  'Festivals'  were  held,  at  which 
the  progress  already  made  was  reviewed, 
and  workers  in  the  cause  were  stimulated  to 
fresh  exertions.  A  '  Phonetic  Society '  was 
also  established.  This  enthusiastic  propa- 
ganda extended  to  America  and  Australia, 
and  wherever  the  English  tongue  was  spoken 
the  number  of  phonographers  daily  increased. 
At  the  present  time  phonography  is  doing 
nine-tenths  of  the  shorthand  writing  and 
reporting  of  the  English-speaking  communi- 
ties, and  there  is  no  other  stenographic 
system  that  can  approach  it  in  the  extent  to 
which  it  is  taught  and  used.  Among  short- 
hand clerks  and  amanuenses  Pitman's  is 
almost  the  only  method  employed.  Several 
variations  of  the  system  have  been  published 
in  the  United  States,  but  they  are  based  on 
the  original  alphabet.  The  framework  of 
phonography  has  been  subjected  to  severe 
criticism,  especially  by  Edward  Pocknell, 
Thomas  Anderson,  and  Hugh  L.  Callendar, 
who  have,  however,  failed  in  their  attempts 
to  devise  superior  systems  of  their  own. 
Pitman's  system  has  been  adapted  to  French, 
German,  Dutch,  Spanish,  Italian,  Welsh, 


Pitman 


268 


Pitt-Rivers 


Bengali,  Marathi,  Tamil,  Chinese,  Japanese,  ' 
and  Malagasy. 

Pitman  devoted  much  of  his  energy  to  the 
advancement  of  the  spelling  reform,  and  in 
1844  he  for  the  first  time  addressed  his 
readers  in  phonotypy,  or  a  phonetic  printing 
alphabet,  with  a  sufficient  number  of  new 
letters  to  supply  the  deficiencies  of  the  com- 
mon alphabet.  In  the  promotion  of  this 
movement  he  had  for  some  years  the  assistance  j 
of  Alexander  John  Ellis  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  The  j 
introduction  of  new  types,  although  it  made 
possible  the  use  of  a  scientifically  perfect 
alphabet,  proved  to  be  an  insurmountable 
obstacle  to  the  general  adoption  of  phonetic 
printing,  and  ai'ter  experiments  with  new 
types  extending  over  forty  years  Pitman 
adopted,  in  1883,  with  some  additions,  the 
rules  recommended  by  the  American  Spell- 
ing Reform  Association  and  the  American 
Philological  Society  in  order  to  secure  the 
phonetic  representation  of  the  language  with- 
out the  addition  of  new  letters  to  the  alpha- 
bet. Another  of  Pitman's  cherished  schemes 
for  the  introduction  of  a  duodecimal  method 
of  arithmetical  notation,  in  substitution  of 
the  decimal  numeration,  also  proved  abortive. 

From  1847  to  1855  the  first  Phonetic 
Institute  in  Albion  Place,  Bath,  was  the 
head-quarters  of  phonography  and  the  spell- 
ing reform ;  the  institute  was  removed  to 
Parsonage  Lane  in  1855,  to  Kingston's 
Buildings  in  1874,  and  finally  to  a  new 
building  in  the  suburbs  of  Bath  in  1889. 

The  first  International  Congress  and 
Jubilee  of  Phonography  were  jointly  cele- 
brated in  London  in  1887,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Earl  of  Rosebery.  On  this 
occasion  a  fine  bust  of  Pitman,  by  Thomas 
Brock,  was  presented  to  him  and  his  family. 
In  1889  a  replica  of  this  jubilee  bust  was 
presented  to  Pitman  by  the  citizens  of  Bath, 
and  it  was  placed  in  the  Royal  Literary 
and  Scientific  Institution  of  that  city.  On 
18  July  1894  Pitman  received  the  honour 
of  knighthood  '  at  Windsor  Castle,  on  the 
ground  of  his  great  services  to  stenography, 
and  the  immense  utility  of  that  art." 

Soon  afterwards  he  retired  from  partner- 
ship with  his  sons,  and  conferred  on  them  his 
interests  in  the  phonographic  text-books 
and  other  works  of  which  he  was  the  author. 
At  the  time  of  his  retirement  he  had  been 
uninterruptedly  engaged  in  the  work  con- 
nected with  his  invention  of  phonography  for 
fifty-seven  years,  and  had  edited  the  '  Pho- 
netic Journal '  for  fifty-two  years. 

He  died  at  Bath  on  22  Jan.  1897,  and  in 
accordance  with  his  wishes  his  remains  were 
cremated  at  Woking.  He  was  twice  mar- 
ried, first,  on  21  April  1861,  to  Isabella, 


daughter  of  James  Masters,  and  left  two 
sons.  Alfred  and  Ernest.  A  mural  tablet  to 
his  memory  was  unveiled  on  15  July  1901 
at  17  Royal  Crescent,  Bath,  where  Pitman 
resided  in  his  later  years. 

[Information  from  Alfred  Pitman,  esq. ;  Bio- 
graphy by  Thomas  Allen  Heed,  with  portraits, 
illustrations,  and  facsimiles,  1890;  Life  and  Work 
of  Pitman,  1894 ;  Phonetic  Journal,  1870,  p.  98, 
12  March  1887,  and  6  Feb.  1897  (with  portraits 
reproduced  from  the  Strand  Magazine) ;  Sir 
Isaac  Pitman's  Phonography  by  Alfred  Pitman, 
in  French  and  English,  Paris,  1900;  Anderson's 
Catechism  of  Shorthand;  Anderson's  Hist,  of 
Shorthand  ;  Anderson's  Shorthand  Systems ; 
Annual  Register,  1897,  Chron.  p.  141  ;  Callen- 
dar's  Manual  of  Cursive  Shorthand  ;  Christian 
Age,  23  Feb.  1887;  Gibons's  Bibliography  of 
Shorthand;  Harper's  Monthly,  Ix.  192;  Levy's 
Hist,  of  Shorthand;  Men  and  Women  of  the 
Time,  1895  ;  Rockwell's  Shorthand  Instruction 
and  Practice  (Washington,  1893);  Shorthand, 
a  magazine  ;  Transactions  of  the  International 
Shorthand  Congress,  1887 ;  Vegetarian  Mes- 
senger, May  1887.]  T.  C. 

PITT-RIVERS,  AUGUSTUS  HENRY 
LANE  FOX  (1827-1900),  lieutenant- 
general,  anthropologist,  and  archaeologist,  son 
of  William  Augustus  Lane  Fox  of  Hope 
Hall,  Yorkshire,  and  his  wife  Lady  Caroline, 
daughter  of  John  Douglas,  eighteenth  earl 
of  Morton,  was  born  on  14  April  1827.  He 
was  known  by  his  father's  surname  of  Lane 
Fox  until  1880,  when  he  assumed  the  name 
of  Pitt-Rivers  on  eventually  inheriting  the 
estates  of  his  great-uncle,  George  Pitt,  se- 
cond Baron  Rivers  (1751-1828).  He  was 
educated  at  Sandhurst  Military  College,  and 
received  a  commission  in  the  grenadier  guards 
in  1845.  His  subsequent  commissions  were 
dated :  captain  2  Aug.  1850,  brevet-major 
12  Dec.  1854,  major  15  May  1857,  lieutenant- 
colonel  22  Jan.  1867,  major-general  1  Oct. 
1877,  lieutenant-general  1  Oct.  1882.  He 
soon  showed  a  talent  for  organisation  and  ex- 
perimental research,  which  led  to  his  being 
employed  in  investigations  as  to  the  use  and 
improvement  of  the  rifle  in  the  early  times 
of  its  introduction  into  the  British  army. 
These  investigations  were  carried  on  by  him 
at  Woolwich,  Enfield,  Hythe,  and  Malta, 
between  1851  and  1857.  He  may  be  con- 
sidered the  originator  of  the  Hythe  school 
of  musketry,  of  which  he  brought  the  first 
plans  before  Lord  Hardinge,  and  for  which 
he  organised  the  system  of  practice  and  the 
education  of  musketry  instructors.  When 
stationed  at  Malta  he  had  the  duty  of  superin- 
tending the  training  of  the  troops  in  the 
new  musketry  practice,  at  the  critical  mo- 
ment when  his  successful  trials  had  led  to 


Pitt-Rivers 


269 


Pitt-Rivers 


their  being  armed  with  the  Minie  rifle  in 
place  of  the  smooth-bore  percussion  musket 
known  by  the  name  of '  Brown  Bess.'  This 
antiquated  weapon  was  finally  discarded  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  campaign,  the  new 
Enfield  rifle  coming  into  general  use.  Lane 
Fox  served  with  distinction  in  the  Crimean 
war,  where  he  was  present  at  the  battle  of  the 
Alma  and  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  was  men- 
tioned in  despatches,  and  placed  on  the  staff. 
He  remained  on  the  active  list  till  his  death, 
and  from  3  March  1893  was  colonel  of  the 
South  Lancashire  regiment. 

By  the  time  of  his  return  home,  however, 
the  unconscious  training  in  precise  methods 
which  he  had  acquired  in  the  course  of  his 
professional  work  was  already  leading  him 
into  the  scientific  career  which  henceforth 
took  the  largest  share  of  his  life.  In  exa- 
mining the  firearms  of  various  pattern  which 
came  under  his  notice  to  be  reported  on,  he 
became  aware  that  their  successive  changes 
did  not  result  from  far-reaching  steps  of  in- 
ventive imagination,  but  from  long  courses 
of  minute  and  even  accidental  alterations, 
taken  advantage  of  to  render  the  new  model 
an  improvement  on  its  predecessors.  The 
intermediate  stages  he  found  were  apt  to 
disappear  and  be  forgotten  after  having  led 
to  fresh  changes,  only  such  models  becoming 
established  as  reached  a  temporary  limit  of 
excellence,  while  often  they  branched  off  in 
useless  directions  and  became  abortive.  About 
this  time  of  Colonel  Fox's  life  the  tide  of 
scientific  thought  in  the  direction  of  biological 
evolution  had  fairly  set  in,  and  the  analogy 
of  the  doctrine  of  development  of  species  to 
what  he  perceived  to  be  the  normal  course  of 
human  invention  more  and  more  impressed 
his  mind.  In  order  to  follow  out  this  line 
of  thought,  he  collected  series  of  weapons 
till  they  lined  the  walls  of  his  London  house 
from  cellar  to  attic.  The  method  of  deve- 
lopment-series extending  itself  as  appro- 
priate generally  to  implements,  appliances, 
and  products  of  human  life,  such  as  boats, 
looms,  dress,  musical  instruments,  magical 
and  religious  symbols,  artistic  decoration, 
and  writing,  the  collection  reached  the 
dimensions  of  a  museum.  It  was  at  first 
housed  by  government  at  Bethnal  Green  and 
South  Kensington,  and  an  illustrated  cata- 
logue was  drawn  up  by  Fox  (Science  and  Art 
Department,  1874).  At  length,  the  available 
accommodation  no  longer  sufficing,  it  was 
presented  in  1883  to  the  university  of  Oxford, 
who  built  for  it  the  Pitt-Rivers  Museum  in 
connection  with  arrangements  for  a  lecture- 
ship of  anthropology.  Under  the  charge  of 
the  curator,  Mr.  H.  Balfour,  the  collection 
has  since  then  doubled,  while  the  soundness 


of  its  system  has  been  verified  by  the  manner 
in  which  the  main  principle  of  stages  of  de- 
velopment has  been  adhered  to.  Though  it 
might  not  be  desirable  that  the  development 
method  should  supersede  the  geographical  or 
national  arrangements  usual  in  museums  of 
human  art  and  history,  it  has  already  had  a 
marked  effect  in  promoting  their  use  as 
means  of  instruction,  and  superseding  the 
mere  curiosity  cabinets  of  past  centuries. 

In  connection  with  these  studies,  anthro- 
pology and  archaeology  naturally  divided  his 
attention.  Among  other  contributions  to 
the  study  of  palaeolithic  stone  implements, 
so  important  in  Europe  from  their  belonging 
to  the  remotely  ancient  period  of  the  extinct 
mammoth  and  rhinoceros,  he  confirmed  the 
discovery  of  Lord  Avebury  that  similar  im- 
plements characterised  the  earliest  stages  of 
culture  in  Egypt.  On  General  Pitt-Rivers 
removing  his  home  in  1880  to  Rushmore, 
in  the  midst  of  his  newly  inherited  estates 
on  the  Wiltshire  downs,  which  had  been 
deer  forest  till  two  generations  before,  he 
found  himself  the  owner  of  many  prehistoric 
monuments  scarcely  interfered  with  since 
the  ages  when  this  frontier-ground  between 
the  Romano-British  and  West  Saxons  had 
been  the  scene  of  their  long  struggle  for 
possession.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  con- 
genial task  of  exploring  villages,  forts,  and 
burial-mounds  scattered  over  Cranborne 
Chase  and  along  the  Wansdyke.  With  his 
usual  thoroughness  he  purged  himself  of  the 
great  fault  of  the  older  antiquaries,  that  of 
destroying  in  the  quest  of  antiquities  the 
ancient  structures  themselves.  The  large 
illustrated  volumes,  with  exact  drawings  and 
tables,  in  which  he  records  his  excavations, 
would  enable  a  modern  contractor  to  refur- 
nish the  tombs  and  forts  with  their  contents 
in  place.  The  carrying  out  of  this  work 
raised  English  archaeology  to  a  new  and 
higher  level.  In  addition,  accurate  models 
of  the  interments,  &c.,  were  placed  in  the 
local  museum  of  Farnham,  Dorset,  not  far 
from  Rushmore,  which  General  Pitt-Rivers 
built ;  there  also  he  made  the  experiment  of 
collecting,  as  a  means  of  popular  instruction, 
series  of  specimens  illustrating  the  develop- 
ment of  common  appliances,  such  as  ploughs, 
looms,  and  pottery.  General  Pitt-Rivers 
published  no  works  on  a  large  scale  except 
'  Excavations  in  Cranborne  Chase,  near 
Rushmore,  on  the  borders  of  Dorset  and 
Wilts  ; '  and  '  King  John's  House,'  privately 
printed  in  5  vols.  4to,  1887-98;  but  his 
lesser  writings,  '  Primitive  Locks  and 
Keys  '  (London,  1883),  '  Antique  Works  of 
Art  from  Benin '  (privately  printed,  1900), 
and  numerous  contributions  to  scientific 


Play  fair 


270 


Playfair 


periodicals  are  full  of  valuable  scientific 
observation.  He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in 
1876,  and  in  1886  received  from  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford  the  honorary  degree  of 
D.C.L.  He  was  a  vice-president  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  in  1881-2  presi- 
dent of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  of 
which  he  was  an  energetic  supporter.  On 
the  passing  of  the  Ancient  Monuments  Pre- 
servation Act  (1882),  he  became  the  first 
inspector  of  ancient  monuments. 

Pitt-Rivers  died  at  Rushmore  on  4  May 
1900.  In  1853  he  married  the  Hon.  Alice 
Margaret,  daughter  of  the  second  Baron 
Stanley  of  Alderley,  and  had  issue  six  sons 
and  three  daughters,  of  whom  the  second, 
Alice,  became  in  1884  the  second  wife  of 
Sir  John  Lubbock  (now  Lord  Avebury). 

[Journal  United  Service  Institution,  1858,  &c.; 
Journal  Anthropological  Institute ;  Journal  of 
Royal  Institution,  1875;  Archaeologia ;  Pro- 
ceedings of  Royal  Soc.  of  Antiquaries.] 

E.  B.  T. 

PLAYFAIR,  LYOX,  first  BARON  PIAT- 
FA.IR  of  St.  Andrews  (1818-1898),  was  born 
on  21  May  1818  at  Chunar,  Bengal,  and  was 
the  son  of  George  Playfair,  chief  inspector- 
general  of  hospitals  in  Bengal,  by  his  wife 
Janet,  daughter  of  John  Ross  of  Edinburgh. 
James  Playfair  [q.  v.]  was  his  grandfather ; 
Sir  Robert  Lambert  Playfair  [q.  v.  Suppl.j 
was  his  younger  brother. 

Lyon  was  sent  home  to  St.  Andrews,  the 
seat  of  his  father's  family,  at  the  age  of 
two,  and  received  his  early  education  at  the 
parish  school,  from  which  he  proceeded  to 
the  university  of  St.  Andrews  in  1832.  On 
leaving  this  university,  Playfair  spent  a  very 
short  time  in  Glasgow  as  clerk  in  the  office 
of  his  uncle,  James  Playfair,  and  then  (1835) 
commenced  to  study  for  the  medical  pro- 
fession, entering  the  classes  of  Thomas  Gra- 
ham [q.  v.]  in  chemistry  at  the  Andersonian 
Institute  in  Glasgow.  In  1837,  on  Graham's 
appointment  to  a  chair  in  London,  Playfair 
entered  the  classes  of  the  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity with  the  object  of  completing  his 
medical  course,  but  nis  health  broke  down 
and  he  was  compelled  to  abandon  his  work. 
He  then  visited  Calcutta,  where,  at  his  father's 
wish,  he  again  entered  a  business  house,  only 
to  leave  it  after  a  very  short  interval,  and 
return  to  England  to  resume  the  study  of 
chemistry.  After  spending  some  time  as 
private  laboratory  assistant  to  Graham  at 
University  College,  London,  he  worked  with 
Liebig  at  Giessen  (1839-40),  where  he  gra- 
duated Ph.D.  In  1841  he  became  chemical 
manager  of  Thomson's  calico  works  at  Prim- 
rose, near  Clitheroe,  but  resigned  this  posi- 
tion in  the  following  year,  and  was  appointed 


honorary  professor  of  chemistry  to  the  Royal 
Institution,  Manchester,  a  post  which  he 
occupied  until  1845. 

Playfair  had  visited  Giessen  at  the  moment 
when  Liebig,  at  the  height  of  his  fame  as  an 
investigator  and  teacher,  was  beginning  to 
turn  his  attention  to  the  applications  of  or- 
ganic chemistry  to  agriculture  and  vegetable 
physiology,  and  was  engaged  in  the  composi- 
tion of  his  celebrated  work  on  these  subjects. 
Playfair,  as  Liebig's  representative,  presented 
this  book  to  the  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  at  the  Glasgow 
meeting  (1840),  as  part  of  a  report  on  the 
state  of  organic  chemistry,  and  he  afterwards 
prepared  the  English  edition  of  the  book. 
Its  publication  attracted  the  attention  of 
scientific  men  interested  in  the  rational 
pursuit  of  agriculture,  to  which  Liebig's  in- 
fluence gave  a  great  impulse.  Consequently, 
when  Playfair  proposed  in  1842  to  apply  for 
the  professorship  of  chemistry  at  Toronto, 
Sir  Robert  Peel  was  induced  to  seek  an 
interview  with  him,  and  persuade  him  to 
stay  at  home.  Thenceforth  constant  use  was 
made  of  his  services  in  public  inquiries  and 
on  royal  commissions. 

In  1845  Playfair  was  appointed  chemist 
to  the  Geological  Survey,  afterwards  be- 
coming professor  in  the  new  School  of  Mines 
at  Jermyn  Street,  and  in  this  capacity  was 
engaged  in  many  investigations,  among  the 
most  important  of  which  were  the  determi- 
nation of  the  best  coals  for  steam  navigation, 
and  the  inquiry  into  the  condition  of  the 
potato  disease  in  Ireland  (1845). 

Although  Playfair  returned  from  Giessen 
in  1841,  inspired  with  something  of  Liebig's 
enthusiasm  for  research,  the  amount  of  purely 
scientific  investigation  which  he  carried  out 
was  relatively  small,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
his  time  was  largely  spent  in  inquiries  which 
rather  involved  the  practical  applications  of 
scientific  principles  than  the  discovery  of  new 
facts.  His  most  important  investigations 
are  those  on  the  nitroprussides,  a  new  class 
of  salts  which  he  discovered ;  on  the  atomic 
volume  and  specific  gravity  of  hydrated 
salts  (in  conjunction  with  Joule),  and  on  the 
gases  of  the  blast  furnace  (in  conjunction 
with  Bunsen).  He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in 
1848,  and  was  president  of  the  Chemical  So- 
ciety in  1857-9,  and  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion in  1885  at  Aberdeen,  while  he  twice 
acted  as  president  of  the  chemistry  section 
of  the  British  Association. 

In  1850  Playfair  was  appointed  a  special 
commissioner  and  member  of  the  executive 
committee  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  general  or- 
ganisation of  the  exhibition,  in  securing  the 


Play  fair 


271 


Play  fair 


adequate  representation  of  the  various  Bri- 
tish industries,  and  in  arranging  the  juries 
of  award  and  appeal,  as  well  as  in  the  judi- 
cious investment  of  the  large  surplus  that 
the  exhibition  realised.  His  services  in  these 
respects  were  rewarded  by  the  commander- 
ship  of  the  Bath,  and  by  his  appointment  to 
the  position  of  gentleman  usher  in  the  house- 
hold of  the  Prince  Consort.  His  connection 
with  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851  led  to  his 
taking  a  prominent  part  in  furthering  the 
Prince  Consort's  endeavours  to  secure  for 
the  nation  technical  instruction  in  the  appli- 
cation of  science  to  industry,  with  which  he 
was  in  full  agreement.  At  the  close  of  the 
exhibition  he  made  a  private  inquiry  into  the 
state  of  education  and  technical  instruction 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  lectured  on 
the  subject  after  nis  return. 

In  1853  the  department  of  Science  and 
Art  was  formed,  and  Playfair  was  made 
secretary  for  science,  Sir  Henry  Cole  [q.  v.] 
occupying  a  similar  position  for  art.  In  185'5 
the  department  was  reorganised,  and  Play- 
fair  was  made  secretary  of  the  united  depart- 
ments. As  secretary  of  the  Science  and  Art 
department  Playfair  took  a  leading  share  in 
the  organisation  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Science  and  the  South  Kensington  Museum, 
afterwards  (1899)  renamed  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum. 

On  the  death  of  William  Gregory  (1803- 
1858)  [q.  v.]  in  1858  Playfair  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  chemistry  at  Edinburgh,  which 
he  occupied  until  1869.  On  his  appointment 
he  resigned  his  post  in  the  Prince  Consort's 
household  and  in  the  Science  and  Art  de- 
partment, but  was  still  engaged  largely  in 
public  work,  serving  on  many  royal  com- 
missions, and  taking  an  active  part  in  the 
exhibition  of  1862. 

The  various  committees  of  inquiry  and 
royal  commissions  in  which  he  took  a  leading 
part  included  those  on  the  health  of  towns, 
the  herring  fishery,  the  cattle  plague,  the 
civil  service  (which  was  reorganised  on  the 
'  Playfair  scheme'),  the  Scottish  universities, 
endowed  schools,  and  the  Thirlmere  water 
scheme.  But  these  employments  did  not  by 
any  means  exhaust  his  activity.  In  1869  he 
became  a  member  of  the  commission  of  the 
1851  exhibition,  and  in  1874  was  appointed 
a  member  of  the  committee  of  inquiry  which 
undertook  the  management  of  the  commis- 
sion's business  affairs.  In  1883  he  became 
honorary  secretary  of  this  committee,  and 
succeeded  in  bringing  about  a  most  important 
improvement  in  its  financial  prospects,  which 
at  the  time  of  his  appointment  were  most 
unsatisfactory.  The  surplus  funds  of  the  ex- 
hibition had  been  invested  in  land  at  South 


Kensington,  part  of  which  was  utilised  for 
residential  buildings,  and  part  to  provide 
sites  for  buildings  of  national  importance 
and  for  educational  institutions.  In  1883 
there  was  a  considerable  annual  deficit,  but 
in  1889,  when  Playfair  resigned  his  honorary 
secretaryship,  this  had  been  converted  into 
an  income  of  5,000/.  per  annum,  and  has 
since  considerably  increased.  This  money 
was  employed  to  found  science  scholarships 
of  1501.  a  year,  to  be  held  by  advanced 
students  nominated  by  the  science  colleges 
of  this  country  and  the  colonies. 

In  1868  Playfair  was  returned  to  parlia- 
ment in  the  liberal  interest  as  member  for 
the  universities  of  Edinburgh  and  St.  An- 
drews, which  he  continued  to  represent  until 
1885.  On  his  election  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons he  resigned  his  chair  at  Edinburgh 
(1869)  and  returned  to  London,  where  he 
henceforth  resided.  His  influence  in  parlia- 
ment was  steadily  exerted  in  favour  of  the 
improvement  of  both  the  education  and  the 
social  and  sanitary  surroundings  of  the  people. 
While  he  represented  the  universities,  he  in 
fact  confined  himself  entirely  to  social  and 
educational  questions.  A  number  of  his 
speeches  in  parliament  and  elsewhere  on 
these  subjects  were  collected  and  published 
in  1889,  under  the  title  'Subjects  of  Social 
Welfare.'  In  1873  he  became  postmaster- 
general  in  Gladstone's  first  ministry,  but  the 
government  went  out  of  office  early  in  the 
following  year.  In  the  parliament  of  1880 
he  was  elected  chairman  and  deputy  speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  a  position  which 
he  held  until  1883,  when  he  resigned  this 
very  onerous  office  and  was  made  K.C.B. 
As  chairman  during  the  period  of  active  ob- 
struction by  the  Irish  members  in  1881-2, 
he  showed  great  tact  and  firmness,  but  his 
action  in  suspending  sixteen  members  en 
bloc  on  1  July  1882,  although  strictly  in 
accord  with  precedent,  was  the  occasion  of 
much  unfavourable  comment  from  the  press. 
The  cabinet  also  declared  that  they  could  no 
longer  support  the  interpretation  of  the  rule. 
The  persons  who  expressed  themselves  most 
confident  of  his  fairness,  patience,  and  im- 
partiality were  the  Irish  members  themselves. 
The  incident  led  indirectly  to  his  resignation 
of  the  post. 

At  the  election  of  1885  he  withdrew  from 
the  representation  of  the  universities,  and, 
identifying  himself  more  closely  than  before 
with  party  politics,  was  returned  as  liberal 
member  for  South  Leeds.  That  constituency 
he  continued  to  represent  until  1892.  Play- 
fair  joined  Gladstone's  home  rule  minis- 
try of  1886  as  vice-president  of  the  council, 
but  left  office  within  five  months  of  his  ap- 


Play  fair 


272 


Play  fair 


pointment,  on  the  resignation  of  the  ministry 
in  June. 

In  1892  Playfair's  many  services  to  the 
State  were  rewarded,  on  Gladstone's  acces- 
sion to  power  for  the  fourth  time,  by  his 
elevation  to  the  peerage  under  the  style  of 
Baron  Playfair  of  St.  Andrews.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  made  lord-in-waiting  to  the 
queen.  His  time  was  still  devoted  to  public 
aifairs,  and  in  1894-6  he  served  as  a  member 
of  the  aged  poor  commission,  and  afterwards 
tookan  active  part  in  negotiations  for  the  arbi- 
tration of  the  Venezuela  question,  in  which 
his  intimate  knowledge  of  American  politics, 
gained  during  his  annual  visits  to  his  third 
wife's  home,  was  of  great  service.  In  1895, 
on  the  recommendation  of  Lord  Rosebery,  he 
received  the  order  of  Grand  Cross  of  the 
Bath. 

In  1896  his  health  began  to  fail.  He 
passed  the  winter  of  1897  at  Torquay,  but 
returned  in  April  to  his  residence  in  Onslow 
Gardens,  where  he  died  on  29  May  1898. 
He  was  buried  at  St.  Andrews.  Playfair 
was  below  the  average  height,  and  was 
strikingly  intellectual  in  appearance.  He 
was  gifted  with  great  delicacy  and  tact,  had 
a  strong  sense  of  humour,  and  was  an  ad- 
mirable conversationalist.  He  received  many 
honours  from  foreign  governments  in  con- 
nection with  his  work  at  various  interna- 
tional exhibitions. 

Playfair  was  married  three  times :  first,  in 
1846,  to  Margaret  Eliza,  daughter  of  James 
Oakes  of  Biddings  House,  Alfreton,  who  died 
in  1855 ;  secondly,  in  1857,  to  Jean  Ann, 
daughter  of  Crawley  Millington  of  Crawley 
House,  who  died  in  1877 ;  thirdly,  in  1878, 
to  Edith,  daughter  of  Samuel  Hammond 
Russell  of  Boston,  United  States  of  America. 
By  his  first  wife  he  had  an  only  son,  George 
James  Playfair,  who  succeeded  him  as  second 
baron. 

[Memoirs  and  Corresp.  of  Lyon  Playfair  by 
Sir  Wemyss  Reid  (containing  a  large  amount  of 
autobiographical  matter),  1899;  biographical 
sketch  in  Nature,  Iviii.  128,  by  Sir  Henry  Roscoe ; 
Lucy's  Diary  of  Two  Parliaments,  1886,  vol.  ii.j 

A.  H-N. 

PLAYFAIR,  SIR  ROBERT  LAMBERT 
(1828-1899),  author  and  administrator,  born 
at  St.  Andrews  in  1828,  was  the  grandson 
of  James  Playfair  [q.  v.],  principal  of  the 
university  of  St.  Andrews,  and  the  third  son 
of  George  Playfair  (1782-1 846),  chief  inspec- 
tor-general of  hospitals  in  Bengal,  by  his  wife 
Janet  (d.  1862),  daughter  of  John  Ross.  Sir 
Lyon  Playfair,  baron  Playfair  [q.  v.  Suppl.], 
was  his  elder  brother.  Robert  entered  the 
Madras  artillery  on  12  Jan.  1846.  On 
28  Sept.  1858  he  attained  the  rank  of  cap- 


tain, and  on  18  Feb.  1861  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Madras  staff  corps.     On  30  June  1863 
he  was  given  the  local  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  at  Zanzibar,  and  on  12  June  1866  he 
was  promoted  to  be  major  in  the  staff  corps. 
He  retired  from  the   army   as  lieutenant- 
colonel  on  1  Nov.   1867.     From  November 
1848  to  May  1850  Playfair  was  associated 
with  Sir  James   Outram  [q.  v.]  in  a  quasi- 
political  mission  to  Syria.     From  28  March 
1852  till  26  Sept.  1853  he  served  as  assistant 
executive  engineer  at  Aden.    In  1854,  when 
Outram  became  first  political  resident  there, 
he  chose  Playfair  as  his  assistant.     In  this 
capacity  under  Outram  and  his  successors 
Playfair  remained  at  Aden  from  8  July  1854 
till  17  Dec.  1862.      He  acted  as  temporary 
political  resident  from  19  April  1860  till 
30  Oct.  1861,  and  from  10  Jan.  till  3  April 
1862.     While  assistant  resident  he  took  a 
share  in  putting  down  the  traffic  in  slaves 
between  Arabia  and  Somaliland,  and  in  the 
events  connected  with  the  British  occupation 
of  Perim  in  1857.     At  the  time  of  his  ap- 
pointment he  had  qualified  as  interpreter  in 
the  Arabic  language,  and  he  put  the  period 
of  his  residence  to  good  account  by  making 
researches  into  the  history  of  that  part  of 
Arabia.  His  work  was  published  at  Bombay 
in  1859  as  No.  49  of  the  :new  series  of '  Se- 
lections from  the  Records  of  the  Bombay 
Government,'   under  the  title  '  History  of 
Arabia  Felix  or  Yemen  from  the  Commence- 
ment of  the  Christian  Era  to  the  Present 
Time.'   It  included  an  account  of  the  British 
settlement  at  Aden.    In  1860  he  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 
On  17  Dec.  1862  Playfair  was  appointed 
political  agent  at  Zanzibar,  and  on  13  July 
1863  was    nominated    consul   there.      On 
20  June  1867  he  became  consul-general  in 
Algeria,  where  he  remained  during  the  rest 
of  his  diplomatic  career.  On  16  March  1885 
he  was  made  consul-general  for  Algeria  and 
Tunis,  and  on  2  Aug.  1889  consul-general 
for  the  territory  of  Algeria  and  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa.     He  acquired  an  extensive 
knowledge  not  only  of  Algeria,  but  of  the 
Mediterranean  countries  generally,  visiting 
among  other  places  the   Balearic   Islands 
and  Tunis,  where  in  1876  he  explored  the 
previously  almost  unknown  Khomair  coun- 
try.    In  1874  he  contributed  to  Murray's 
series  '  A  Handbook  for  Travellers  in  Al- 
geria ;'  a  second  edition  including  Tunis  ap- 
peared in  1878,  and  a  fifth  in   1895.     In 
1881  he  wrote  for  the  same  series  '  A  Hand- 
book to  the  Mediterranean  Cities,  Coasts, 
and  Islands,'  which  reached  a  third  edition 
in  1890.     During  his  residence  in  Algeria 
he  studied  the  official  archives  of  the  con- 


Plimsoll 


Plimsoll 


•sulate,  and  in  1884  issued  '  The  Scourge  of 
Christendom '  (London,  8vo),  an  interesting 
account  of  the  British  relations  with  that 
country  till  the  time  of  the  French  conquest 
in  1830.  His  most  valuable  work,  how- 
ever, in  connection  with  the  Barbary  states 
was  of  a  bibliographical  character.  In  1888 
he  published  '  A  Bibliography  of  Algeria 
from  the  Expedition  of  Charles  V  in  1541 
to  1887 '  (London,  8vo).  This  work,  which 
originally  appeared  among  the  '  Supple- 
mentary Papers '  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  was  completed  in  1898  by  a  supple- 
ment carrying  the  bibliography  from  the 
earliest  times  to  1895.  In  1889  he  brought 
-out  '  The  Bibliography  of  Tripoli  and  the 
Cyrenaica '  (London,  8vo),  from  the  earliest 
times  to  1889,  which  was  also  included 
-among  the  '  Supplementary  Papers,'  and 
finally  in  1892  he  prepared,  in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  Robert  Brown,  '  A  Bibliography 
of  Morocco  from  the  earliest  Times  to  1891 ' 
(London,  8vo).  These  works  were  of  the 
most  exhaustive  character,  comprising  a  list 
of  articles  and  papers  as  well  as  of  separate 
•works.  'The  Bibliography  of  Tunisia' 
•(London,  1889,  8vo),  which  completes  the 
series,  was  prepared  by  Henry  Spencer  Ash- 
toee  [q.v.  Suppl.] 

On  29  May  1886  Playfair  was  nominated 
JK.C.M.G.  At  the  meeting  of  the  British 
Association  at  Leeds  in  1890  he  presided 
over  the  geographical  section.  He  retired 
from  the  diplomatic  service  on  a  pension  on 
1  Dec.  1896.  In  January  1899  he  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  uni- 
versity of  St.  Andrews.  He  died  at  his 
residence,  Queen's  Gardens,  St.  Andrews, 
on  18  Feb.  1899.  In  1851  he  married 
Agnes,  daughter  of  Major-general  Thomas 
Webster  of  Belgarvie  in  Fife.  By  her  he 
Tiad  five  sons  and  two  daughters. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned 
Playfair  was  the  author  of  '  Travels  in  the 
Footsteps  of  [James]  Bruce '  [q.v.]  (London, 
1877,  4to),  which  was  illustrated  with  fac- 
similes of  Bruce's  original  drawings.  He 
also  published  in  1886  in  the '  Asiatic  Quar- 
terly '  (ii.  141)  '  The  Story  of  the  Occupa- 
tion of  Perim,'  and  in  1899  in  '  Chambers's 
Journal '  '  Reminiscences '  of  Aden  and 
Algeria,  an  interesting  series  of  papers  which 
have  not  appeared  in  book  form. 

[Playfair's  works;  Geographical  Journal, 
1899,  xiii.  439;  Times,  20  Feb.  1899;  Foreign 
Office  Lists  ;  Goldsmid's  James  Outram,  1881, 
ii.  90 ;  Wemyss  Reid's  Memoirs  and  Corresp. 
of  Lyon  Playfair,  1899,  p.  23.]  E.  I.  C. 

PLIMSOLL,     SAMUEL     (1824-1898), 
•*  the  Sailors'  Friend,'  born  on  10  Feb.  1824  at 
Bristol,  was  the  fourth  son  of  Thomas  Plimsoll 
VOL.  ni. — sup. 


of  Bristol  by  his  wife  Priscilla,  daughter  of 
Josiah  Willing  of  Plymstock.  He  was  edu- 
cated first  by  the  curate  at  Penrith,  where 
his  parents  resided  in  his  early  youth,  and 
afterwards  at  Dr.  S.  Eadon's  school  at  Shef- 
field. On  leaving  school  he  became  a  solici- 
tor's clerk.  Later  on  he  was  clerk  and  after- 
wards manager  in  a  brewery,  and  in  1851  he 
acted  as  an  honorary  secretary  for  the  Great 
Exhibition.  In  1853  he  came  to  London, 
and  established  himself  as  a  coal  merchant, 
and  in  1862  published  pamphlets  on  the  ex- 
port coal  trade  and  on  the  inland  coal  trade 
of  England. 

After  some  unsuccessful  attempts  to  enter 
parliament  in  the  radical  interest,  Plimsoll 
was  returned  for  Derby  in  1868,  and  from 
the  first  devoted  himself  to  the  question  of 
mercantile  shipping.     In  1870  he  opened  his 
campaign  by  proposing  a  resolution  con- 
demning unnecessary  loss  of  life  and  pro- 
perty at  sea,  and  insisting  upon  the  compul- 
sory load-line  as  the  reform  to  be  advocated. 
This  resolution,  and  also  a  bill  which  the 
government   had   introduced  on  the   same 
subject,  were  withdrawn  owing  to  pressure 
of  business  ;  but  Plimsoll  kept  the  question, 
before  the  public.     In  1871  he  introduced  a 
bill  on  the  lines  of  his  resolution,  and  again 
had  to  withdraw  it.     In  1872  he  published 
an  attack  on  shipowners  entitled  '  Our  Sea- 
men.'   This  work  raised  a  storm  of  contro- 
versy, and  resulted  in  such  an  awakening  of 
public  feeling  that  an  address  was  passed 
calling  for  the  appointment  of  a  royal  com- 
mission. Under  the  chairmanship  of  Edward 
Adolphus  Seymour,  twelfth  duke  of  Somer- 
set [q.  v.],  who,  having  himself  been  first 
lord  of  the   admiralty,  possessed  technical 
knowledge  of  shipping,  a  powerful  commis- 
sion sat  in  1873  and  examined  many  wit- 
nesses, including  Plimsoll  himself.     The  re- 
port of  the  commission  did  not  support  his 
favourite  idea  of  a  fixed  load-line,  but  never- 
theless he  introduced  another  bill  in  1874, 
and  was  defeated  by   a  majority  of  only 
three.     The  government  was  now  obliged  to 
deal  with  the  alleged  grievances,  and  brought 
in  a  merchant  shipping  bill  in  1875.     This 
was  so  materially  altered  in  the  course  of 
debate  that  Disraeli  resolved  to  withdraw  it. 
In  protesting  against  this  action,  on  22  July 
1875,  Plimsoll  violently  attacked  the  class 
of  shipowners,  and  caused  a  scene  in  the 
House  of  Commons.     He  admitted  that  the 
expressions  he  had  used  applied  to  members 
of  the  house  and  refused  to  withdraw.     He 
was  ordered  to  retire  by  the  speaker,  Henry 
Bouverie  William  Brand  (afterwards  Vis- 
count Hampden)  [q.  v.],  and  Disraeli  moved 
'that  the  honourable  gentleman  be  repri- 


Plimsoll 


274 


Plume 


manded.'  Finally  action  was  postponed  for 
a  week,  and  Plimsoll  apologised  to  the  house. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  this  exciting  incident 
had  the  effect  of  attracting  public  atten- 
tion, so  that  the  government  was  obliged  to 
hurry  through  a  measure  which  now  stands 
in  the  statute  book  as  the  Merchant  Ship- 
ping Act,  1876. 

In  1880  Plimsoll  gave  up  his  seat  at 
Derby  to  Sir  William  Harcourt,  and  never 
again  entered  the  house,  although  he  unsuc- 
cessfully contested  a  few  elections.  His 
interest  in  the  British  sailor  remained  as 
keen  as  before,  and  he  expended  large  sums 
of  money  and  a  good  deal  of  his  time  in  pro- 
moting further  reforms  and  in  insisting  upon 
the  efficient  administration  of  the  existing 
laws.  For  the  latter  purpose  he  visited  the 
ports  of  foreign  countries  to  inquire  into 
the  condition  of  our  merchant  ships  and 
their  crews.  In  1890  he  published  a  pam- 
phlet on  cattle  ships,  and  in  the  same  year 
became  president  of  the  Sailors'  and  Fire- 
men's Union.  He  held  this  post  for  several 
years  under  the  distinct  understanding  that 
his  duty  should  be  limited  to  presiding 
at  the  annual  congress  and  advising  as  to 
parliamentary  action.  From  the  financial 
affairs  of  the  union  and  their  policy  in  trade 
disputes  he  expressly  dissociated  himself. 
He  contributed  many  articles  to  the  '  Nine- 
teenth Century '  and  other  periodicals,  and 
published  several  pamphlets,  chiefly  on  mer- 
cantile shipping. 

After  a  long  illness  Plimsoll  died  on  3  June 
1898  at  Folkestone,  where  he  had  resided 
for  some  years.  His  writings  and  speeches 
were  severely  criticised  for  their  violence  of 
language,  their  exaggeration  of  fact,  and  the 
want  of  technical  knowledge  displayed  in 
them.  On  the  other  hand  he  possessed  an 
unusual  amount  of  enthusiasm,  which  he 
was  able  to  impart  to  others. 

Plimsoll  was  brought  up  a  congregational- 
ist,  and  never  left  that  body,  but  he  was 
equally  attached  to  all  denominations  of 
evangelical  Christianity. 

Plimsoll  married  his  first  wife,  Eliza  Ann, 
daughter  of  Hugh  Railton  of  Chapeltown, 
near  Sheffield,  in  1858.  She  died  in  Aus- 
tralia in  1882.  There  were  no  children  by 
this  marriage.  He  married  his  second  wife, 
Harriet  Frankish,  daughter  of  Mr.  Joseph 
Armitage  Wade,  J.P.,  of  Hull  and  Hornsea, 
in  1885.  By  this  marriage  there  were  six 
children,  of  whom  a  son,  Samuel  Eichard 
Cobden  Plimsoll,  and  two  daughters  survive 
him. 

[Hansard's  Parl.  Debates ;  H.  W.  Lucy's 
Diary  of  Two  Parliaments ;  private  informa- 
tion.] E.  0. 


PLUME,  THOMAS  (1630-1704),  arch- 
deacon of  Rochester,  and  founder  of  the 
Plumean  professorship  of  astronomy,  was  the 
second  son  of  Thomas  Plume,  alderman,  of 
Maldon,  Essex,  by  his  third  wife,  Helen.  He 
was  baptised  at  All  Saints',  Maldon,  18  Aug. 
1630,  according  to  the  entry  in  the  register,  but 
in  his  will  Plume  bequeaths  communion  plate 
to  the  church  '  in  thankfullness  for  my  Bap- 
tism there  Aug.  the  7th,  1630.'  Plume  was 
doubtless  using  the  new  style,  which  was 
eleven  days  behind  the  new.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Chelmsford  grammar  school,  and  on 
29  Feb.  1645  was  admitted  a  pensioner  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  matri- 
culated 11  July  1646,  and  graduated  B.A. 
and  M.A.  in  1649.  He  was  admitted  B.D. 
per  litcras  reffislGGl, and  D.D. 27  June  1673 
(Grad.  Cant.  1823,  p.  373).  He  was  insti- 
tuted vicar  of  Greenwich  on  22  Sept.  1658, 
Richard  Cromwell,  Lord  Protector,  being 
patron.  Not  far  off",  at  Cheam,  Surrey,  was 
John  Hacket  [q.  v.],  whose  friendship  Plume 
had  already  for  some  time  enjoyed.  After 
Hacket  was  appointed  (1661)  bishop  of  Lich- 
field,  he  made  use  of  Plume's  services  to 
buy  books  for  him,  and  to  transact  other 
business  in  London.  He  records,  16  March 
1667,  his  '  promise  of  the  next  prebend  that 
shall  be  void  if  I  live  so  long,  to  Mr.  Plume 
of  Greenwich,  who  is  of  great  merit'  ( Tanner 
MS.,  Bodleian  Lib.  xliv.  f.  108).  The  pro- 
mised prebend  did  not  come  from  Hacket, 
but  when  he  died  the  bishop  left  Plume  ~iQl. 
and  two  volumes  of  manuscript  sermons. 
These  Plume  edited  under  the  title  of  'A 
Century  of  Sermons,'  prefixing  a  life  and 
death  of  the  author  in  54  folio  pages  (Lon- 
don, 1675 ;  new  ed.  1865, 12mo). 

Plume's  father  had  been  a  prominent  pres- 
by  terian  at  Maldou,  but  he  himself  subscribed 
the  declaration  under  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
on  28  July  1662.  Between  1665  and  1669 
both  Pepys  and  Evelyn  visited  Greenwich 
church  on  Sundays,  and  they  have  recorded 
their  commendations  of  Plume's  '  excellent 
preaching '  and  '  very  good  '  sermons.  He 
held  also  the  sinecure  of  Merston,  Kent, 
where  was  no  church,  parsonage,  manor 
house,  or  inhabitants.  On  10  June  1679  he 
was  installed  archdeacon  of  Rochester. 

He  remained  vicar  of  Greenwich  until  his 
death  at  Longfield  Court,  the  archdeacon's 
residence,  on  20  Nov.  1704.  On  24  Nov.  he 
was  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  Longfield. 
Plume's  portrait,  which  he  'forbad  to  be  ever 
brought  into '  his  library,  now  hangs  in  the 
council  chamber  at  Maldon. 

Plume  was  unmarried,  and  left  the  con- 
siderable wealth  he  had  acquired  mainly  for 
charitable  objects.  The  sums  of  1,000/., 


Plume 


275 


Plunket 


7001.,  and  2021.  I2s.  6d.  he  devoted  to  the 
foundation  of  a  chair  at  Cambridge, bequeath- 
ing the  money  to  Dr.  Covell,  master  of  Christ's 
College,  Dr.  Bentley,  master  of  Trinity,  Fran-  j 
cis  Thompson,  D.D.,  of  Caius,  and  William 
Whiston,  Lucasian  professor,  to  'erect  an 
observatory  and  to  maintain  a  professor  of 
astronomy  and  experimental  philosophy,  and 
to  buy  or  build  a  house  -with  or  near  the  same.' 
The  statutes  for  the  trust  were  to  be  made 
with  the  advice  of  Sir  John  Ellis,  master  of 
Caius,  '  Mr.  Newtin  in  London  [Sir  Isaac 
Newton],  and  Mr.  Fflamsted,  the  royal  ma- 
thematician at  East  Greenwich.'  They  were 
confirmed  by  letters  patent  issued  under  the 
great  seal,  11  June  1707.  The  money  was 
invested  in  an  estate  at  Balsham,  Cambridge- 
shire, purchased  soon  after  Plume's  death ; 
Roger  Cotes  [q.v.]  was  appointed  the  first 
professor,  16  Oct.  1707  ;  and  the  king's  gate 
of  Trinity  College,  although  objected  to  by 
Flamsteed,  was  appropriated  to  his  use.  An 
observatory  was  built  soon  after  over  the 
gateway,  partly  by  subscription  raised  by 
Richard  Bentley  [q.v.]  the  master,  who  de- 
scribed it  (Correspondence,  ed.  Wordsworth, 
p.  451)  as  '  the  commodiousest  building  for 
that  use  in  Christendom.'  In  May  1792,  how- 
ever, report  was  made  that  '  the  professor 
had  neither  occupied  the  said  rooms  and  leads, 
or  fulfilled  the  conditions  for  at  least  fifty 
years ;  the  observatory  and  the  instruments 
belonging  to  it  were,  through  disuse,  neglect, 
and  want  of  repairs,  so  much  dilapidated  as 
to  be  entirely  unfit  for  the  purposes  intended.' 
The  trustees  agreeing  to  its  removal,  it  was 
in  1797  demolished. 

The  existing  astronomical  observatory,  in 
the  south  wing  of  which  the  Plumian  pro- 
fessor occupies  rooms,  was  erected  in  1822. 
Plume's  gift  has  centred  upon  the  professor- 
ship, although  in  the  original  bequest  the 
observatory  was  placed  first.  It  may  be  added 
that  Robert  Smith  (1689-1768)  [q.v.],  Cotes's 
relative  and  successor,  says  that  Plume  was 
induced  to  found  the  chair  through  reading 
Huygens's  '  Cosmotheoros '  (1698),  recom- 
mended him  by  Flamsteed,  whom  doubtless 
he  knew  at  Greenwich  (EDLESTOX,  Corre- 
spondence of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Ixxv). 

To  his  native  town,  where  he  had  already 
erected  a  school  and  library,  Plume  gave  his 
books,  manuscripts,  and  '  my  large  Mapp  of 
the  World.'  This  has  now  disappeared.  The 
library  keeper  was  to  have  40/.  a  year  and  a 
house,  the  library  was  to  be  open  to  students 
free  of  charge,  and  books  might  be  borrowed 
on  proper  security ;  it  was  thus  practically 
a  free  library.  For  the  support  of  the  school 
Plume  bequeathed  a  house  in  Maldon  and 
the  farm  of  Iltney  in  Mundon,  out  of  which 


also  a  weekly  lecture  was  to  be  maintained 
in  All  Saints',  Maldon,  while  the  vicarage 
was  augmented  by  200/.  Ten  poor  boys  of 
the  two  parisheswere  tobetaught  andclothed 
in  green  baize,  and  an  exhibition  for  an  Essex 
scholar  established  at  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. 

Plume  also  anticipated  the  present  poor- 
law  system  by  giving  200/.  and  the  residue 
of  his  estate  to  purchase  tenements  and  stock 
for  setting  the  pauper  inhabitants  to  work 
'  according  to  Mr.  Commins'  direction  and  his 
Draught  sent  me  by  Doctor  Thompson,'  and 
for  erecting  a  workhouse  for  the  poor  of  Mal- 
don and  neighbouring  villages.  To  his  old 
school  at  Chelmsford  he  left  books  for  a  stand- 
ing library.  Others  of  his  charitable  bequests 
included  1,OOOZ.  to  buy  in  the  tithes  of  small 
livings  worth  under  1001.  a  year;  100A  to 
Bromley  College ;  various  gifts  to  the  city  of 
Rochester,  including  a  large  sum  towards  re- 
pairing the  cathedral ;  almshouses  to  Green- 
wich, and  a  trust  to  maintain  a  lecture  at 
Dartford  and  Gravesend,  and  to  augment 
poor  livings  in  the  diocese  under  60/.  value. 
Although  a  bachelor  he  devised  100/.  to 
encourage  the  marriage  often  maids  who  had 
lived  seven  years  in  service. 

[An  article  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Fitch,  in  the  Chelms- 
fordian,  iii.  38-43,  March  1898,  reprinted  sepa- 
rately as  a  pamphlet .  See  also  Fitch's  Maldon  and 
the  River  Blackwater,  3rd  ed.  1898,  pp,  19,  20, 
30,  38  ;  Newcourt,  Eccles.  Kepert.  i.  182  ;  Has- 
ted's  Hist,  of  Kent,  i.  34,  273,  ii.  48,  64,  93 ; 
Harris's  Hist,  of  Kent.  1719, 187  ;  Pepys's  Diary, 
iii.  89,  131,  v.  161;  Evelyn's  Diary,  ii.  17; 
Hist,  and  Antiq.  of  Rochester,  1717,  106; 
Morant's  Hist,  of  Eesex,  ii.  333,  33/-8,  357; 
Whiston's  Memoirs,  j.  133;  Notes  and  Queries, 
3rd  ser.  viii.  105  ;  Cooper's  Annals  of  Cambridge, 
iv.  6 9;. Wright's  Hist,  of  Essex,  i.  526,  ii.  645 
649 ;  Willis  and  Clark's  Architectural  Hist,  of 
Cambridge,  ii.  499, 500,  iii.  190-8 ;  The  Plumian 
Professorship,  a  Tract  containing  the  Letters 
Patent ;  Baily's  Life  of  Flamsteed,  App.  p.  223  ; 
Edleston's  Correspondence  of  Newton  and  Cotes, 
xxxviii,  Ixxiv,  Ixxv;  Lysons's  Env.  of  London, 
iv.  472;  Rennet's  Hist,  and  Reg.,  309,  456; 
!  Monk's  Life  of  Bentley,  i.  202;  Robert  Smith's 
ed.  of  Cotes's  Harmonia  Mensurarum,  Prefac^  ; 
A  Century  of  Sermons,  cd.  Woolcot ;  Lansdo-wne 
MS.  987,  fo.  266.]  C.  F.  S. 

PLUNKET,  WILLIAM  COXYXG- 
HAM,  fourth  BARON  PLUNKET  (1828-1897), 
archbishop  of  Dublin,  born  on  26  Aug.  1828, 
at  30  Upper  Fitzwilliam  Street,  Dublin,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  Hon.  John  Plunket, 
Q.C.  (afterwards  third  Baron  Plunket).  Wil- 
liam Conyngham  Plunket,  first  Baron  Plun- 
ket [q.  v.J,  was  his  grandfather.  His  mother 
was  Charlotte,  third  daughter  of  Charles 
,  Kendal  Bushe  [q.v.J,  lord-chief-justice  of  Ire- 

T2 


Plunket 


276  . 


Plunket 


land.  Plunket  received  his  early  education 
first  at  a  day  school  in  Dublin,  afterwards 
at  Seaforth  rectory, near  Liverpool,  under  the 
Rev.  William  Rawson,  of  whom  W.  E.  Glad- 
stone had  earlier  been  a  pupil.  While  there 
he  narrowly  escaped  drowning.  Ultimately, 
in  1842,  he  was  sent  to  Cheltenham  College, 
then  recently  opened  under  Dr.  Dobson. 
Here  hia  career  was  brilliant,  and  he  rose 
to  be  head  of  the  school.  But  early  in  his 
eighteenth  year  his  health  broke  down  from 
overwork,  and  when  some  years  later  he 
entered  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  he  was 
not  able  to  read  for  honours ;  he  graduated 
B.A.  in  1853.  This  breakdown  led  Plunket 
to  abandon  an  ambition  for  a  political  career, 
and  to  turn  his  thoughts  to  the  church.  It 
was  not,  however,  until  1857,  when  in  his 
thirtieth  year,  that  his  recovery  was  com- 
plete enough  to  enable  him  to  seek  ordina- 
tion. He  became  chaplain  and  private  secre- 
tary to  his  uncle  Thomas,  second  Lord  Plun- 
ket, then  bishop  of  Tuam,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  appointed  rector  of  the 
united  parishes  of  Kilmoylan  and  Cummer 
in  that  diocese. 

The  early  years  of  Plunket's  ministerial 
life  brought  him  into  close  contact  with  the 
evangelising  movement  in  Ccnnemara  and 
Mayo,  and  fostered  that  sympathy  -with 
struggling  protestant  communities  which 
was  to  be  so  strongly  evinced  during  his 
episcopal  career  in  his  relation  to  the  re- 
formers in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy.  He 
became  an  active  member  of  the  Irish 
Church  Missions  Society,  travelling  through 
every  district  of  West  Connaught  in  aid  of 
its  work,  and  frequently  visiting  England 
to  solicit  financial  support  for  the  movement. 

On  11  June  1863  Plunket  was  married  to 
Anne,  daughter  of  Sir  Benjamin  Lee  Guin- 
ness [q.  v.],  a  lady  whose  philanthropic 
labours  have  left  a  permanent  memorial  in 
the  valuable  training  institution  known  as 
the  St.  Patrick's  Nursing  Home  in  Dublin. 
The  alliance  was  one  in  every  way  fortunate 
for  Plunket,  and  led  among  other  things  to 
his  nomination  in  1864  to  the  treasurership 
of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  then  in  course  of 
restoration  through  the  munificence  of  his 
father-in-law.  Five  years  later  he  was 
appointed  precentor,  and  his  direct  connec- 
tion with  the  national  cathedral  lasted  down 
to  his  election  to  the  bishopric  of  Meath  in 
1876. 

On  the  death  in  1866  of  his  uncle,  the 
second  Lord  Plunket,  and  the  succession  of 
his  father  to  the  title,  Plunket  became  the 
direct  heir  to  the  peerage,  and  thencefor- 
ward his  life  was  spent  for  the  most  part  in 
or  near  Dublin,  within  a  few  miles  of  which 


the  family  seat  is  situate.  His  energy, 
earnestness,  and  administrative  ability  com- 
bined with  his  high  social  position  to  place 
him  in  the  position  of  a  leader  among  the 
evangelical  party  in  the  Irish  church. 
Plunket's  removal  to  Dublin  was  syn- 
chronous with  the  active  revival  of  the 
long  slumbering  agitation  against  the  Irish 
church  establishment,  and  he  threw  himself 
with  all  his  vigour  into  the  task  of  resisting 
the  attack.  But  he  was  among  the  first  to 
recognise  that  the  result  of  the  general 
election  of  1868  sealed  the  fate  of  the  esta- 
blishment, and  at  once  turned  his  attention 
to  the  business  of  obtaining  the  best  possible 
terms  for  the  church  and  its  clergy.  In  the 
subsequent  task  of  reconstruction  Plunket 
took  a  foremost  part,  and  was  looked  on  as 
the  leader  of  those  who,  in  the  debates  in 
the  general  synod  of  the  church  of  Ireland 
upon  the  constitution  and  liturgy  of  the 
disestablished  church,  sought  to  procure  a 
radical  revision  of  the  prayer-book  in  an 
evangelical  direction.  He  had  always  been 
animated  by  a  strong  belief  in  the  possibi- 
lity of  reunion  between  the  Anglican 
churches  and  the  other  protestant  commu- 
nities ;  and,  apart  from  his  evangelical 
opinions,  his  action  was  prompted  by  the 
hope  of  smoothing  the  path  to  reunion. 
But,  though  thoroughly  loyal  to  his  own 
church,  and  enjoying  the  universal  respect 
that  his  transparent  sincerity  compelled,  he 
failed  to  persuade  the  synod  to  adopt  his 
policy,  save  in  relation  to  some  important 
liturgical  alterations,  and  more  particularly 
to  the  ornaments  rubric. 

In  1871,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Plun- 
ket succeeded  to  the  peerage.  Five  years 
later,  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Butcher,  he  was 
elected  to  the  bishopric  of  Meath,  a  diocese 
which  ranks  in  the  Irish  church  next  after 
the  archbishopric  of  Dublin,  and  was  conse- 
crated in  the  cathedral  at  Armagh  on 
10  Dec.  1876.  His  tenure  of  this  see  lasted 
for  exactly  eight  years,  and  during  that 
period  Plunket  spent  much  time  in  Dublin, 
and  devoted  great  attention  to  the  question 
of  religious  education  in  the  Irish  national 
schools.  The  institution  for  providing 
trained  teachers  in  connection  with  the 
church  of  Ireland,  long  known  as  the  Kil- 
dare  Place  Schools,  had  fallen  to  a  low  stan- 
dard of  efficiency,  and  threatened  to  collapse 
for  lack  of  funds.  Mainly  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  Plunket  this  institution  was 
restored  to  complete  efficiency,  affiliated  to 
the  national  board  of  education,  placed,  in 
common  with  analogous  Roman  catholic 
seminaries,  on  an  equality  with  the  chief 
government  training  colleges,  and  provided 


Plunket 


277 


Pocock 


•with  funds  for  building.  It  has  ever  since 
occupied,  under  the  title  of  the  Church  of 
Ireland  Training  College,  a  foremost  place 
among  denominational  educational  institu- 
tions in  Ireland.  Plunket's  activity  in  edu- 
cational matters  led  to  his  nomination  by  the 
viceroy  in  1895  as  a  member  of  the  board  of 
national  education.  He  was  also  a  senator 
of  the  Royal  University  of  Ireland ;  and  the 
honorary  LL.D.  of  Cambridge  University 
conferred  on  him  in  1888  was  also  in  part  a 
recognition  of  his  interest  in  education. 

In  1884,  on  the  resignation,  through  failing 
health,  of  Archbishop  Richard  Chenevix 
Trench  [q.v.],  Plunket  was  elected  archbishop 
of  the  united  dioceses  of  Dublin,  Glendalough, 
and  Kildare,  with  which  was  combined,  until 
1887,  the  deanery  of  Christ  Church  Cathe- 
dral. It  was  in  this  position  that  Plunket 
became  most  widely  known  beyond  the  limits 
of  his  own  church  through  his  warm  and  dis- 
interested championship  of  the  cause  of  the 
protestant  reformers  in  Spain.  His  action 
in  this  regard  exposed  him  to  considerable 
obloquy  in  England,  where  Plunket's  action 
was  viewed  by  some  as  an  intrusion  upon 
the  episcopal  domain  of  the  Spanish  Roman 
catholic  bishops,  and  was  deprecated  by 
most  of  the  Anglican  bishops.  In  Ireland 
it  excited  not  a  little  disapproval  among 
members  of  his  own  communion,  though 
from  a  different  standpoint.  Plunket's  per- 
sistent exertions  in  this  cause  extended  over 
eighteen  years ;  he  undertook  three  separate 
journeys  to  Spain  to  satisfy  himself  of  the 
reality  of  the  reformation,  and  gave  money 
without  stint  in  its  support.  In  1894  he 
determined  that  the  time  for  conferring  con- 
secration on  Senor  Cabrera,  the  leader  of  the 
movement  in  Spain,  had  arrived,  and  on 
communicating  his  resolution  to  the  Irish 
bishops  to  visit  Spain  in  company  with  two 
other  members  of  their  body,  the  majority 
of  his  brother  prelates  declined  to  oppose  his 
action.  He  accordingly  left  Ireland  in  the 
autumn  of  1894,  accompanied  by  the  bishops 
of  Clogher  and  Down,  and  on  23  Sept.  of 
that  year  the  ceremony  of  consecration  was 
performed. 

Almost  as  keen  as  his  interest  in  the 
Spanish  reformers  was  Plunket's  sympathy 
with  the  reformed  church  in  Italy.  In  1886 
he  became  president  and  chairman  of  the 
Italian  Reform  Association,  and  was  active 
in  his  support  of  Count  Campello  and  the 
leaders  of  that  body.  In  his  efforts  in  their 
behalf  he  was  fortunately  able  to  act  in  co- 
operation with  the  English  bishops,  and  thus 
his  Italian  labours  earned  him  none  of  the 
odium  which  his  intervention  in  Spain  ex- 
cited. 


In  the  autumn  of  1896  the  closeness  of 
the  union  which,  despite  disestablishment, 
still  exists  between  the  churches  of  Eng- 
land and  Ireland,  was  exemplified  by  the 
visit  to  Ireland,  on  Plunket's  invitation,  of 
Archbishop  Edward  White  Benson  [q.  v. 
Suppl.J  The  English  primate  assisted  at  the 
reopening  of  the  restored  cathedral  of  Kil- 
dare, a  diocese  united  with  that  of  Dublin, 
and  was  the  guest  of  Plunket  at  his  resi- 
dence at  Old  Connaught.  The  visit  did 
much  to  mitigate  the  asperity  of  English 
criticism  on  Plunket's  ultra-evangelical  lean- 
ings. Benson  died  suddenly  at  Hawarden 
on  his  way  home  from  Ireland  ;  and  Plunket 
died  at  the  Palace,  St.  Stephen's  Green,  on 
1  April  1897.  Lady  Plunket  had  predeceased 
him  by  eight  years.  He  was  buried  at  Mount 
Jerome  cemetery,  Dublin,  after  a  public 
funeral  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral.  He  was 
succeeded  as  fifth  Baron  Plunket  by  his 
eldest  son,  William  Lee  Plunket  (b.  1864). 

Handsome  in  appearance,  tall,  and  of  a 
fine  presence,  Plunket  inspired  the  warmest 
personal  affection  among  relatives  and  inti- 
mates ;  but  his  aspect  in  public  was  one  of 
almost  lugubrious  solemnity.  An  admirably 
lifelike  statue  by  Hamo  Thorneycroft  was 
unveiled  in  Dublin  on  16  April  1901  by  the 
viceroy,  Earl  Cadogan. 

Plunket's  purely  intellectual  endowments 
were  not  striking ;  and  though  he  showed 
on  some  occasions  not  a  little  of  the  oratori- 
cal power  hereditary  in  his  family,  he  was 
not  a  great  preacher.  He  was  essentially  a 
man  of  affairs.  But  by  virtue  of  the  emi- 
nence of  his  position,  both  hereditary  and 
acquired,  and  by  reason  of  the  remarkable 
powers  of  work  which  reinforced  his  in- 
tense earnestness,  and  by  the  charm  of  a 
really  engaging  personality,  he  was  able  to 
accomplish  much  that  abler  men  might  have 
failed  to  achieve.  He  was  extremely  popu- 
lar with  all  classes  and  creeds  in  Ireland ; 
his  ardent  love  of  his  country  earning  him 
the  goodwill  even  of  those  to  whom  he  was 
politically  opposed  ;  and  his  wide  tolerance 
made  him  persona  grata  with  the  presby- 
terian  and  methodist  bodies,  whose  ministers 
he  delighted  to  welcome  to  his  residence  at 
Old  Connaught. 

[William  Conyngham  Plunket,  fourth  Baron 
Plunket,  and  sixty-first  Archbishop  of  Dublin : 
a  Memoir  by  F.  D.  How,  1900;  Archbishop 
Benson  in  Ireland,  by  the  Eev.  J.  H.  Bernard  ; 
Seddall's  Life  of  Edward  Nangle ;  Brooke's  Kecol- 
lections  of  the  Irish  Church.]  C.  L.  F. 

POCOCK,  NICHOLAS  (1814-1897), 
historical  writer,  born  at  Falmouth  in  Janu- 
ary 1814,  was  eldest  son  of  Nicholas  Pocock 


Pocock 


278 


Pole 


of   Falmouth    and    grandson 
Pocock  (1741P-1821)  fa.  v.l 


[q. 

[q- 


of  Nicholas 

tthe    marine 
q.  v.J  and  William 

Junes  Pocock  [q.  v.J  were  his  uncles.  He 
was  educated  at  a  private  school  in  Devon- 
shire by  the  Rev.  John  Manly,  and  on 
3  Feh.  1831  matriculated  from  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  as  Michel  exhibitioner  ;  in 
1834  he  was  elected  scholar.  He  graduated 
B.A.  in  that  year  with  a  first  class  in  the 
final  mathematical  school,  and  a  second  class 
in  lit.  hum.  In  1835  he  won  the  Johnson 
mathematical  scholarship  and  the  senior 
mathematical  scholarship  in  1836.  In  1837 
he  graduated  M.A.,  and  in  1838  became 
Michel  fellow  of  Queen's,  where  he  was  after- 
wards mathematical  lecturer.  He  had  the 
reputation  of  being  the  best  mathematical 
tutor  of  his  time,  and  among  his  pupils  was 
Bartholomew  Price  [q.  v.  Suppl.J ;  he  was 
public  examiner  in  mathematics  in  1839, 
1844,  and  1848,  and  in  lit.  hum.  in  1842  and 
1852.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1838  and 
prjest  in  1855,  but  never  held  any  ecclesias- 
tical preferment.  He  married  in  1852  a 
daughter  of  James  Cowles  Prichard  [q.  v.], 
and  retired  to  Clifton,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  with  the  exception  of  a 
year  when  he  was  in  charge  of  Codrington 
College,  Barbados.  He  died  at  Clifton  on 
4  March  1897,  being  survived  by  his  widow 
and  several  sons  and  daughters. 

Pocock  edited  in  1847  the  third  edition  of 
Hammond's  '  Miscellaneous  Theological 
Works,'  and  in  1852  published  '  The  First 
two  Books  of  Euclid  .  .  .  with  additional 
figures.'  Afterwards  he  devoted  himself 
almost  exclusively  to  the  history  of  the 
Reformation  in  England.  His  great  work 
was  his  monumental  edition  of  Gilbert 
Burnet's  '  History  of  the  Reformation,'  pub- 
lished in  seven  volumes  by  the  Clarendon 
Press  in  1864-5 ;  the  seventh  volume  con- 
sists entirely  of  Pocock's  dissertations  on 
Burnet's  authorities,  sources,  and  errors,  and 
the  whole  work  embodies  the  results  of  much 
careful  and  laborious  research.  He  made 
an  extensive  collection  of  original  records, 
two  volumes  of  which  were  issued  by  the 
Clarendon  Press  in  1871  under  the  title 
'  Records  of  the  Reformation ; '  they  are 
very  valuable  so  far  as  they  go,  but  the 
publication  was  unfortunately  stopped  with 
the  year  1535  on  the  ground  of  inadequate 
sale,  and  Pocock's  collections  remained  for  the 
most  part  in  manuscript  with  the  exception  of 
those  published  in  '  Troubles  connected  with 
the  Prayer-Book  of  1549 '  (Camden  Soc.  1884, 
4to).  Pocock  also  edited  for  the  Camden 
Society  Harpsfield's  '  Treatise  of  the  Pre- 
tended Divorce  of  Catherine  of  Aragon,' 


1878,  and  contributed  numerous  articles  on 
Reformation  history  to  the  '  Saturday  Re- 
view,' the  '  Union  Review,' '  Quarterly  Re- 
view,' 'Church  Quarterly'  and  'English 
Historical '  Reviews,  and  to  the '  Athenaeum ' 
and  '  Academy.'  He  also  wrote  a  few  arti- 
cles for  the  earlier  volumes  of  this  '  Dic- 
tionary.' He  did  much  to  discredit  the 
traditional  protestant  view  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, and,  though  his  work  is  somewhat 
marred  by  theological  bias,  the  masses  of 
new  material  he  brought  to  light  have  laid 
subsequent  writers  under  a  debt  of  gratitude 
to  him. 

His  other  works  include  :  1.  '  The  Ritual 
Commission,'  Bristol,  1872.  2.  '  The  Aboli- 
tion of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,'  3  parts, 
London,  1874.  3.  'The  Principles  of  the 
Reformation,'  London,  1875.  4.  'The  Re- 
covery from  the  Principles  of  the  Reforma- 
tion,' London,  1877. 

[Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886;  Crock- 
ford's  Clerical  Directory,  1897;  Times,  11  March 
1897;  Guardian,  1897,  i.  396;  Pocock's  -works 
in  Brit.  Mus.  Library,  esp.  his  preface  to '  Troubles ' 
(Camden  Soc.) ;  and  information  from  the  Rev. 
J.  R.  Magrath,  Provost  of  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
ford.] A.  F.  P. 

POLE,  WILLIAM  (1814-1900),  en- 
gineer, musician,  and  authority  on  whist, 
fourth  son  of  Thomas  Pole  of  Birmingham, 
was  born  there  on  22  April  1814,  and  edu- 
cated at  a  private  school  at  Birmingham 
kept  by  a  Mr.  Guy.  In  1829  he  was  ap- 
prenticed for  six  years  to  Charles  H.  Capper, 
an  engineer  in  practice  at  Birmingham.  On 
the  expiry  of  his  apprenticeship  he  removed 
to  London,  and  obtained  temporary  employ- 
ment as  a  draughtsman  by  Messrs.  Cottam 

6  Hallen,  and  then  as  manager  of  an  en- 
gineering factory  belonging  to  Thomas  Graves 
Barlow.     On  7  April  1840  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
and  in  1843  he  was  awarded  a  Telford  medal 
for  a  paper  on  the  laws  of  friction,  read  on 

7  Feb.     He  was  elected  a  full  member  on 
12  Feb.  1856,  served  on  the  council  from 
1871  to  1885,  and  was  honorary  secretary 
from  1885  to  1896,  when  he  was  elected 
honorary  member.     In  1844  he  published 
his  book  on  the  '  Cornish  Pumping  Engine,' 
and  in  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  by 
the  East  India  Company  first  professor  of 
engineering  at  Elphinstone  College,  Bombay. 
In  1845  he  did  some  surveying  for  what 
afterwards  became  the  Great  Indian  Penin- 
sula railway,  but   in  1847  ill  health  com- 
pelled him  to  return  to  England,  and  in 
1848  he  became  business  manager  to  James 
Simpson,  hydraulic  engineer  at  Westminster. 


Pole 


279 


Pole 


Under  Simpson  he  assisted  at  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Lambeth  Water  Company's 
works  at  Thames  Ditton,  and  with  David 
Thomson  he  patented  an  improved  pumping 
engine  (Proc.  Inst.  Meek.  Engineers,  July 
1862).  In  1850  he  was  engaged  by  Robert 
Stephenson  [q.  v.]  to  work  out  the  calcula- 
tions for  his  Britannia  bridge  over  the  Menai 
Straits,  and  in  1852  he  was  awarded  a  silver 
medal  by  the  Society  of  Arts  for  his  mathe- 
matical calculations  on  the  action  of  the 
crank  in  the  steam  engine. 

In  1852  Pole  became  assistant  to  James 
Meadows  Rendel  [q.  v.j ;  he  accompanied 
Rendel  to  Italy  in  1853  to  report  to  the 
Italian  government  on  the  harbours  at  Genoa 
and  Spezzia,  and  Pole  personally  explained 
his  reports  to  Cavour.  In  the  following 
year  he  went  with  Rendel  to  Hamburg 
to  attend  the  international  conference  on 
methods  for  improving  the  navigation  of  the 
Elbe,  and  in  1855  again  with  Rendel  he  sur- 
veyed the  coast  of  the  German  Ocean  on 
behalf  of  the  Prussian  government,  with  a 
view  to  selecting  the  best  harbour.  In  Oc- 
tober of  the  same  year  M.  de  Lesseps  con- 
sulted him  on  the  proposed  Suez  canal,  but 
Pole's  chief  work  under  Rendel  was  in  con- 
nection with  railways,  and  during  these 
years  he  took  out  several  patents  for  im- 
proved methods  of  railway  construction,  e.  g. 
a  patent  for  railway  wheels,  11  Jan.  1856, 
and  one  for  fish-joints  of  railways,  10  Nov. 
1860  (Index  of  Patentees,  1850-60). 

After  Rendel's  death  Pole  was  appointed 
in  January  1857  assistant  to  Sir  John  Fowler 
[q.  v.  Suppl.],  whom  he  accompanied  to  Al- 
geria to  survey  for  the  proposed  French 
railways  in  that  colony.  In  1858  he  became 
a  consulting  engineer  on  his  own  account  at 
3  Storey's  Gate,  Westminster,  and  from  that 
time  until  his  death  he  was  constantly  em- 
ployed on  government  work.  In  1861  he 
was  a  member  of  Sir  John  Dalrymple  Hay's 
committee  appointed  to  investigate  the  ap- 
plication of  iron  armour  to  war  ships  and 
land  fortifications ;  he  took  a  large  part  in 
drawing  up  the  committee's  report  issued  in 
five  volumes,  and  in  1876  wrote  a  reply  to 
hostile  criticisms  which  was  issued  as  a  par- 
liamentary paper.  In  1865  he  was  secretary 
of  the  royal  commission  appointed  to  in- 
vestigate the  principles  of  railway  legisla- 
tion in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  in 
1867  he  was  secretary  to  the  royal  com- 
mission on  the  London  water  supply;  its 
report,  issued  in  1869,  was  mainly  Pole's 
work.  From  1870  until  his  death  he  was 
one  of  the  metropolitan  gas  referees,  and  in 
June  1882  he  was  placed  on  the  royal  com- 
mission to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the 


j  Thames  and  disposal  of  sewage.     In  1884-5 
he  was  secretary  of  the  departmental  com- 
j  mittee  on  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 
In  1871  he  was  appointed  consulting  railwav 
engineer  in  England  to  the  Japanese  govern- 
i  ment,  and  in  1883  received  the  Japanese 
|  order  of  the  Rising  Sun.     In  1880  he  was 
j  assisted  in  the  government  inquiry  into  the 
Tay  Bridge  disaster,  and  he  was  frequently 
consulted  by  large  provincial  municipalities 
such   as   Manchester,  Liverpool,  and  Bir- 
mingham, on  questions  connected  with  their 
water  supply. 

In  addition  to  his  practical  work  Pole 
was  for  many  years  actively  employed  as  a 
lecturer  and  writer  on  engineering  and  other 
scientific  topics.  From  1859  to  1867  he  was 
professor  of  civil  engineering  at  University 
College,  Gower  Street,  in  1865  he  delivered 
six  lectures  before  the  royal  school  of  naval 
architecture  and  marine  engineering,  and  he 
occasionally  gave  lectures  to  the  royal  en- 
gineer students  at  Chatham.  He  contri- 
buted numerous  papers  to  the  '  Proceedings 
of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,'  many 
of  which  were  also  issued  separately.  For 
a  paper  on  the  mountain  railway  up  the 
Rigi  he  was  awarded  a  Telford  premium  in 
1873.  He  contributed  several  chapters  to 
Jeaffreson's  '  Life  of  Robert  Stephenson ' 
(1864),  one  to  the  'Life  of  I.  K.  Brunei' 
(1870),  completed  Sir  William  Fairbairn's 
'Life'  (1877),  and  wrote  a  'Life  of  Sir  W. 
Siemens'  (1888).  He  also  wrote  on  'Colour 
Blindness'  in  the  'Philosophical  Trans- 
actions' for  1859,  and  as  early  as  1844  had 
published  a  translation  of  Gessert's  '  Art  of 
Painting  on  Glass.'  He  was  much  inte- 
rested in  photography  and  in  astronomy.  He 
accompanied  the  astronomical  expedition  to 
Spain  in  July  1860,  and  published  an  ac- 
count of  it  in  'Macmillan's  Magazine' for 
that  year. 

But  the  subjects  in  which  Pole  became 
almost  as  eminent  as  in  engineering  were 
music  and  whist.  When  only  seventeen  years 
of  age  he  had  been  appointed  organist  to  a 
Wesleyan  chapel  at  Birmingham;  this  he  soon 
exchanged  for  the  post  of  organist  at  a  con- 
gregational chapel  in  the  same  town,  and  on 
his  removal  to  London  he  was  in  December 
1836  elected  organist  of  St.  Mark's,  North 
Audley  Street,  London.  He  graduated  Mus. 
Bac.  at  Oxford  on  13  June  I860,  and  Mus. 
Doc.  on  17  Dec.  1867.  In  1875  his  report  on 
the  music  at  the  Crystal  Palace  determined 
the  directors  to  continue  the  concerts,  and 
from  1 878  to  1891  he  was  examiner  for  musical 
degrees  in  London  University.  In  1877  he 
gave  a  course  of  lectures  at  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution on  the  theory  of  music,  afterwards  pub- 


Pole 


280 


Pollock 


lished  as  '  The  Philosophy  of  Music'  (1877 ; 
2nd  edit.  1887 ;  4th  edit.  1895).  In  1879  he 
published  '  The  Story  of  Mozart's  Requiem,' 
and  in  1881  he  declined  the  offer  of  the  profes- 
sorship of  acoustics  at  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music.  In  1889  he  was  elected  a  vice-pre- 
sident of  the  Royal  College  of  Organists. 
He  contributed  several  articles  to  Grove's 
4  Dictionary  of  Music,'  and  published  in  1872 
a  setting  of  'Three  Songs'  (London,  fol.), 
and  in  1879  '  The  Hundredth  Psalm ;  motett 
for  eight  voices.' 

As  an  exponent  of  whist  Pole  ranks  with 

*  Cavendislr  [see  JONES,  HENRY,  Suppl.]  and 
James  Clay  [q.  v.]    He  was  a  constant  ha- 
bitue of  the  card-room  at  the  Athenaeum, 
but  his  play  is  said  not  to  have  been  so  suc- 
cessful as  his  books  on  the  game.     His  first 
contribution  to  whist    literature   was  his 

*  Essay  on  the  Theory  of  the  Modern  Scientific 
Game,'  issued  as  an  appendix  to  the  six- 
teenth edition  of  '  Short  Whist ...  by  Major 
A.'  (1865).     In  this  form  it  passed  through 
two  editions ;  it  was  separately  published  in 
1870,  and  since  then  has  gone  through  more 
than  twenty  editions.     In  1883  he  brought 
out  his  'Philosophy  of  Whist'  (6th  edit. 
1892) ;  he  also  contributed  the  article  on 
•whist  toBohn's  'Handbook of  Games'(1889), 
compiled  some  rhymed  rulesforwhist  players, 
which  had  a  large  circulation,  and  was  a 
frequent  contributor  on  the  subject  to  perio- 
dical literature. 

This  variety  of  attainments  brought  Pole 
many  honours ;  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  on  6  June  1861,  was 
placed  on  its  council  in  1863,  and  served  as 
vice-president  in  1875  and  1888.  In  1864 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Athenaeum 
under  rule  two,  and  in  1877  he  became  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 
In  1888  he  represented  both  the  Royal 
Society  and  the  university  of  London  at  the 
eighth  centenary  of  Bologna  University.  He 
died  at  his  residence,  9  Stanhope  Place,  on 
SO  Dec.  1900.  His  wife  Matilda,  youngest 
daughter  of  Henry  G  auntlett ,  rector  of  Olney, 
and  sister  of  Pole's  friend,  John  Henry 
Gauntlett  [q.  v.],  predeceased  him  in  October 
1900,  leaving  issue  several  sons  and  daugh- 
ters. A  portrait,  reproduced  from  a  litho- 
graph published  in  1877,  is  prefixed  to  Pole's 
privately  printed  autobiographical  'Notes 
(1898). 

[Pole's  privately  printed  Notes  from  his  Life 
and  Work,  1898  (with  a  list  of  his  -writings). 
Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  1901,  i.  301-9; 
General  Index  to  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers 
Eoyal  Society's  Cat.  Scientific  Papers;  Brit 
Museum  Cat. ;  Lists  of  the  Koyal  SOP.  ;  Foster's 
Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886;  List  of  Members  o: 


the  Athenaeum  Club;  Times,  31  Dec.  1900  and! 
3  Jan.  1901 ;  Men  of  the  Time,  edit.  1895 ;  Who'* 
Who,  1901 ;  Grove's  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musi- 

ians;  Baker's  Diet,  of  Musicians,  1900;  W.  P.. 

Courtney's  English  Whist,  1894.]      A.  F.  P. 

POLLOCK,  SIB  CHARLES  EDWARD 

1823-1897),  judge,  fourth  son  of  chief 
jaron  Pollock  [see  POLLOCK,  SIR  JONATHAN 
FREDERICK],  by  his  first  wife,  Frances, 
daughter  of  Francis  Rivers,  was  born  on 
31  Oct.  1823.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's 
school  from  1833  to  1841,  and,  dispensing- 
with  a  university  course,  served  a  long  and 
varied  apprenticeship  to  the  law  as  private 
secretary  and  (from  1846)  marshal  to  hi» 
father,  and  also  as  pupil  to  James  (after- 
wards Sir  James)  Shaw  Willes  [q.  v.]  On 
18  Jan.  1842  he  was  admitted  student  at  the 
Inner  Temple,  where  he  was  called  to  the 
bar  on  29  Jan.  1847,  and  elected  bencher  on 
16  Nov.  1866. 

For  some  years  after  his  call  Pollock- 
went  the  home  circuit  without  success. 
Meanwhile,  however,  he  made  himself  known 
as  a  reporter  in  the  court  of  exchequer,  then 
unusually  efficient  [cf.  ALDERSON,  SIR  ED- 
WARD HALL,  and  PARKE,  SIR  JAMES,  BARON 
WENSLEYDALE],  and  as  a  legal  author  (see 
infra).  By  these  means  he  gradually 
worked  his  way  into  practice,  and  after  hold- 
ing the  complimentary  offices  of  '  tubman ' 
and  '  postman '  in  the  court  of  exchequer,, 
took  silk  on  23  July  1866. 

As  a  leader  he  had  for  some  years  a  large 
and  lucrative  practice,  especially  in  mercan- 
tile cases,  and  on  the  retirement  of  Baron 
Channell  in  1873  he  was  raised  to  the  ex- 
chequer bench  (10  Jan.),  invested  with 
the  coif  (13  Jan.),  and  knighted  (5  Feb.) 
The  consolidation  of  the  courts  effected 
by  the  Judicature  Acts  gave  him  in  1875- 
the  status  of  justice  of  the  high  court,  but 
did  not  alter  his  official  designation.  It 
was,  however,  provided  that  no  new  barons 
of  the  exchequer  should  be  created,  and  the* 
death  of  Baron  Huddleston  (5  Dec.  1890) 
left  Pollock  in  exclusive  possession  of  one 
of  the  most  ancient  and  honourable  of  our 
judicial  titles.  A  similar  historic  distinc- 
tion, that  of  representing  the  ancient  and 
doomed  order  of  serjeants-at-law,  he  shared 
with  Lords  Esher  and  Penzance,  and  Sir 
Nathaniel  (afterwards  Lord)  Lindley.  On 
the  dissolution  of  Serjeants'  Inn  in  1882  he- 
was  re-elected  bencher  of  the  Inner  Temple. 
Pollock  tried,  in  April  1876,  the  unpre- 
cedented case  of  the  Queen  v.  Keyn,  arising 
out  of  the  sinking  of  the  British  vessel 
Strathclyde  by  the  German  steamship  Fran- 
conia.  The  collision  occurred  within  three- 
miles  of  the  English  coast,  and  Keyn,  tho 


Pollock 


281 


Potter 


master  of  the  Franconia,  to  whose  culpable 
negligence-it  was  imputed,  was  indicted  for 
manslaughter  and  found  guilty.  Pollock 
deferred  judgment  pending  the  decision  of 
the  question  of  jurisdiction  by  the  court  for 
the  consideration  of  crown  cases  reserved, 
and  concurred  with  the  majority  of  that 
court  in  quashing  the  conviction  (Cox, 
Criminal  Cases,  xiii.  403).  He  took  part  in 
several  other  important  decisions  of  the  same 
tribunal.  In  the  St.  Paul's  reredos  case  in 
1889  he  differed  from  Lord  Coleridge,  and 
his  judgment  was  sustained  by  both  the 
court  of  appeal  and  the  House  of  Lords. 
Pollock  was  vice-president  of  the  Rochester 
Diocesan  Association,  a  member  of  the  Com- 
mons' Preservation  Society,  and  of  the  Board 
of  Conservators  of  Wimbledon  Common.  He 
died  at  his  residence,  The  Croft,  Putney,  on 
21  Nov.  1897,  leaving  a  well-merited  repu- 
tation for  sound  law  and  unaffected  piety, 
lie  married  thrice :  first,  on  1  Sept.  1848, 
Nicola  Sophia,  second  daughter  of  the  Rev. 
Henry  Herbert,  rector  of  Rathdowney, 
Queen's  County,  Ireland ;  secondly,  on  25 
May  1858,  Georgiana,  second  daughter  of 
George  William  Archibald,  LL.D.,  M.R.,  of 
Nova  Scotia ;  thirdly,  on  23  Dec.  1865,  Amy 
Menella,  daughter  of  Hassard  Hume  Dodg- 
son,  master  of  the  court  of  common  pleas 
and  cousin  of  Charles  Lutwidge  Dodgson 
(Lewis  Carroll)  fq.v.  Suppl.]  He  had  issue 
by  all  three  wives.  His  portrait,  etched 
from  a  sketch  made  in  court,  is  in  '  Pump 
Court '  for  March  1884. 

Pollock  was  joint  author,withJ.J.Lowndes 
and  Sir  Peter  Maxwell,  of '  Reports  of  Cases 
argued  and  determined  in  the  Queen's  Bench 
Practice  Court :  with  Points  of  Practice  and 
Pleading  decided  in  the  Courts  of  Common 
Pleas  and  Exchequer'  (1850-1),  London, 
1851-2,  2  vols.  8vo.  He  was  also  joint 
author,  with  F.  P.  Maude,  of 'A  Compendium 
of  the  Law  of  Merchant  Shipping;  with  an 
Appendix  containing  all  the  Statutes  of  prac- 
tical utility,'  London,  1853,  8vo ;  4th  ed.  by 
Pollock  and  (Sir)  Gainsford  Bruce,  1881.  He 
wa?  author  of  the  following  works  :  1.  '  The 
Practice  of  the  County  Courts,'  London,  1851, 
8vo  (Supplements  entitled  (1)  '  An  Act  to 
facilitate  and  arrange  proceedings  in  the 
County  Courts,  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  54;  together 
with  the  Absconding  Debtors  Act,'  14  & 
15  Viet.  c.  52,  London,  1 852,  8vo.  (2)  '  The 
Practice  of  the  County  Courts  in  respect  of 
Probate  and  Administration,'  London,  1858, 
8vo.  (3)  Equitable  Jurisdiction  of  the  County 
Courts,'  London,  1865,  12rao)  ;  last  edition, 
including  supplements,  revised  by  H.  Nicol 
and  H.  C.  Pollock,  London,  1880, 8vo.  2.  '  A 
Treatise  on  the  Power  of  the  Courts  of  Com- 


mon Law  to  compel  the  production  of  docu- 
ments for  inspection ;  with  an  Appendix 
containing  the  Act  to  amend  the  Law  of 
Evidence,  15  &  16  Viet.  c.  99,  and  notes 
thereto,'  London,  1851,  8vo ;  reprinted  with 
Holland  and  Chandler's '  Common  Law  Pro- 
cedure Act  of  1854,'  London,  1854,  12mo. 

[Foster's  Men  at  the  Bar,  and  Baronetage ; 
St.  Paul's  School  Adm.  Reg. ;  Law  List,  1848  ; 
Celebrities  of  the  Day  (ed.  Thomas),  1881,  i. 
60;  Law  Rep.  Appeal  Cases  xii.  p.  xvii ;  ib.  1891. 
p.  669;  Vanity  Fair,  9  Aug.  1890;  Men  and 
Women  of  the  Time,  1891 ;  Times,  22  Nov. 
1897;  Ann.  Reg.  1876  ii.  175,  1897  ii.  194; 
Law  Times,  11  Jan.  1873,  27  Nov.  1897;  Law 
Journ.  27  Nov.  1897 ;  Solicitors'  Journ.  27  Nov. 
1897  ;  Brit.  Mus.  Cat.]  J.  M.  R. 

POTTER,  THOMAS  BAYLEY  (1817- 
1898),  politician,  born  on  29  Nov.  1817  at 
Manchester,  was  the  younger  son  of  Sir 
Thomas  Potter,  knt.,  by  his  wife  Esther, 
daughter  of  Thomas  Bayley  of  Booth  Hall, 
near  Manchester. 

SIR  THOJIAS  POTTER  (1773-1845)  and  his 
brother  RICHARD  POTTER  (1778-1842)  were 
Unitarians  and  leading  members  of  the  Man- 
chester school  of  liberals.  They  were  among 
the  founders  of  the  '  Manchester  Guardian,' 
and  afterwards  of  the  '  Times '  (of  Manches- 
ter), later  called  the  '  Examiner  and  Times.' 
Thomas,  after  actively  promoting  the  incor- 
poration of  Manchester,  was  elected  its  first 
mayor  in  1838.  During  his  second  mayoralty, 
in  1839,  he  was  knighted ;  he  died  at  Burle 
Hill,  near  Manchester,  on  20  March  1845 
(Gent.  Mag.  1845,  i.  562).  A  portrait  of 
him  is  in  the  office  of  the  lord  mayor  in 
Manchester  town  hall.  His  brother  Richard, 
known  as  '  Radical  Dick,'  was  elected  M.P. 
for  Wigan  in  the  first  reformed  parliament 
in  1832  and  again  in  1835  and  1837  ;  he 
died  at  Penzance  on  13  July  1842  (Gent. 
Mag.  1842,  ii.  429).  The  brothers  founded 
the  wholesale  house  in  the  Manchester  trade 
so  long  known  as  'Potter's,'  and  it  became 
a  rendezvous  for  political  and  philanthropic 
reformers.  The  business  was  first  carried 
on  in  Cannon  Street,  and  was  removed  to 
George  Street  in  1836.  It  was  one  of  the 
rooms  in  the  George  Street  premises  that 
was  called  '  the  Plotting  Room.' 

Thomas  Bayley  Potter  first  attended  Mr. 
John's  school  in  George  Street,  Manchester. 
At  the  age  of  ten  he  went  with  his  elder 
brother,  John,  to  Dr.  Carpenter's  school  at 
Bristol.  Dr.  Carpenter  used  to  read  aloud 
the  parliamentary  debates,  and  of  about  six- 
teen boys  who  attended  during  Potter's  time 
eight  became  liberal  members  of  parliament. 
From  Bristol  Potter  went  to  Rugby  under 
Dr.  Arnold.  While  he  was  there  the  reform 


Potter 


282 


Powell 


bill  passed,  and  immediately  on  leaving 
school,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  took  part  in 
his  uncle  Richard's  election  at  Wigan.  In 
1833  he  joined  the  London  University,  the 
only  one  open  to  him  as  a  Unitarian. 

On  returning  to  Manchester  Potter  became 
a   partner  in    the  family  business,   and   a  ! 
vigorous  supporter  of  the  family  politics,  i 
At  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  was  chairman 
of  the  Manchester  branch  of  the  Complete  ; 
Suffrage  Society.     In  1845,  on  the  death  of  j 
his  father,  his  brother  John  became  head  of  j 
the  firm  now  known  as  '  Potter  &  Norris.'  j 
John  was  mayor  of  Manchester  during  three 
successive  years,  and  was  knighted  in  1851 ;  j 
he  was  elected   M.P.   for  Manchester    on  i 
30  March  1857,  and  died  on  25  Oct.  1858.  | 
At  the  time  of  the  Crimean  war  a  temporary 
estrangement  occurred  between  the  Potters  ! 
who  supported  the  war,  and  the  party  of  i 
Bright  and  Cobden  who  opposed  the  war.  ' 
Sir  John  stood  for  Manchester  in  1857  in  \ 
opposition  to  Bright,  and,  with  the  support 
of  his  brother  Thomas,  was  elected  at  the  : 
head  of  the  poll.     In  the  following  year  Sir  j 
John  died,  and  his  brother  Thomas  became 
head  of  the  firm.     The  split  in  the  liberal 
party  was  soon  repaired,  and  long  before 
1861    Potter  was   again   co-operating  with 
his  old  friends.     In  that  year  he  warmly 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  North  Americans 
in  the  American   civil  war,   and  in   1863  j 
founded  the  Union  and  Emancipation  So- 
ciety, which  he  carried  on  at  great  cost  of  j 
money  and  labour  during  the  continuance  ' 
of  the  American  war.     His  friendship  with  ' 
Richard   Cobden  became  very  strong,  and  I 
in  1865,  when  Cobden  died,  he  was  elected 
to    succeed   him   in   the   representation   of  i 
Rochdale,   his    candidature    being   warmly  j 
recommended    by    John   Bright.      In    the 
general    election    which   happened    a    few 
months  later  the  seat  was  not  contested,  but 
in  the  six  following  general   elections  he 
fought  hard  fights,  winning  with  substantial 
majorities.     In   1886  he  stood  as  a  home- 
ruler.    Shortly  after  the  death  of  his  partner, 
Mr.  Francis -Taylor,  which  occurred  about 
1870,   the  business  was    sold,   and  Potter 
ended  his  commercial  connection  with  Man- 
chester.    In  1895  failing  health  compelled 
him  to  retire  from  parliament.     During  his 
thirty  years  in  the  House  of  Common?,  he 
was  a  consistent  supporter  of  free  trade  and 
of  the  principles  of  political  treedom.     He 
seldom  spoke,  but  was  a  diligent  member. 
He  introduced  a  bill  in  1876  designed  to 
abolish  the  law  of  primogeniture,  the  second 
reading  of  which  was  lost  by  only  thirty- 
five  votes.      Outside    the  house    he    gave 
influential  and  substantial  support  to  many 


public  movements ;  for  example,  to  that  for 
the  unity  of  Italy,  and  for  many  years  he 
had  a  close  personal  friendship  with  Gari- 
baldi. In  1879  he  visited  America  with  the 
object  of  encouraging  the  adoption  of  free 
trade  in  the  United  States.  "While  at  Bos- 
ton he  was  elected  the  first  honorary  mem- 
ber of  the  Merchants'  Club. 

The  most  important  work  of  Potter's  life 
was  the  establishment  and  successful  con- 
duct during  many  years  of  the  Cobden  Club. 
This  society  was  started  in  1866,  partly  at 
the  suggestion  of  Professor  Thorold  Rogers, 
and  was  intended  to  educate  the  people  by 
means  of  printed  publications,  lectures,  and 
otherwise  in  the  principles  of  free  trade  as 
held  by  Richard  Cobden.  Potter  himself 
acted  as  secretary,  and  for  some  time  as 
chairman  of  the  club,  and  in  1890,  twenty- 
four  years  after  its  establishment,  received 
from  Gladstone,  in  the  presence  of  several 
distinguished  statesmen,  an  address  setting 
forth  the  valuable  public  work  accomplished 
by  the  club  under  his  guidance. 

At  the  end  of  his  life  Potter  spent  his 
vacations  in  Cobden's  old  home  at  Midhurst, 
where  he  died  on  6  Nov.  1898. 

In  1846  Potter  married  Mary,  daughter  of 
Samuel  Ashton  of  Gee  Cross,  Hyde.  They 
had  four  sons  and  one  daughter,  of  whom, 
the  third  and  fourth  sons,  Arthur  and  Richard, 
and  the  daughter  Edith  survive  their  father. 
Mrs.  Potter  died  at  Cannes  in  1885,  and 
Potter,  in  1887,  married  Helena,  daughter 
of  John  Hicks  of  Bodmin,  who  survives 
him. 

Potter  was  popular  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons with  men  of  all  parties.  His  appear- 
ance was  that  of  a  stout  Yorkshireman, 
with  a  florid  complexion ;  and  he  was  jest- 
ingly spoken  of  as  '  the  greatest  man  in  the 
house,'  his  weight  amounting  to  eighteen 
stone. 

[Private  information  ;  Hansard's  Parl.  De- 
bates ;  personal  knowledge.]  E.  0. 

POWELL,  SIR  GEORGE  SMYTH 
BADEN-  (1847-1898),  author  and  poli- 
tician, born  at  Oxford  on  24  Dec.  1847,  was 
the  third  son  of  Baden  Powell  [q.v.],  by  his 
second  wife,  Henrietta  Grace,  daughter  of 
Admiral  William  Henry  Smyth  [q.  v.] 
Major-general  Robert  Stephenson  Smyth 
Baden-Powell  is  his  younger  brother.  He 
was  admitted  to  St.  Paul's  School  on  17  Sept. 
1858,  and  to  Marlborough  College  in  April 
1864.  Leaving  school  at  midsummer  1866 
he  spent  three  years  in  travel,  visiting  India, 
the  Australasian  colonies,  the  Cape,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Norway,  and  Germany.  He  pub- 
lished his  observation^  in  Australia  and  New 


Powell 


283 


Powell 


Zealand  in  1872  under  the  title  '  New- 
Homes  for  the  Old  Country '  (London,  8vo), 
a  work  containing  much  information  on  the 
natural  history  of  the  colonies.  He  matri- 
culated from  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  on 
18  Oct.  1871,  graduating  B.A.  in  1875  and 
M.A.  in  1878.  In  1876  he  obtained  the 
chancellor's  prize  for  an  English  essay  on 
the  subject  of  'The  Political  and  Social 
Results  of  the  absorption  of  small  Races 
by  large.'  In  the  same  year  he  entered  the 
Inner  Temple  as  a  student.  In  1877  he  be- 
came private  secretary  to  Sir  George  Fer- 
gusson  Bowen  [q.v.  Suppl.],  governor  of 
Victoria.  At  this  time  he  devoted  some 
attention  to  the  study  of  the  economic 
aspects  of  colonisation,  and  in  1879  he  pub- 
lished '  Protection  and  Bad  Times  with 
special  reference  to  the  Political  Economy 
of  English  Colonisation'  (London,  8vo),  in 
which  he  vigorously  combated  the  notion 
that  while  free  trade  was  good  for  a  manu- 
facturing country  like  England,  it  was  un- 
suited  for  younger  communities.  In  1880 
Baden-Powell  proceeded  to  the  West  Indies 
as  commissioner  to  inquire  into  the  effect 
of  the  sugar  bounties  on  West  India  trade. 
In  1882  he  published  '  State  Aid  and  State 
Interference'  (London,  8vo),  a  strong  protest 
against  protection,  in  which,  without  con- 
fining himself  to  the  question  of  sugar 
bounties,  he  made  use  of  his  observations  in 
the  West  Indies.  In  November  1882  he 
was  appointed  joint  commissioner  with 
Colonel  Sir  William  Grossman  to  inquire 
into  the  administration,  revenue,  and  expen- 
diture of  the  -  West  India  colonies.  The 
report  of  the  commission,  contained  in  five 
blue-books,  was  completed  by  Easter  1884. 
For  his  services  Baden-Powell  was  created 
C.M.G.  In  January  1885  he  went  to  South 
Africa  to  assist  Sir  Charles  Warren  in  the 
pacification  of  Bechuanaland.  He  after- 
wards made  a  tour  of  investigation  in 
Basutoland  and  Zululand. 

In  December  1885  Baden-Powell  was  re- 
turned to  parliament  in  the  conservative  in- 
terest for  the  Kirkdale  division  of  Liverpool, 
a  seat  which  he  retained  until  his  death. 
Immediately  after  his  election  he  proceeded 
to  Canada  to  assist  to  establish  communica- 
tion with  Japan  through  the  colony  by 
means  of  a  line  of  steamers  between  Van- 
couver and  Yokohama.  He  spoke,  wrote, 
and  worked  in  favour  of  this  scheme,  which 
was  subsidised  by  government  and  success- 
fully carried  out.  The  new  route  reduced 
the  length  of  the  journey  to  Japan  from 
forty-two  to  twenty-two  days.  In  1887  he 
was  appointed  special  commissioner  with 
Sir  George  Bowen  to  arrange  the  details  of 


the  new  Maltese  constitution.  All  the  re- 
commendations of  the  commissioners  were 
adopted,  and  they  received  the  thanks  of 
government.  The  following  year  Baden- 
Powell  was  nominated  K.C.M.G. 

While  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Canada  in 
1886  Baden-Powell  was  attracted  to  the 
dispute  concerning  the  Behring  Sea  fisheries. 
He  endeavoured  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
British  and  American  governments  to  the 
question,  visiting  Washington  on  his  wav  to 
England.  In  June  1891,  when  the  difficulty 
became  acute,  Lord  Salisbury  appointed 
Baden-Powell  and  a  representative  of  the 
Canadian  dominion  to  proceed  to  the  Behring 
Sea  to  investigate  the  subject.  The  British 
claims  were  founded  on  their  reports,  and  in 
December  1892  he  was  appointed  British 
member  of  the  joint  commission  in  Wash- 
ington. In  the  spring  of  1893  he  was 
chosen  to  advise  in  the  preparation  and  con- 
duct of  the  British  case  before  the  arbitrators 
in  Paris.  For  these  services  Baden-Powell 
received  the  thanks  of  government,  his  posi- 
tion as  member  of  parliament  precluding  the 
bestowal  of  any  substantial  reward.  In 
1892,  in  recognition  of  his  services  to  the 
dominion,  he  obtained  from  the  university  of 
Toronto  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D. 

In  1896  Baden-Powell  conveyed  a  party 
of  astronomers  to  Nova  Zembla  in  his  steam 
yacht,  the  Ontario,  to  observe  the  total 
eclipse  of  the  sun  on  9  Aug.  While  at  Nova 
Zembla  Dr.  Nansen,  who  was  returning 
from  his  expedition  towards  the  north  pole, 
joined  him,  and  was  conveyed  to  Norway  in 
the  Ontario.  Powell  died  at  his  residence 
in  Euston  Square,  London,  on  20  Nov.  1898, 
and  was  buried  at  Kensal  Green  cemetery 
on  24  Nov.  In  April  1893  he  married,  at 
Cheltenham,  Frances,  only  child  of  Charles 
Wilson  of  Glendouran,  Cheltenham.  She 
survived  him.  By  her  he  had  a  son  and 
daughter. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned 
Baden-Powell  was  the  author  of  '  The 
Saving  of  Ireland,  Industrial,  Financial, 
Political '  (London,  1898,  8vo),  a  work  di- 
rected against  the  policy  of  home  rule.  He 
wrote  numerous  articles  in  the  '  Quarterly,' 
'  Westminster,' '  Nineteenth  Century,'  'Fort- 
nightly,' 'Contemporary,'  and  'National' 
Reviews,  and  in  '  Eraser's  Magazine,'  dealing 
with  political  and  economic  aspects  of  colo- 
nial administration.  He  also  delivered  nu- 
merous lectures  and  public  addresses,  edited 
'  The  Truth  about  Home  Rule'  (Edinburgh 
and  London,  1888,  8vo),  a  collection  of 
papers  on  the  Irish  question,  and  contributed 
an  article  on '  Policy  and  Wealth  in  Ashanti ' 
to  Major-general  Robert  Stephenson  Smyth 


Powys 


284 


Prestwich 


Baden-Powell's     '  Downfall    of   Prempeh/ 
London,  1896,  8vo. 

[Liverpool  Courier,  21,  22,  25  NOT.  1898  ; 
Men  and  Women  of  the  Time,  1895;  Geogr. 
Journal,  1899,  xiii.  77 ;  Gardiner's  Admission 
Keg.  of  St.  Paul's  School,  1884,  p.  338  ;  Marl- 
borough  College  Keg.  1890,  p.  184;  Foster's 
Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886  ;  Marlburian,  7  Dec. 
1898 ;  Bo  wen's  Thirty  Years  of  Colonial  Go- 
Ternment,  ed.  S.  Lane-Poole,  1889,  ii.  405-30.] 

E.  I.  C. 

POWYS,  THOMAS  LITTLETON, 
fourth  BABOK  LILFORD  (1833-1896),  orni- 
thologist, was  the  eldest  son  of  Thomas 
Atherton  Powys,  third  Baron  Lilford,  and 
his  wife  Mary  Elizabeth  (daughter  of  Henry 
Richard  Fox,  third  Baron  Holland,  and 
Elizabeth  Vassall,  his  wife).  He  was  born 
in  Stanhope  Street,  Mayfair,  London,  on 
18  March  1833.  He  was  educated  at  Dr. 
Bickmore's  school,  Berkswell,  Warwick- 
shire, from  1843  to  1848,  and  at  Harrow, 
which  he  quitted  at  midsummer  1850  for 
residence  with  a  tutor  at  Lausanne.  He 
then  entered  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
•whence  he  matriculated  12  June  1851,  but 
left  the  university  without  taking  a  degree. 
At  an  early  age  he  had  manifested  a  love 
for  animals,  and  when  at  Harrow  kept  a 
small  menagerie,  and  thence  wrote  his  first 
published  paper.  He  kept  a  larger  menagerie 
at  Oxford,  and  all  his  spare  time,  during 
vacation  and  subsequently  through  life,  as 
far  as  his  health  would  permit,  was  devoted 
to  travel  for  the  purpose  of  studying  animals, 
and  especially  birds  in  the  field.  In  1853 
he  visited  Scilly,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  and 
becoming  acquainted  with  Edward  Clough 
Newcome,  the  best  falconer  of  his  day, 
shortly  after  took  up  falconry  himself.  In 
1854,  on  the  embodiment  of  the  militia,  he 
joined  that  of  his  county  and  served  at 
Dublin  and  Devonport,  giving  up  his  com- 
mission at  the  end  of  1855. 

From  1856  to  1858,  accompanied  by  the 
Hon.  Hercules  Rowley,  he  made  an  extended 
yachting  cruise  in  the  Mediterranean.  Re- 
turning to  England  in  the  following  year,  he 
married,  14  June  1859,  Emma  Elizabeth, 
youngest  daughter  of  Robert  William 
Brandling,  esq.,  of  Low  Gosforth,  Northum- 
berland. 

Between  1864  and  1882  he  paid  frequent 
visits  to  Spain  and  the  Mediterranean,  re- 
discovering the  rare  gull  Larus  Audouini. 
The  death  in  1882  of  his  eldest  son,  and  in 
1884  of  his  wife,  greatly  distressed  him,  and 
his  lifelong  malady,  the  gout,  subsequently 
attained  such  a  hold  as  to  render  him  a  per- 
manent invalid,  his  affliction  being  relieved 
by  the  devoted  attention  of  his  second  wife, 


Clementina  (daughter  of  Ker  Baillie  Hamil- 
ton, C.B.),  whom  he  married  on  21  July 
1885. 

He  had  been  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Zoological  Society  in  1852,  and  of  the  Lin- 
nean  Society  in  March  1862.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  British  Ornithologists' 
Union  in  1858,  and  iis  president  from  March 
1867.  He  was  also  a  liberal  supporter  and 
first  president  of  the  Northamptonshire 
Natural  History  Society,  founded  in  1876, 
and  a  prominent  member  of  the '  Old  Hawk- 
ing Club.' 

His  aviaries  at  Lilford  were  the  envy  of 
field  ornithologists,  and  especially  noted  for 
the  collection  of  birds  of  prey. 

His  zeal  for  his  favourite  science  never 
flagged,  and  he  projected  and  issued  his 
famous  work, '  Coloured  Figures  of  the  Birds 
of  the  British  Islands,'  which,  however,  he 
did  not  live  to  complete,  his  malady  causing 
his  death  at  Lilford  on  17  June  1896. 

In  addition  to  some  two  dozen  papers  on 
ornithological  subjects,  contributed  to  the 
'  Ibis '  (of  which  he  was  a  generous  sup- 
porter), the  '  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological 
Society,'  and  other  scientific  journals,  he 
was  author  of:  1.  '  Coloured  Figures  of  the 
Birds  of  the  British  Islands/  completed  by 
Osbert  Salvin  [q.v.  Suppl.],  with  a  biography 
by  Professor  A.  Newton,  and  a  portrait,  7 
vols.,  London,  1885-97,  8vo.  2.  '  Notes  on 
the  Birds  of  Northamptonshire  and  Neigh- 
bourhood,' 2  vols.  illustrated,  London,  1895, 
4to. 

[ '  Lord  Lilford  ...  a  Memoir  by  his  Sister,' 
and  a  preface  by  Mandell  Creighton,  bishop  of 
London,  London,  1900,  Svo  (with  portrait) ;  Pro- 
fessor A.  Newton's  Preface  to  '  Coloured  Figures,' 
&c. ;  Ibis,  1896,  p.  593;  Proc.  Linn.  Soc., 
1896-7,  p.  59 ;  Burke's  Peerage.]  B.  B.  W. 

PRESTWICH,  SIB  JOSEPH  (1812- 
1896),  geologist,  the  eldest  surviving  son  of 
Joseph  Prestwich,  a  wine  merchant  in  Lon- 
don, and  of  Catherine,  daughter  of  Edward 
Blakeway  of  Broseley,  was  born  at  Pens- 
bury,  Clapham,  on  12  "March  1812.  He  was 
descended  from  an  old  Lancashire  family, 
which  lived,  till  the  troubles  of  the  civil 
war,  at  Hulme  Hall,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Irwell,  now  part  of  Manchester.  The  last 
owner,  Thomas  Prestwich,  was  created  a 
baronet  on  25  April  1644  by  Charles  I  for 
services  to  the  royal  cause,  and  it  was  be- 
lieved that  Joseph  Prestwich  was  in  reality 
heir  to  the  title.  When  five  years  old  he 
was  sent  to  a  private  school  near  home ; 
next  to  one  at  Forest  Hill,  and  to  a  third 
in  South  Lambeth,  whither  his  parents  had 
removed.  In  1823  he  was  a  pupil  at  a  school 


Prestwich 


285 


Prestwich 


in  Paris,  boarding  with  a  French  family,  so 
that  in  the  two  years  of  his  stay  he  learnt 
the  language  well.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  went  to  a  school  at  Norwood,  and 
was  then  for  two  years  under  Richard  Valpy 
fq.  v.]  at  Reading.  In  his  seventeenth  year 
he  joined  University  College,  London,  where 
he  was  attracted  to  science  and  chemistry. 
At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  entered  his  father's 
office,  but  though  most  conscientious  in  his 
attention  to  business,  he  devoted  every  spare 
moment  to  science,  working  till  late  in  the 
night ;  this  habit,  and  living  too  sparingly 
so  that  he  might  spend  more  on  books  and 
instruments  for  his  studies,  probably  did 
harm  to  his  constitution,  for  though  he  lived 
to  be  old  he  was  far  from  a  healthy  man. 

Gradually  Prestwich's  interests  concen- 
trated on  geology,  and  he  began  to  study 
the  coalfield  of  Coalbrookdale  in  Shropshire, 
which  he  described  in  two  papers  read  before 
the  Geological  Society  of  London.  The 
second  of  them  at  once  established  his  repu- 
tation as  a  geologist.  While  in  London  he 
settled  down  to  that  close  study,  first  of  the 
Eocene  and  then  of  the  Pliocene  deposits,  on 
which  were  founded  his  most  important 
contributions  to  science. 

His  parents  removed  to  Devonshire  Street, 
Portland  Place,  in  1840,  and  in  1842,  at  a 
rather  anxious  crisis,  the  father  ceded  his 
place  in  the  firm  to  the  son,  who  then  lived 
at  the  offices  in  Mark  Lane.  To  his  study 
of  the  tertiaries  he  had  added  that  of  water 
supply,  and  in  1851  published  an  excellent 
volume  on  the  water-bearing  strata  round 
London.  In  the  same  year  came  the  first 
of  a  series  of  most  valuable  papers  on  the 
Eocene  strata  of  England  and  their  con- 
tinental equivalents,  but  the  series  did  not 
close  till  1888.  He  also  closely  studied  the 
Pliocene  deposits  of  the  eastern  counties, 
especially  during  the  decade  commencing 
with  1845,  but  the  three  papers  which  were 
the  result  were  not  published  till  1871 ; 
though  containing  less  new  matter  than 
those  on  the  Eocene,  they  are  models  of  ex- 
haustive work.  In  one  the  iron  sands  on 
the  North  Downs,  which  at  Lenham  con- 
tain ill-preserved  fossils,  were  classed  as 
lower  Crag.  This  identification  was  after- 
wards contested,  but  further  investigation 
has  confirmed  Prestwich's  view. 

Late  in  the  fifties  he  began  to  work  at 
the  antiquity  of  man,  co-operating  first  in 
the  exploration  of  Brixham  cave,  and  then, 
in  the  spring  of  1859,  visiting  the  Somme 
valley  in  company  with  (Sir)  John  Evans, 
to  examine  into  M.  de  Perthes's  evidence 
for  the  existence  of  man  when  the  gravels 
with  remains  of  the  mammoth  were  formed. 


The  results  were  embodied  in  a  paper  read 
to  the  Royal  Society  in  May  1859,  showing 
that,  though  M.  de  Perthes"  had  been  occa- 
sionally imposed  upon,  the  main  facts  were 
indisputable.  Then  came  the  news  that  a 
human  jawbone,  supposed  to  be  contempo- 
rary, had  been  found  in  the  gravel  at  Moulin 
Quignon,  Abbeville.  Prestwich  went  with 
some  English  experts  in  1863  to  examine 
the  specimen,  and  afterwards  attended  a 
conference  on  the  subject  at  Paris,  when 
they  maintained  the  jaw  to  be  much  more 
recent  than  the  gravel  in  which  it  had  indu- 
bitably been  found.  The  questions  thus 
opened  up  engaged  Prestwich  s  attention  to 
the  last,  some  of  his  latest  papers  being  on 
certain  flints  found  by  Mr.  B.  Harrison  and 
others  on  the  North  Downs,  sometimes  as 
much  as  600  feet  above  sea  level.  Prest- 
wich regarded  them  as  bearing  the  marks  of 
human  workmanship,  but  some  good  judges 
maintain  the  fractures  to  be  natural. 

In  1864  he  was  placed  on  the  Water 
Commission,  and  in  1866  was  appointed  to 
the  Royal  Coal  Commission,  on  each  of 
which  he  took  a  very  active  part,  making 
most  valuable  contributions  to  their  reports. 
As  his  health  was  suffering  from  such  con- 
tinuous strain,  he  determined  to  have  a 
breathing  place  in  the  country,  so  he  began 
to  build  near  Shoreham,  Kent,  in  1864, 
Darent  Hulme,  a  quaintly  ornamented  and 
very  attractive  house,  in  the  garden  of 
which  he  found  a  lifelong  pleasure.  But 
the  loss  at  the  end  of  1866  of  his  sister  Civil, 
who  had  been  his  devoted  companion  for 
the  last  ten  years,  overshadowed  its  comple- 
tion. 

February  1870  was  marked  by  two  impor- 
tant events:  he  became  president  of  the 
Geological  Society,  of  which  he  had  already 
been  secretary  and  treasurer,  and  a  few  days 
afterwards  married  Grace  Anne  M'Call, 
daughter  of  James  Milne  of  Findhorn,  and 
niece  of  Hugh  Falconer  [q.  v.l  In  1872  he 
found  himself  able  to  retire  from  business, 
and  thus  to  indulge  the  desire  of  his  life, 
and  devote  his  whole  time  to  scientific  stu- 
dies. But  in  June  1874,  on  the  death  of 
John  Phillips  (1800-1874)  [q.  v.],  he  was 
offered  the  chair  of  geology  at  Oxford,  which 
after  some  hesitation  he  accepted.  It  was 
late  in  life  to  begin  to  teach,  and  Prestwich 
was  not  naturally  a  facile  speaker  or  lec- 
turer, but  he  threw  himself  vigorously  into 
his  new  duties  and  the  cause  of  scientific 
education  in  the  university.  Not  the  least 
of  his  services  to  it  and  the  city  was  apply- 
ing his  special  knowledge  to  obtain  a  better 
water  supply.  He  received  the  degree  of 
M.A.  on  11  Nov.  1874,  and  was  admitted  a 


Prestwich 


286  • 


Prestwich 


member  of  Christ  Church  soon  after  entering 
upon  his  duties.  In  1879  he  refused  the  pre- 
sidency of  the  British  Association,  fearing 
the  strain  of  additional  work,  and  inFebruary 
1885  was  elected  a  corresponding  member 
of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  Early 
in  1888  he  vacated  the  professorship,  being 
succeeded  by  Alexander  Henry  Green  [q.  v. 
Suppl.],  and  published  the  second  volume 
of  his  '  Geology,  Chemical,  Physical,  and 
Stratigraphical '  (the  first  having  appeared 
in  1880),  receiving  later  in  the  year  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the  university.  He 
was  president  of  the  International  Geologi- 
cal Congress  which  that  year  met  in  Lon- 
don, but  Darent  Hulme  was  henceforth  his 
only  residence. 

His  later  work  dealt  more  especially  with 
quaternary  deposits,  such  as  the  so-called 
"Westleton  shingle,  a  gravel  of  which  he 
believed  the  equivalents  could  be  found  over 
a  large  part  of  England.  An  important 
paper  on  this  subject  was  published  in  1889 
with  another  on  the  flint  implements  found 
by  Mr.  B.  Harrison,  as  already  mentioned. 
1895  saw  the  publication  of  a  volume  en- 
titled 'The  Tradition  of  the  Flood,'  of 
another  entitled  '  Collected  Papers  on  some 
Controverted  Questions  of  Geology,'  of  a 
reissue,  with  additions,  of  the  '  Water-bear- 
ing Strata  of  the  Country  around  London,' 
and  of  an  article  in  the  'Nineteenth  Century ' 
on  the  '  Greater  Antiquity  of  Man.'  Health, 
however,  was  now  gradually  failing;  con- 
tinuous exertion,  whether  physical  or  mental, 
became  more  difficult,  though  his  interest  in 
geology  and  in  his  garden  never  flagged ;  but 
a  sudden  failure  of  strength  occurred  on 
1  Nov.  1895,  which  was  the  beginning  of 
the  end.  He  lived  to  receive  one  more 
recognition  of  his  services,  for  on  New  Year's 
day  1896  he  was  gazetted  a  knight.  He  died 
on  23  June  1896  and  was  buried  in  Shore- 
ham  churchyard.  Lady  Prestwich,  herself 
well  versed  in  geology  and  his  constant 
helpmate,  survived  to  write  a  memoir  of 
her  husband,  which  appeared  in  June  1899, 
but  in  September  she  also,  after  long  ill- 
health,  passed  away  at  Darent  Hulme. 

As  a  geologist  Prestwich's  strength  lay  in 
stratigraphy.  There  his  work  is  masterly. 
In  physical  questions  also  he  took  great 
interest,  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  he 
was  so  uniformly  successful  in  dealing  with 
them,  while  to  petrological,  like  most  geolo- 
gists of  his  generation,  he  gave  little  atten- 
tion. As  an  observer  he  was  remarkable 
for  accuracy,  patience,  and  industry ;  no 
pains  were  spared  in  collecting  materials, 
and  his  work  on  the  tertiary  and  quaternary 
deposits  will  on  this  ground  have  a  perma- 


nent value,  even  though  some  of  his  conclu- 
sions may  fail  to  command  general  acceptance. 
These,  however,  will  not  be  numerous.  His 
position  in  regard  to  geology  was  a  some- 
what exceptional  one ;  for,  while  accept- 
ing on  the  whole  the  uniformitarian  views 
maintained  by  Charles  Lyell  [q.  v.],  he  did 
not  entirely  abandon  some  tenets  of  the 
older  school,  such  as  the  occasional  intensi- 
fication of  natural  forces  on  a  rather  large 
scale.  For  instance,  he  held  that  a  flood 
had  spread  over  England,  and  much,  if  not 
all,  of  Europe,  in  quaternary  times,  which 
partly  destroyed  palaeolithic  man.  "While 
assigning  to  the  latter  an  earlier  appearance 
than  would  be  conceded  by  some  geologists, 
he  placed  the  glacial  age  within  twenty  or 
twenty-five  thousand  years  of  the  present 
date. 

His  writings,  according  to  the  list  printed 
in  the  '  Memoir,'  are  140  in  number,  in- 
cluding two  papers  posthumously  published. 
Of  these,  six  were  books ;  one,  however,  con- 
sisting only  of  republished  papers ;  several 
of  the  remainder  were  pamphlets,  reports, 
or  reviews,  the  rest  contributions  to  scien- 
tific periodicals,  especially  of  the  Geological 
and  Royal  Societies.  Some  of  the  more 
important  have  been  mentioned  above,  but 
those  on  the  agency  of  water  in  volcanic 
eruptions,  the  thickness  and  mobility  of  the 
earth's  crust,  and  underground  temperatures, 
published  in  the  '  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Society,'  and  that  on  the  '  Parallel  Roads  of 
Lochaber,'  published  in  the  '  Philosophical 
Transactions'  (vol.  xvii.),  must  not  be  for- 
gotten. In  the  last-named  he  supposes  the 
terraces  to  have  had  their  origin  on  the 
shores  of  a  freshwater  lake  formed  upon  a 
glacier,  the  lower  portion  of  it  being  raised 
to  a  higher  level  by  a  jamming  of  the  ice. 
The  idea  is  ingenious,  and  avoids  some  diffi- 
culties in  the  two  rival  theories,  usually  in 
favour,  viz.,  seaside  terraces  produced  during 
a  submergence,  and  terraces  on  the  side  of 
an  ordinary  lake,  the  mouth  of  which  is 
dammed  by  ice,  but  is  not  without  grave 
difficulties  of  its  own. 

In  personal  appearance  Prestwich  was 
well  above  middle  height,  thin,  and  rather 
fragile  in  aspect,  with  delicate  features,  a 
remarkably  fine  forehead,  and  attractive 
expression,  corresponding  with  that  singular 
kindness  of  manner  and  courtesy,  even  to 
opponents,  which,  with  his  inflexible  in- 
tegrity, made  him  no  less  beloved  than 
respected.  He  was  the  last  representative 
of  that  generation  of  great  geologists  who 
were  born  within  a  few  years  of  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century,  though  with 
them  he  was  always  '  Young  Prestwich,' 


Price 


287 


Priestley 


while  he  was  the  Xestor  of  that  which  he 
left  behind. 

Besides  the  honours  mentioned  above, 
Prestwich  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society  in  1833,  and  received  the 
Wollaston  medal  in  1849,  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1853,  and 
was  awarded  a  Royal  medal  in  1865.  He 
was  also  a  fellow  of  the  Chemical  Society, 
of  the  Geological  Society  of  France  (1838), 
and  was  an  associate  of  the  Institute  of 
Civil  Engineers,  as  well  as  being  an  hono- 
rary member  of  several  English  and  foreign 
societies,  among  them  the  Lincei  of  Rome. 

A  painting  (presented  by  Lady  Prestwich) 
is  in  the  collection  of  the  Geological  Society, 
and  reproduced  photographs  are  also  there 
and  in  the  '  Life '  by  his  widow. 

[Personal  knowledge ;  obituary  notices  in 
the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society, 
vol.  liii.  Proc.  p.  xlix  ;  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Royal  Society,  vol.  Ix.  p.  xii,  and  Geological 
Magazine,  1896,  p.  336,  referring  to  a  fuller 
notice,  with  a  portrait,  1893,  p.  241.  These, 
however,  are  superseded  by  the  Life  and  Letters 
of  Sir  Joseph  Prestwich,  by  his  widow,  1899.] 

T.  G.  B. 

PRICE,  BARTHOLOMEW  (1818- 
1898),  master  of  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
born  in  1818  at  Coin  St.  Dennis  in  Glou- 
cestershire, was  the  second  son  of  William 
Price  (d.  13  April  I860),  rector  of  Farn- 
borough  in  Berkshire  and  of  Coin  St.  Dennis. 
He  was  educated  privately,  and  matriculated 
as  a  scholar  from  Pembroke  College,  Ox- 
ford, on  16  March  1837.  He  graduated  B.A. 
in  1840,  obtaining  a  first  class  in  mathe- 
matics, and  M.A.  in  1843.  In  1842  he 
gained  the  senior  university  mathematical 
scholarship,  and  two  years  later  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  Pembroke.  In  1845  he  became 
tutor  and  mathematical  lecturer,  and  in 
1847-8  and  1853-5  he  acted  as  a  public  exa- 
miner. In  1858  he  was  proctor. 

In  1848  Price  published  his  first  mathe- 
matical work, '  ATreatise  on  the  Differential 
Calculus '  (London,  8vo),  and  he  then  began 
to  prepare  his  great  undertaking,  the  '  Trea- 
tise on  Infinitesimal  Calculus,'  which  in- 
cluded differential  and  integral  calculus, 
calculus  of  variations,  applications  to  algebra 
and  geometry,  and  analytical  mechanics 
(Oxford,  8vo).  It  was  completed  in  four 
volumes,  the  first  appearing  in  1852  and  the 
last  in  1860.  A  second  edition  was  com- 
menced in  1857,  before  the  completion  of 
the  first,  and  was  completed  in  1889.  He 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  on 
3  June  1852  and  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  on  13  June  1856. 

In  1853  Price  was  chosen  Sedleian  pro- 


fessor of  natural  philosophy  at  Oxford,  a 
chair  which  he  retained  until  June  1898. 
In  1855  he  became  a  member  of  the  hebdo- 
madal council,  and  in  1868  he  was  made  an 
honorary  fellow  of  Queen's  College  and  secre- 
tary to  the  delegates  of  the  university  press. 
At  that  time  he  was  doing  a  very  large  part 
of  the  mathematical  teaching  in  the  univer- 
sity, but  his  success  in  his  new  position 
was  so  great  that  he  became  gradually  ab- 
sorbed in  its  duties.  He  showed  great  finan- 
cial ability  in  directing  the  affairs  of  the 
press,  and  increased  its  business  and  income 
enormously  before  resigning  the  secretary- 
ship in  1884.  As  time  went  on  the  affairs 
of  the  university  passed  more  and  more  into 
his  hand,  and  he  became  a  member  of  nearly 
every  board  or  council  of  importance  con- 
nected with  it.  When  the  university  obser- 
vatory was  founded  in  1874  he  was  put  on 
the  board  of  visitors,  and  in  1878  he  was 
one  of  a  committee  of  three  appointed  to 
consider  its  outstanding  requirements.  He 
was  also  one  of  the  six  representatives  of  the 
Royal  Society  on  the  board  of  visitors  to  the 
royal  observatory  at  Greenwich.  In  1891 
he  was  elected  master  of  Pembroke  College 
by  the  appointment  of  Lord  Salisbury,  the 
votes  of  the  fellows  being  equally  divided  : 
Lord  Salisbury,  as  chancellor  of  the  univer- 
sity, was  visitor  of  the  college.  He  died 
in  Pembroke  College  on  29  Dec.  1898  and 
was  buried  on  3  Jan.  1899  in  Holy  well 
cemetery.  He  was  married  at  Littleham  in 
Devonshire  on  20  Aug.  1857  to  Amy  Eliza, 
eldest  daughter  of  William  Cole  of  High- 
field,  Exmouth.  This  lady  and  several  sons 
and  daughters  survive  him. 

[Monthly  Notices  of  the  Eoyal  AstronomicMl 
Soc.  1899,  lix.  228-9  ;  Men  and  Women  of  the 
Time,  1895;  Times,  30  Dec.  1898;  Oxf.  Univ. 
Mag.  25  Jan.  1899 ;  Eoyal  Society's  Yearbook. 
1900,  pp.  185-9.]  E.  I.  C. 

PRIESTLEY,  SIE  WILLIAM  OVER- 
END  (1829-1900),  physician,  the  eldest  son 
of  Joseph  Priestley  and  Mary,  daughter  of 
James  Overend  of  Morley,  was  born  at 
Morley  Hall,  near  Leeds,  on  24  June  1829;  he 
was  grand-nephew  of  Joseph  Priestley  [q.  v."1, 
who  discovered  oxygen.  Priestley  was  edu- 
cated successively  at  Leeds,  King's  College, 
London,  Paris,  and  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  admitted  a  member  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England  in 
1852,  and  in  1853  he  graduated  M.D.  at 
Edinburgh,  taking  as  his  thesis  '  The  De- 
velopment of  the  Gravid  Uterus.'  The  thesis 
showed  such  merit  that  it  was  awarded  Pro- 
fessor Simpson's  gold  medal  and  the  highfM1 
distinction  of  the  senate  gold  medal,  whirli 
is  given  only  for  excellence  in  original  work. 


Quain 


288 


Quain 


The  dissections  which  illustrate  it  still  find 
an  honoured  place  in  the  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity Museum.  Priestley  acted  as  the  private 
assistant  of  Sir  James  Young  Simpson  [q.v.] 
for  some  time  after  his  graduation,  but  in  1856 
he  came  to  London  and  gave  lectures  at  the 
Grosvenor  Place  School  of  Medicine.  In  1858 
he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  midwifery  at 
the  Middlesex  Hospital,  and  in  1862  he  was 
elected  professor  of  obstetric  medicine  at 
King's  College,  London,  and  obstetric  phy- 
sician to  King's  College  Hospital,  in  the  place 
of  Dr.  Arthur  Farre.  These  posts  he  resigned 
in  1872,  and  he  was  then  appointed  consult- 
ing obstetric  physician  to  the  hospital,  be- 
coming an  honorary  fellow  of  King's  College 
and  a  member  of  the  council. 

Priestley  was  admitted  a  member  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  London  in 
1859,andwas  chosen  a  fellow  in  1864,  serving 
as  a  member  of  the  council  1878-80,  Lum- 
leian  lecturer  in  1887,  and  censor  1891-2. 
He  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  of  Edinburgh  in  1858,  and  from 
1866  to  1876  he  was  an  examiner  in  mid- 
wifery at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of 
England.  He  was  also  at  different  times  an 
examiner  at  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
of  London  and  at  the  universities  of  Cam- 
bridge, London,  and  Victoria.  He  was  pre- 
sident of  the  Obstetrical  Society  of  London 
1875-6,  and  was  a  vice-president  of  the  Medi- 
cal Society  of  Paris.  He  was  a  physician- 
accoucheur  to  H.R.H.  Princess  Louis  of 
Hesse  (Alice  of  England),  and  to  Princess 
Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein.  The 
honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred 
upon  him  by  the  university  of  Edinburgh  in 
1884,  and  in  1893  he  was  knighted.  Early 
in  his  career  he  was  attracted  to  politics  in 
connection  with  professional  subjects,  and  on 
12  May  1896  he  was  elected  without  opposi- 
tion parliamentary  representative  of  the  uni- 
versities of  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews  in 


the  conservative  interest  upon  the  elevation 
of  Sir  Charles  Pearson  to  the  Scottish  bench. 

He  died  in  London  on  11  April  1900,  and 
is  buried  at  Warnham,  near  Westbrook  Hall, 
his  estate  in  Sussex.  There  is  an  excellent 
half-length  portrait  in  oils  painted  by  Rudolf 
Lehmann,  his  brother-in-law.  Priestley  mar- 
ried, on  17  April  1856,  Eliza,  the  fourth  d  augh- 
ter  of  Robert  Chambers  (1802-1871)  [q.v.], 
by  whom  he  had  two  sons  and  two  daughters. 

Sir  William  Priestley  was  among  the  first 
to  convert  midwifery  into  obstetric  medicine 
by  using  modern  scientific  methods  to  eluci- 
date its  problems.  Much  of  his  success  in 
the  theory  and  practice  of  his  art  he  owed  to 
his  master,  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson.  His  power 
of  teaching,  his  urbanity,  and  his  skill  soon 
obtained  him  a  practice  of  the  highest  order, 
and  enabled  him  to  exert  considerable  influ- 
ence upon  his  own  branch  of  medicine.  Un- 
fortunately he  entered  parliament  too  late 
and  sat  there  too  short  a  time  to  render  such 
services  to  his  profession  as  he  would  have 
wished.  He  was  especially  interested  in  the 
remodelling  of  the  London  University,  and 
desired  to  convert  it  from  an  examining  into 
a  teaching  body.  During  the  latter  years  of 
his  life  he  wished  to  restore  the  library  of 
1  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  but  his  design 
j  was  frustrated  by  the  refusal  of  the  govern- 
ment to  give  a  grant  for  the  purpose. 

Priestley's  works  were  :  1.  '  Lecture  on 
the  Development  of  the  Gravid  Uterus,' Lon- 
don, 1860, 8vo.  2. « The  Pathology  of  Intra- 
uterine  Death,  being  the  Lumleian  Lectures 
delivered  at  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
of  London,  March  1887,'  London,  1887,  8vo. 
He  also  edited,  in  conjunction  with  H.  R. 
Storer, the  'Obstetric Writings  and  Contribu- 
tions of  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson,'  Edinburgh, 
1855-6,  2  vols.  8vo. 

[Lancet,  1900,  i.  1147  ;  British  Medical  Jour- 
nal, 1900,  i.  995  ;  personal  knowledge  ;  private 
information.]  D'A.  P. 


Q 


QUAIN,  SIR  RICHARD,  first  baronet 
(1816-1898),  physician,  born  on  30  Oct.  1816 
at  Mallow-on-the-Blackwater,  co.  Cork,  was 
the  eldest  child  of  John  Quain  of  Carrigoon. 
John  Quain's  elder  brother,  Richard  Quain  of 
Ratheahy,  was  father  of  Jones  Quain  [q.  v.], 
of  Richard  Quain  [q.  v.],  and  of  Judge  John 
Richard  Quain.  Sir  Richard  Quain's  mother 
was  Mary,  daughter  of  Michael  Burke  of 
Mallow.  He  received  his  early  education 
at  Cloyne  diocesan  school,  and  was  then 
appenticed  to  Dr.  Fraser,  a  surgeon-apothe- 


cary at  Limerick.  He  entered  University 
College,  London,  in  January  1837,  where  his 
cousins  Jones  and  Richard  Quain  were  teach- 
ing anatomy.  In  1840  he  graduated  M.B., 
taking  the  scholarship  and  gold  medal  in  phy- 
siology with  honours  in  surgery  and  mid- 
wifery. He  spent  a  year  as  house  surgeon  at 
University  College  Hospital,  and  for  the  fol- 
lowing five  years  he  was  house  physician.  He 
graduated  M.D.  in  1842,  receiving  the  gold 
medal  and  a  certificate  of  special  proficiency, 
and  in  1843  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Uni- 


Quain 


289 


Quaritch 


versity  College.  In  1848  he  was  elected  as- 
sistant physician  at  the  Brompton  Hospital 
for  Diseases  of  the  Chest,  where  he  became 
full  physician  in  1855,  and  consulting1  physi- 
cian in  1875.  Later  in  life  he  was  consulting 
physician  to  the  Seamen's  Hospital  at  Green- 
wich and  to  the  Royal  Hospital  for  Consump- 
tion at  Ventnor.  Of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  of  London  he  was  admitted  amem- 
ber  in  March  1846,afellow  in  1851,  a  member 
of  council  and  censor  in  1867, 1868, 1877,  and 
1882,  a  vice-president  in  1889.  In  1872  he 
delivered  the  Lumleian  lectures  on  diseases 
of  the  muscular  walls  of  the  heart,  and  in 
1885  he  was  Harveian  orator,  taking  as  the 
subject  of  his  address  the  healing  art  in  its 
historic  and  prophetic  aspects. 

He  was  appointed  crown  nominee  on  the 
General  Medical  Council  in  November  1863, 
and  took  his  seat  in  the  following  year.  He 
was  shortly  afterwards  appointed  a  treasurer 
and  a  member  of  the  pharmacopoeia  com- 
mittee. He  acted  as  secretary  during  the 
first  revision,  which  resulted  in  the  publica- 
tion of  the  second  edition  of  the  '  British 
Pharmacopoeia  '  in  1867.  He  subsequently 
(1874)  became  chairman  of  the  committee, 
and  was  thus  closely  associated  with  the 
issues  of  the '  Pharmacopoeia'  which  appeared 
in  1874  and  1885,  as  well  as  in  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Appendix  of  1890  and  the  new 
edition  of  1898.  In  1891,  on  the  death  of 
John  Marshall  (1818-1891)  [q.  v.],  Quain  was 
elected  president  of  the  General  Medical 
Council,  and  was  re-elected  in  1896  on  the 
expiration  of  his  term  of  office. 

In  1865  he  was  a  prominent  member  of 
the  royal  commission  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  nature,  causes,  and  methods  of  pre- 
vention of  the  rinderpest  or  cattle  plague. 
In  May  1860  he  was  appointed  by  the  crown 
a  member  of  the  senate  of  the  university  of 
London.  He  was  president  of  the  Harveian 
Society  in  1853,  and  of  the  Pathological 
Society,  where  he  had  served  as  secretary 
from  1852  to  1856,  in  1869.  He  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1871,  M.D. 
honoris  causa  of  the  Roval  University  of 
Ireland  in  1887,  fellow  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians  of  Ireland  in  1887,  LL.D.  of 
Edinburgh  in  1889,  M.D.  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  in  1890,  and  physician  extraordinary 
to  Queen  Victoria  in  1890.  He  was  created 
a  baronet  of  the  United  Kingdom  on  New 
Year's  day  1891. 

Quain  died  in  Harley  Street,  London,  on 
13  March  1898,  and  is  buried  in  the  Hamp- 
etead  cemetery.  A  portrait  by  Sir  John  Mil- 
lais,  painted  in  1895,  is  in  the  possession  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  London. 
He  married,  in  1854,  Isabella  Agnes,  only 
VOL.  m. — sup. 


daughter  of  Captain  George  Wray  of  the 
Bengal  army,  of  Cleasby  in  Yorkshire,  by 
whom  he  had  four  daughters. 

Quain  acquired  early  a  large  and  fashion- 
able practice  in  London,  a  position  for  which 
his  natural  talents  pre-eminently  fitted  him. 
He  attended  both  Thomas  Carlyle  and  his 
wife,  while  he  was  the  personal  friend  as 
well  as  the  medical  adviser  of  Sir  Edwin 
Landseer.  H  is  work  in  connect!  on  with  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  heart  has  become  classical, 
and  he  is  known  as  the  editor  of  a '  Dictionary 
of  Medicine,'  the  most  successful  medical 
publication  of  his  generation.  The  firstedition 
was  published  in  one  volume  in  1882;  the 
second  edition,  edited  by  Dr.  Mitchell  Bruce, 
in  two  volumes  in  1894. 

[British  Medical  Journal,  1898,  i.  793  ;  Lancet, 
1898,  i.  816.]  D'A.  P. 

QUARITCH,  BERNARD  (1819-1899), 
bookseller,  born  at  Worbis,  a  village  in 
Prussian  Saxony,  on  23  April  1819,  was  of 
Wendish  origin.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
bookseller  in  Nordhausen,  remained  with 
him  from  1834  to  1839,  and  afterwards 
passed  three  years  in  a  publishing  house  in 
Berlin.  In  1842  he  came  to  London  and 
was  employed  for  a  couple  of  years  in  a 
subordinate  position  in  the  shop  of  Henry 
George  Bohn  [q.  v.]  of  York  Street,  Covent 
Garden.  Between  1844  and  1845  he  lived 
in  Paris  with  the  bookseller,  ThSophile  Bar- 
rois,  then  came  back  to  London,  and  in 

1846  was  once  more  with  Bohn,  whom  he 
helped  to  compile  his  classified  catalogue  of 
1847.     After  a  false  start  in  Great  Russell 
Street  as   an   agent    on  his  own  account, 
Quaritch  entered  effectually  into  booksell- 
ing for  himself  in  a  very  small  way  in  April 

1847  at  16  Castle  Street,  Leicester  Square, 
now  part  of  Charing-cross  Road.     In  that 
year  he  was  naturalised  as  a  British  subject, 
and  in  November  he  produced  his  first  cata- 
logue, a  single  leaf,    entitled    'Quaritch's 
Cheap    Book  Circular.'    By  1848  he  was 
issuing,    with    approximate    regularity,     a 
monthly  '  Catalogue  of  Foreign  and  English 
Books,'  for  which,  between  December  1854 
and  May  1864,  the  heading  '  The  Museum  ' 
was  used,   in   order  to   secure    favourable 
postage  conditions  as  a  stamped  newspaper. 
He  became  known  as  a  dealer  in  European 
and  oriental  linguistics  about  the  time  of 
the  Crimean  war.     In  1854  he  published 
Barker's  <  Turkish  Grammar,'  in  1856  Red- 
house's  '  Turkish  Dictionary,'  Faris's  '  Ara- 
bic Grammar'  in  1857,  Bleeck's  'Persian 
Grammar'  in  1858,  and  Catafago's  'Arabic 
Dictionary '  in  1858.     An  early  notable  pur- 
chase was  that  of  a  copy  of  the  Mazarine 


Quaritch 


290 


Quaritch 


bible  for  595/.  at  the  sale  of  the  Bishop  of 
Cashel's  library  in  February  1858;  within  a 
space  of  forty  years  no  less  than  six  separate 
copies  of  this  rare  and  costly  book  were  in  his 
possession.  His  first  large  catalogue  was 
published  in  1858,  a  volume  with  about  five 
thousand  articles.  He  removed  in  1860  to 
15  Piccadilly,  where  he  remained  for  the  rest 
of  his  life,  but  retained  the  Castle  Street  shop 
as  a  warehouse.  A  complete  catalogue  of  his 
stock,  with  an  index,  describing  about  seven  , 
thousand  works,  was  produced  in  1860.  He  j 
purchased  extensively  at  the  Libri  sales  in 
1859  and  1861,  and  at  the  Van  Alstein  sale  ; 
at  Ghent  in  1863,  and  issued  an  enlarged 
catalogue  in  1864. 

Nearly  one  half  of  the  books  of  the  Per- 
kins sale  (1873)  were  acquired  by  Quaritch, 
who  in  the  same  year  purchased  the  non- 
scientific  portion  of  the  Royal  Society's 
Norfolk  Library.  These  accretions  helped 
to  form  the  basis  of  his  '  Bibliotheca  Xylo- 
graphica,  Typographica,  et  Palaeographica : 
Catalogue  of  Block  Books  and  of  early  Pro- 
ductions of  the  Printing  Press  in  all 
Countries,  and  a  Supplement  of  Manuscripts ' 
(October  1873,  8vo,  pp.  167).  In  this  re-  j 
markable  catalogue,  the  best  of  the  kind 
that  had  yet  been  produced  by  a  bookseller, 
the  books  are  arranged  under  the  names  of 
towns  and  printers,  with  descriptions  of 
nearly  seventeen  hundred  examples  from 
the  earliest  presses.  It  is  included  in  a 
large  volume  published  in  1874,  of  which 
another  division  was  devoted  to  romances 
of  chivalry,  early  fiction,  and  popular  books, 
arranged  on  a  novel  system,  the  romances 
under  the  headings  of  their  respective 
cycles,  with  original  introductions  and  notes. 
Another  highly  interesting  section  was  that 
of  Americana,  early  books  of  travel,  and 
editions  of  the  Latin  Ptolemy.  The  execu- 
tion of  these  special  catalogues  is  due  to  Mr. 
Michael  Kerney,  who  since  1862  had  been 
Quaritch's  chief  cataloguer  and  was  hence- 
forward his  trusted  literary  adviser.  In  these 
and  subsequent  catalogues  all  the  scholarly 
descriptions  of  the  chief  rarities,  the  manu- 
scripts, and  the  oriental  literature  were  by 
the  same  hand,  whose  merit  and  useful- 
ness Quaritch  always  freely  acknowledged. 
The  purchases  at  Sir  William  Tite's  sale  in 
1874  amounted  to  9,500/.,  and  with  other 
additions  to  a  rapidly  growing  stock  were 
described  in  a  large  '  Supplemental  Cata- 
logue'(1877).  With  its  predecessor  it  in- 
cluded 44,324  articles,  or  about  two  hundred 
thousand  volumes.  A  large  number  of 
precious  books  from  the  first  and  second 
Didot  sales  (1878-9)  fell  into  his  hands,  and 
in  September  1880  he  published  an  im- 


mense catalogue,  six  and  three-eighths  inches 
thick,  weighing  nine  pounds  fifteen  ounces, 
and  containing  2,395  pages  with  an  exten- 
sive index,  perhaps  the  most  bulky  tome 
ever  produced  by  a  second-hand  bookseller 
(Notes  and  Queries,  6th  ser.  iii.  341-3). 

The  achievements  of  the  Didot  sales  were 
followed  by  a  series  of  triumphs  as  the 
principal  purchase/  of  rare  and  important 
articles  at  the  following  London  auctions  : 
David  Laing's  library  (1879)  ;  the  Ramirez 
Mexican  collection  (1880)  ;  the  great  Sun- 
derland-Marlborough  library  (1881-3)  ;  the 
Beckford-Hamilton  collections  (1882-4) ; 
Sir  John  Thorold's  Syston  Park  library 
(1884);  the  Osterley  Park  Jersey  library 
(1885) ;  the  fine  stock  of  a  retiring  book- 
seller, F.  S.  Ellis,  in  the  same  year ;  Mr. 
Wodhull's  collection,  and  Dr.  Shadford 
Walker's  books  (1886),  Gibson  Craig's  library 
(1887),  a  part  of  the  Seilliere  collection  sold 
in  London  (1887) ;  the  Hopetoun  library  as 
well  as  that  of  Frederick  Perkins  in  the 
same  year;  R.  S.  Turner's  library  in 
1888;  Lord  Crawford's  '  turn-outs '  in  1887- 
1889 ;  the  partial  sale  of  the  Hamilton 
manuscripts  in  1889 ;  Mr.  Gaisford's  fine 
English  collection  in  1890  ;  Lord  Ashburn- 
ham's  library  of  valuable  printed  books  in 
1897-8,  and  the  partial  sale  of  his  manu- 
scripts in  1899  ;  the  collections  of  William 
Morris  and  the  Rev.  J.  Makellar  in  1898. 
He  also  took  the  most  prominent  position  as 
purchaser  at  certain  French  sales  during  the 
same  period  ;  the  rare  Americana  of  A. 
Pinart  in  1883,  and  of  Dr.  Court  in  1884; 
the  Seilliere  sales  in  1890-3,  and  the  various 
stages  of  the  sale  of  the  Salva-Heredia  col- 
lection in  1892-3. 

The  various  catalogues  previously  men- 
tioned were  issued  from  time  to  time  in 
sections  as  they  were  ready,  and  these  separate 
publications  with  many  occasional  rough 
lists  of  recent  purchases  extended  to  nearly 
five  hundred  in  number.  The  last  complete 
record  of  his  stock  was  a  '  General  Cata- 
logue of  Old  Books  and  Manuscripts  ' 
(1887-8,  index  1892,  7  vols.  8vo,  also  in 
large  paper  with  portrait),  increased  by 
special  supplements  between  1894  and  1897 
to  about  twelve  volumes,  a  monument  of 
bookselling  enterprise,  and  of  considerable 
bibliographical  value,  alike  as  a  criterion 
of  price  and  for  the  extraordinary  quantity 
of  choice  specimens  described  therein. 

Quaritch's  activity  gradually  diminished 
during  the  last  few  years  of  his  life,  but 
never  to  any  striking  degree.  In  the 
course  of  a  successful  career  extending  over 
more  than  fifty  years  he  developed  the  most 
extensive  trade  in  old  books  in  the  world. 


Ouaritch 


291 


Queensberry 


The  classes  to  which  he  gave  special  atten- 
tion were  natural  history,  fine  arts,  archaeo- 
logy, travels,  periodicals,  and  oriental  learn- 
ing, but  he  was  chiefly  known  as  a  dealer 
in  incunabula,  fine  manuscripts,  bibles, 
liturgies,  Shakespeareana ,  early  English 
literature,  Americana  and  cartography,  and 
historic  bindings.  As  a  general  rule  he  was 
attracted  rather  by  the  qualities  of  price  and 
rarity  than  by  that  of  fine  condition.  Some  of 
his  accumulations  were  dispersed  by  public 
auctions  in  London  and  Paris  in  his  later 
years.  The  methods  of  his  first  English 
employer,  Henry  Bohn,  always  greatly  in- 
fluenced him,  and  like  Bohn,  but  to  a  less 
degree,  he  bought  remainders  of  expensive 
books,  such  as  Owen  Jones's  '  Grammar  of 
Ornament '  and  Westwood's  '  Facsimiles  of 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Irish  Manuscripts.'  lie 
published  many  works,  among  them  being 
the  first  four  editions  of  Fitzgerald's 
'  Omar  Khayyam,' and  was  the  agent  for  the 
publications  of  the  British  Museum  and  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries.  Either  personally 
or  by  deputy  he  attended  every  important 
book  auction  in  Europe  and  America,  and 
the  high  prices  fetched  at  sales  during  the 
la.-r  thirty  years  were  largely  the  result  of 
his  spirited  biddings.  He  determined  that, 
unless  amateur  buyers  entrusted  their  com- 
missions to  him,  they  should  be  unsuccessful 
bidders. 

From  the  commencement  to  the  end  of  a 
commercial  career  which  only  ceased. with 
life,.  Quaritch's  thoughts  were  centred  in 
his  shop ;  he  had  no  relaxations  and  took  few 
holidays.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  charac- 
ter, shrewd,  unyielding,  irascible,  energetic, 
industrious.  He  had  read  and  thoroughly 
digested  a  few  books,  chiefly  on  history  and 
ethnology,  but  did  not  belong  to  the  race 
of  studious  booksellers,  for  he  had  no  wide 
acquaintance  with  books,  except  through 
the  titles  of  those  in  current  demand,  and 
cared  nothing  for  learning  and  literature  in 
themselves. 

He  was  fond  of  airing  his  views  on  politics 
and  sociology  in  catalogue  notes.  He  was 
not  without  social  qualities,  but  he  never 
allowed  them  to  interfere  with  the  due 
allotment  of  time  to  affairs.  He  was  one 
of  the  chief  founders  of  the  dining-club 


known  as  ' The  Sette  of  Odd  Volumes,'  of 
which  he  was  the  first  president  (1878), 
occupying  the  same  office  in  1879  and  1882. 
A  somewhat  squat  and  awkward  figure, 
occasionally  rough  manners,  irrepressible 
egotism,  pithy  sayings,  half  humorous,  half 
sardonic,  delivered  in  a  grating  voice,  com- 
bined to  form  an  interesting  if  not  a  very 
attractive  personality. 

He  died  at  Belsize  Grove,  Hampstead,  on 
17  Dec.  1899,  in  his  eighty-first  year.  After 
his  death  his  business  was  carried  on  by  Mr. 
Bernard  Quaritch,  his  son. 

His  original  publications  were  confined 
to  a  couple  of  pamphlets — one  addressed  to 
Gladstone    suggesting   that    the    franchise 
I  should  be  extended  to  all  persons  willing 
to  bear  arms  (1866),  and  a  letter  to  General 
Starring  on  allegations  of  fraud  in  his  deal- 
;  ings  with  the  United  States  customs  house 
!  (1880).      Some    lectures    delivered   before 
j'The   Sette  of  Odd   Volumes'  on  learned 
societies  and  printing  clubs   (1883,  1886), 
and  liturgical  history  (1887),  and  a  'Cata- 
logue of  an  Exhibition  of  Manuscripts  and 
I  Early  Printed  Books '  (1885),  also  printed 
for  the  '  Sette,'  which  appeared  under  his 
name,  were  probably  due  to  friendly  assist- 
ance.    The  same  may  be  said  of  the  text 
which  accompanied  the  '  Collection  of  Fac- 
similes of  Bookbinding '  (1889),  '  Notes  on 
the  History  of  Historic  Bookbinding'  (1891), 
the   'Collection    of  Facsimiles    from  Illu- 
minated MSS.'  (1889),  the  'Catalogue  of 
Mediaeval  Literature '  (1890),  and  '  Palaeo- 
graphy :  Notes  on  the  History  of  Writing  ' 
'  (1894). 

[Biographical    notice   in    Bigmore  and  Wy- 

|  man's  Bibliography  of  Printing,  1884,  iii.  230- 

!  234,    with   engraved  portrait,   the   letterpress 

printed  as  B.  Q.  ;  A  Fragment,  by  C.  W.  H. 

Wyman,  1880  (Odd  Volumes),  extended  in  article 

i  in   the   Royal  Album  of  Arts  and  Industries, 

j  1887,  4to;  see    also    Atlantic   Monthly,    June 

1900,  pp.  843-8;  Times,  19  Dec.  1899,  p.  6; 

Athenaeum,   23  Dec.  1899,  p.    865;  Academy, 

23  Dec.  1899,  p.  748;  Bookseller,  12  Jan.  1900, 

p.  9;     Publishers'  Circular,    23  Dec.  1899,  p. 

673    (portrait) ;     Illustrated     London     News, 

30  Dec.  1899  (portrait).]  H.  E.  T. 

QUEENSBERKY,  MAEQTJIS  OF.  [See 
DOUGLAS,  JOHN  SHOLTO,  1844-1900.] 


Rawlinson 


292 


Rawlinson 


E 


RAWLINSON,  SIR  ROBERT  (1810- 
1898),  civil  engineer,  born  at  Bristol  on 
28  Feb.  1810,  was  son  of  Thomas  Rawlinson, 
a  builder,  of  Chorley,  Lancashire,  and  his 
wife,  Grace  Ellice  of  Exeter.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Lancaster,  where  his  father  had 
removed  shortly  alter  his  birth,  and  for  a 
time  assisted  his  father  in  his  business  as  a 
builder,  contractor,  and  millwright. 

In  1831  he  entered  the  employ  of  Jesse 
Hartley  [q.  v.],  and  remained  with  him  till 
1836,  being  chiefly  occupied  in  dock  and 
harbour  work.  He  then  entered  the  employ 
of  Robert  Stephenson  [q.  v.l,  and  was  en- 
London  and 


the 


Birmingham 


gaged  on 
railway. 

In  1840  he  returned  to  Liverpool,  becom- 
ing assistant-surveyor  to  the  corporation, 
and  from  1843  to  1847  he  was  employed  as 
chief  engineer  under  the  Bridgewater  trust. 
During  this  period  a  discussion  as  to  the 
necessity  of  increasing  the  supply  of  water 
to  Liverpool  was  going  on,  and  he  advocated 
a  scheme  for  the  utilisation  of  the  Bala  lake 
in  Wales  for  this  purpose ;  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  present  water  supply  of  the  city  is 
drawn  from  a  district  in  Wales  not  very  far 
removed  from  the  source  which  Rawlinson 
then  indicated. 

In  1848,  on  the  passing  of  the  Public 
Health  Act,  he  was  one  of  the  inspectors 
appointed  by  government  under  the  act, 
and  later  became  head  of  the  department. 
It  is,  however,  by  his  work  as  head  of  the 
sanitary  commission  which  was  sent  out  by 
the  government  to  the  seat  of  war  in  the 
Crimea  in  1855  that  Rawlinson  will  be  best 
known.  Full  accounts  of  the  valuable  work 
which  was  done  by  this  commission  are  given 
by  Alexander  William  Kinglake  [q.  v.]  in  his 
«  Invasion  of  the  Crimea.' 

On  his  return  from  the  Crimea  Rawlin- 
son took  up  his  duties  as  chief  engineer- 
ing inspector  under  the  local  government 
board,  and  in  connection  with  this  office 
he  prepared  and  published  some  valuable 
notes  entitled '  Suggestions  on  Town  Sewer- 
ing and  House  Draining,  for  the  Instruc- 
tion of  Engineers  and  Surveyors  to  Local 
Boards.'  The  correctness  of  the  views  he 
then  advocated  has  been  proved  by  their 
extensive  adoption  throughout  the  kingdom 
and  elsewhere. 

In  1863  he  served  as  a  member  of  the 
army  sanitary  committee;  and  in  April 
1863,  during  the  terrible  cotton  famine  in 


Lancashire,  he  was  sent  down  to  that  county 
by  Lord  Palmerston  to  organise  relief  works- 
for  the  thousands  of  operatives  thrown  idle 
by  the  stoppage  of  the  cotton  supply  from 
America  owing  to  the  civil  war.  The  works- 
he  then  started  occupied  his  attention  until 
1869,  and  nearly  two  millions  sterling  was 
spent  in  connection  with  them. 

In  1865  and  in  1868  he  was  chairman  of 
the  commissions  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  best  means  of  preventing  the  pollution 
of  rivers ;  and  in  1876  he  was  on  another 
commission  dealing  with  town  sewage.  In 
1884  he  was  president  of  the  congress  of 
the  sanitary  institute  held  at  Dublin,  and 
published  the  address  he  delivered  in  that 
capacity. 

For  his  many  valuable  services  in  connec- 
tion with  public  health  and  sanitation  he  was; 
knighted  on  24  July  1883,  and  in  January 
1888  he  was  made  K.C.B.  In  that  year  he- 
retired  from  the  office  which  he  had  held  for 
forty  years  as  chief  engineering  inspector  to- 
the  local  government  board. 

He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institu- 
tion of  Civil  Engineers  in  March  1848 ;  he 
served  on  the  council  for  many  years  and 
became  president  in  May  1894,  being  at  that 
time  eighty-four  years  of  age.  His  presiden- 
tial address  was  published  in  the  same  year- 

He  died  at  his  residence,  11  The  Boltons,. 
South  Kensington,  on  31  May  1898,  and 
buried  in  Brompton  cemetery  on  4  June. 
He   married,   in  1831,   Ruth,   daughter  of 
Thomas  Swallow  of  Lockwood,  Yorkshire 
There  is  an  oil  painting  in  the  possession  of 
the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 

He  wrote  several  books  dealing  with 
technical  matters,  and  also  numerous  pro- 
fessional reports,  mainly  on  sanitation  arid 
allied  subjects.  He  also  published  (London,. 
1893)  a  small  volume  of  verse. 

Rawlinson's  more  important  books  and. 
tracts  were:  Drainage  of  Towns,  London,. 
1854.  Designs  for  Factory  Shafts,  &c.,  Lon- 
don, 1858.  Lectures  on  Sanitary  Questions,. 
London,  1876.  Maps  and  Plans  forT)rainager 
&c.,  London,  1878-80.  Hygiene  of  Armies 
in  the  Field,  London,  1883.  Public  Works 
in  Lancashire,  with  Appendix  on  Drainage, 
London,  1898. 

His  chief  published  reports  were  on 
Sewerage, Water  Supply,  and  Drainage,  viz.  z 
Wigan  Water,  Wigan,  1852 ;  Birmingham 
Water,  Birmingham,  1854  and  1871 ;  Tyne- 
mouth  Sewerage,  N.  Shields,  1857;  Chorley 


\ 


Reeves 


293 


Reeves 


District  Drainage,  Chorley,  1857 ;  West  Ham 
Sewerage,  1862;  Windsor  Castle  Drainage, 
&c.,  London,  1863;  Liverpool  Waterworks, 
London,  1866 ;  Swansea  Water  Supply,  Swan- 
sea, 1868 ;  Failure  of  Bradfield  Reservoir  in 
1864 ;  Aldershot  Sewerage,  London,  1870 ; 
Croydon  Waterworks,  Croydon,  1882;  Cal- 
•stock,  Devonport,  Falmouth,  &c.  He  also 
wrote  vol.  xvii.  of  the  Reports  of  the  General 
Board  of  Health  on  Drainage  and  Water 
Supply. 

[Obituary  notices  in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng. 
vol.  cxxxiv. ;  Burke's  Peerage  &c.  1890  ;  Times, 
"2  and  6  June  1898  ;  Kinglake's  Invasion  of  the 
Crimea.]  T.  H.  B. 

REEVES,  JOHN  SDIS  (1818-1900), 
tenor  vocalist,  son  of  John  Reeves,  a  bands- 
man in  the  royal  artillery,  was  born  at  Wool- 
wich on  26  Sept.  1818,  and  baptised  John 
only.  (The  professional  name  '  Sims '  was 
.adopted  many  years  later  at  the  suggestion  of 
Madame  Puzzi,  a  vocalist,  as  a  euphonious 
prefix  to  Reeves.)  He  received  his  earliest 
instruction  in  music  from  his  father,  and 
afterwards  studied  the  pianoforte  under 
Johann  Baptist  Cramer  [q.  v.],  and  with 
W.  H.  Calcott  for  harmony.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  became  organist  of  North  Cray 
church,  Kent,  and  gained  a  knowledge  of 
the  oboe,  bassoon,  violin,  and  violoncello, 
•*  all  of  which  instruments  he  played  pretty 
well.'  Reeves  forsook  music  for  a  year  and 
studied  for  the  medical  profession  at  one  of 
the  London  hospitals,  but  a  gruesome  practi- 
cal joke  played  upon  him  by  one  of  his  fellow- 
students  turned  him  from  further  anatomical 
pursuits.  He  took  a.strong  fancy  to  the  stage, 
and  after  taking  lessons  in  singing  from  Tom 
Cooke  and  J.  W.Hobbs,  he  made  (according 
to  his  own  account)  his  first  public  appear- 
ance as  a  vocalist  in  1839  at  the  Newcastle 
theatre  as  the  Gipsy  Boy  in  '  Guy  Manner- 
ing.'  He  subsequently  played  in  Edinburgh, 
Glasgow,  Belfast,  Norwich,  and  elsewhere. 

He  returned  to  London  in  1842,  where, 
as  a  tenor,  he  appeared  first  at  the  Grecian 
Theatre,  City  Road,  under  the  name  of '  Mr. 
Johnson,'  and  afterwards  as  one  of  Mac- 
ready's  company  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
where  he  sang  in  Handel's  'Acis  andGalatea' 
(produced  with  Stanfield's  scenery),  the 
*  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,' Purcell's  'King 
Arthur,'  and  in  other  minor  parts.  He 
then  went  to  Paris,  where  he  studied  under 
Bordogni,  and  subsequently  to  Milan,  where 
he  enjoyed  the  invaluable  tuition  of  Alberto 
Mazzucato.  At  La  Scala  he  made  his  debut 
as  Edgardo  in  Donizetti's  'Lucia  di  Lammer- 
moor  'with  marked  success. 

Reeves  reappeared  in  London  at  a  grand 
naonstre  concert  given  for  the  benefit  of 


William  Vincent  Wallace  [q.  v.]  at  Drury 
Lane  Theatre,  16  May  1847,  when  he  was 
announced  as  '  Mr.  J.  S.  Reeves,'  and  at  the 
'  Ancient  Concert '  of  23  June  in  the  same 
year  as  '  Mr.  Reeves.'  But  it  was  not  till 
the  following  6  Dec.  that  he  made  his  mark, 
when  he  appeared  as  Edgardo  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre,  then  under  the  management  of 
Jullien,  with  Hector  Berlioz  as  chtf 
d'orchestre.  On  this  and  subsequent  oc- 
casions during  the  season  he  not  only  dis- 
played a  voice  of  exquisite  charm,  but 
showed  that  he  possessed  histrionic  gifts  of  no 
mean  order.  He  created  the  part  of  Lyonnel 
in  Balfe's  'Maid  of  Honour.'  The  Drury 
Lane  playbills  of  that  time  (1847)  furnish 
evidence  of  the  gradual  change  in  his  name — 
first  '  Mr.  S.  Reeves,'  and  then  '  Mr.  Sims 
Reeves,'  by  which  designation  he  became 
widely  known  throughout  his  long  and  re- 
markable career. 

But  it  was  in  the  field  of  oratorio  and  on 
the  concert  platform  that  Reeves  attained 
the  highest  pinnacle  of  his  well-merited 
fame.  The  Worcester  and  Norwich  musical 
festivals  of  1848  were  his  first  appearances 
in  oratorio.  From  that  time  onward  he 
took  rank  as  the  premier  English  tenor, 
singing  at  the  Handel  and  provincial  musical 
festivals,  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society's  con- 
certs, and  elsewhere,  with  extraordinary 
marks  of  public  appreciation. 

In  1888  he  published  his  '  Life  and  Re- 
collections,' which  was  followed  in  1889  by 
a  similar  anecdotal  book  entitled  'My  Ju- 
bilee.' Towards  the  close  of  his  life  he 
was  a  professor  of  singing  at  the  Guildhall 
School  of  Music.  A  public  subscription  was 
started  to  relieve  the  necessitous  circum- 
stances of  his  old  age,  and  in  the  year  of  his 
death  a  civil-list  pension  of  100/.  was 
granted  to  him  in  consideration  of  his  emi- 
nence as  a  singer.  Sims  Reeves  died  at 
Worthing  on  25  Oct.  1900,  and  his  re- 
mains were  cremated  at  Woking. 

Reeves  married,  on  3  Nov.  1850,  Miss 
Emma  Lucombe,  an  excellent  singer,  who 
died  on  10  June  1895. 

The  voice  of  Sims  Reeves  was  one  of 
peculiar  beauty.  There  was  not  a  faulty 
note  in  its  wide  range.  Rich  in  the  mellow- 
ness of  its  smooth  quality,  he  always  had  a 
reserve  of  power  in  his  voice  which,  while 
being  remarkable  in  its  volume  of  tone, 
never  overstepped  the  border  line  of  the 
incomparable  sweetness  and  pathos  of  his 
wonderful  organ.  Moreover,  his  finished 
phrasing — what  may  be  termed  the  ebb  and 
flow  of  his  voice — was  a  feature  in  his  per- 
formances that  appealed  to  the  highest  in- 
stincts of  his  hearers.  Dramatic  in  the 


Renouf 


294 


Renouf 


singing  of  a  simple  song  or  a  devotional 
oratorio  air,  Reeves  never  sang  for  mere 
effect. 

[Dramatic  and  Musical  Review,  1 8  Dec.  1847 ; 
Reeves's  Life  and  Recollections,  1888,  and  My 
Jubilee,  1889;  Drury  Lane  Playbills,  in  Brit. 
Museum  ;  James  D.  Brown  and  S.  S.  Stratton's 
British  Musical  Biography ;  Musical  Times, 
December  1900  ;  private  information.] 

F.  G.  E. 

RENOUF,  SIB  PETER  LE  PAGE  (1822- 
1897),  egyptologist,  oriental  scholar,  and 
theologian ,  son  of  Joseph  RenoufofG  uer  usey , 
and  his  wife  Mary,  daughter  of  John  le  Page, 
also  of  Guernsey,  was  born  in  Guernsey  on 
23  Aug.  1822.  He  was  educated  at  Eliza- 
beth College,  Guernsey,  and  thence  passed 
in  1841  with  a  scholarship  to  Pembroke 
College,  Oxford,  where,  being  intended  for 
the  church,  he  soon  came  into  contact  with 
the  protagonists  of  the  tractarian  move- 
ment, especially  with  Newman,  whose  views 
exerted  considerable  influence  over  him.  He 
is  said  to  have  aided  in  the  compilation  of 
some  of  the  'Tracts  for  the  Times.'  Cer- 
tainly his  tractarianism  was  of  so  uncom- 
promising a  type  that  it  hurried  him  rapidly 
into  the  Roman  church,  and  he  was  '  re- 
ceived' as  early  as  Easter  18-42  at  St.  Mary's 
College,  Oscott,  where,  having  abandoned 
Oxford,  he  remained  for  some  years  engaged 
in  various  studies. 

The  years  from  1846  to  1855  were  occu- 
pied in  desultory  travel  and  study.     In  the 
latter  year  Renouf,  after  delivering,  at  the 
newly  founded  Roman  catholic  university  of 
Ireland,  a  course  of  historical  lectures  on 
French  literature  and  the  history  of  philo- 
sophy, was  appointed  by  Newman,  then  the 
rector,  to  the  chair  of  ancient   history,  to  j 
which  was  afterwards  added  the  professor-  i 
ship  of  eastern   languages.      He  held  this  . 
professorship  till  1864,  and  it  was  during  his  ' 
tenure  of  it  that  he  first  turned  his  attention 
towards  egyptology.     His  first  essays  in  the  ; 
science  which  was  eventually  to  become  the 
chief  occupation  of  his  life  were  published 
in  '  Atlantis,'  the  literary  journal  of  the 
university,  in  which,  in  1863,  appeared  his 
noteworthy  defence  of  egyptological  science 
against  the  attacks  of  Sir  George  Cornewall  | 
Lewis  [q.  v.],  entitled  '  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis  on  ; 
the  Decipherment  and  Interpretation  of  Dead  | 
Languages.'    This  article  finally  disposed  of  ' 
all  objections  to  Young  and  Champollion's  : 
method  of  deciphering  the  hieroglyphs  [see  • 
YOTTNG,  THOMAS,  1773-1829].     Though  de- 
voting more  and  more  of  his  time  to  egyp- 
tology, Renouf  still  took  part  in  the   dis- 
cussion of  other  subjects,  chiefly  theological, 
which    interested    him.       He    contributed 


articles  to  the  '  Home  and  Foreign  Review,' 
'  North  British  Review,'  and  other  periodi- 
cals. After  1864,  when  he  severed  his  con- 
nection with  the  Irish  Catholic  university, 
he  gradually  grew  out  of  sympathy  with 
the  Ultramontane  position.  In  1868  he 
published  an  essay  on  the  subject  of  '  The 
Condemnation  of  Pope  Honorius.'  This 
was  in  effect  a  vigorous  attack  on  the 
doctrine  of  papal  infallibility,  which  was 
now  definitely  propounded  at  Rome ;  he 
showed  that  without  possible  doubt  the 
'  infallible  Vicar  of  Christ '  Honorius  was  a 
monothelite  heretic,  who,  in  the  words  of 
the  judgment  of  the  council  held  at  Con- 
stantinople in  681,  '  shall  be  cast  out  of  the 
Holy  Church  of  God,  and  be  anathematised 
with  them  (Sergius  of  Constantinople  and 
others),  because  we  have  found,  from  the 
letter  written  by  him  to  Sergius,  that  he 
followed  the  mind  of  the  latter  in  all  things, 
and  gave  authority  to  his  impious  dogmas.' 
This  insistence  on  the  historical  condemna- 
tion of  a  pope  as  a  heretic  was  by  110  means 
to  the  taste  of  the  Ultramontane  champions 
of  infallibility  on  the  continent  and  in  Ire- 
land, and  Renouf 's  essay  was  placed  on  the 
'  Index.'  His  thesis  was  taken  up  vigorously 
by  a  Jansenist  writer,  the  Rev.  J.  A.  van 
Beek,  who  translated  Renouf's  essay  into 
Dutch,  under  the  title  '  Zal  de  Paus  op  het 
aanstaande  Concilie  onfeilbaar  verklaard 
worden  ? — De  Veroordeeling  van  Paus  Hono- 
rius,' and  supported  it  with  a  brochure  of 
his  own,  '  Beschouwingen  over  de  Pauselijke 
Onfeilbaarheid.'  Renouf  did  not  retreat 
before  the  clamour  of  Ultramontane  resent- 
ment, which  was  well  expressed  in  a  pam- 
phlet written  by  Paolo  Bottalla,  an  Italian 
priest,  but  he  defended  his  position  in  a 
second  publication, '  The  Case  of  Pope  Hono- 
rius reconsidered,  with  reference  to  recent 
Apologies'  (1869).  With  the  official  adop- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  infallibility  the  con- 
troversy ceased.  But  Renouf  did  not  follow 
Dr.  Dollinger  in  severing  his  connection 
with  the  Roman  church  on  its  adoption  of 
that  dogma. 

In  1864  Renouf  advocated  a  project  which 
commended  itself  to  many  English  Roman 
catholics,  though  not  to  the  Ultramontanes — 
the  foundation  of  a  college  for  Roman  catho- 
lics at  Oxford ;  his  views  were  put  forwarc 
in  a  letter  addressed  to  Dr.  Newman  by  '  a. 
Catholic  Layman,'  and  entitled  '  University 
Education  for  English  Catholics '  (London 
1864).     The  proposal  came  to  nothing. 

On  his  retirement  from  the  Irish  catholic, 
university  Renouf  was  appointed  in  186( 
one  of  her  majesty's  chief  inspectors  o: 
schools,  a  post  which  he  held  for  nearly 


Renouf 


295 


Reynolds 


twenty  years.  Theology  was  now  aban- 
doned, and  Renouf  devoted  an  increasing 
part  of  his  leisure  to  egyptological  study. 
One  of  his  most  notable  contributions  to 
egyptology  during  this  period  was  his  '  Ele- 
mentary Grammar  of  the  Ancient  Egyptian 
Language'  (1875,  2nd  edit.  1896).  "With 
the  exception  of  Dr.  Birch's  linguistic  notes 
in  the  second  edition  of  Bunsen's  '  Egypt's 
Place  in  Universal  History '  (1867,  vol.  v.), 
this  was  the  first  ancient  Egyptian  grammar 
published  in  English.  In  1879  he  delivered 
the  Hibbert  lectures,  taking  for  his  subject 
'The  Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt.'  The  views 
therein  expressed  are  now  to  some  extent 
superseded,  because  Renouf  in  many  ways 
followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Professor  Max 
Miiller  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  and  in  dealing  with 
Egyptian  religion  was  inclined  to  lay  too 
much  stress  upon  philological  theories  and 
not  to  pay  sufficient  attention  to  the  modern 
developments  of  anthropological  science. 

In  1885  Renouf  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Samuel  Birch  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  as  keeper  of  the 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  antiquities  in  the 
British  Museum.  In  this  position  he  pre- 
sided over  the  publication  of  the  '  Coffin  of 
Amamu '  (1890),  a  work  prepared  by  Birch, 
and  of  a  facsimile  of  the  well-known  papyrus 
of  Ani,  which  has  since  been  fully  edited 
and  translated  by  his  successor  in  the  post 
of  keeper,  Dr.  Wallis  Budge.  At  the  end  ol 
1891  he  retired,  after  having  been  specially 
permitted  to  exceed  the  ordinary  civil  service 
age-limit  by  four  years. 

In  1887  Renouf  succeeded  Sir  Charles 
Newton  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  as  president  of  the 
Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,  to  whose 
'  Transactions '  and  '  Proceedings '  he  had 
made  many  contributions.  In  1892,  after 
his  retirement  from  the  British  Museum, 
he  commenced  the  publication  in  the  '  Pro- 
ceedings '  of  an  elaborate  translation  of  and 
commentary  upon  the  '  Book  of  the  Dead,' 
a  work  left  unfinished  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  In  1896  he  was  knighted.  He  died 
on  14  Oct.  1897. 

In  18o7  Renouf  married  Ludovika,  daugh- 
ter of  Brentano  la  Roche  of  Frankfort. 

It  is  by  his  egyptological  work  that  Sir 
Peter  Renouf  is  best  known.  His  tempera- 
ment was  strongly  controversial,  not  to  say 
polemical,  yet  he  rendered  lasting  service  to 
egyptology,  especially  in  the  domain  of  the 
language  of  ancient  Egypt,  our  knowledge  of 
which  he  greatly  helped  to  place  in  the  posi- 
tion of  certainty  that  it  has  now  attained. 

[Obituary  notice  by  W.  H.  Rylands  in  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology, 
xix.  (1897),  pp.  271  ff.;  Men  of  the  Time.] 

H.  R.  H. 


REYNOLDS,  HEN  R  Y  ROBERT  (1825- 
1890),  congregational  divine,  born  at  Romsey 
in  Hampshire  on  26  Feb.  1825,  was  the 
grandson  of  Henry  Revell  Reynolds  [q.  v.], 
and  the  elder  son  of  John  Reynolds  (1782- 
1862),  congregational  minister,  by  his  second 
wife,  Sarah  (d.  1868),  daughter  of  Robert 
Fletcher  of  Chester  and  sister  of  Joseph 
Fletcher  (1784-1843)  [q.  v.]  Sir  John  Rus- 
sell Reynolds  [q.  v.]  was  his  younger  brother. 
Henry  was  educated  chiefly  by  his  father, 
and  in  September  1841  he  entered  Coward 
College,  London  (now  incorporated  in  New 
College,  South  Hampstead)  to  prepare  for 
the  ministry.  He  matriculated  at  London 
University  in  the  same  year,  obtaining  the 
university  mathematical  scholarship  in  1844 
and  graduating  B.A.  in  1848.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  made  a  fellow  of  University 
College,  London. 

In  April  1846  he  became  pastor  of  the 
congregational  church  at  Halstead  in  Essex, 
receiving  permission  to  curtail  his  course  at 
Coward  College  at  the  urgent  request  of  the 
congregation.  He  was  ordained  on  16  July 
1846.  Among  his  congregation  was  the 
future  missionary,  Matthew  Atmore  Sherring 
[q.  v.],  whose  father  was  one  of  Reynolds's 
deacons.  In  1849  Reynolds  accepted  a  call 
to  be  minister  of  the  East  Parade  chapel 
at  Leeds,  entering  on  his  new  duties  on 
28  March.  The  ten  succeeding  years  were 
probably  the  most  strenuous  in  his  life.  He 
took  a  keen  interest  in  theological  contro- 
versies of  the  day,  and  made  an  especial 
study  of  the  writings  of  August e  Cornte, 
on  whom  he  published  a  criticism  in  the 
'  British  Quarterly  Review  '  in  April  1854. 
In  1855  his  health  gave  way,  and  the  labours 
of  the  next  five  years  were  diversified  by 
visits  to  Egypt,  Italy,  and  the  south  of  France, 
and  broken  by  frequent  illness.  During  this 
period  he  and  his  brother,  John  Russell 
Reynolds,  wrote  a  novel  dealing  with  the 
intellectual  and  religious  questions  of  the 
time,  which  was  published  anonymously  in 
1860  with  the  title  '  Yes  and  No.'' 

In  June  1860  Reynolds  accepted  the  post 
of  president  of  Cheshunt  College,  whither  he 
removed  in  August.  Besides  fulfilling  the 
duties  of  principal  of  the  college  and  pastor 
of  the  college  chapel  and  village  churches,  he 
was  professor  of  dogmatic  theology,  ecclesias- 
tical history,  and  New  Testament  exegesis. 
In  addition  to  these  he  undertook  serious 
literary  labours.  From  1866  to  1874  he  was 
co-editor  with  Henry  Allon  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  of 
the  '  British  Quarterly  Review,'  and  from 
1877  to  1882  he  edited  the  'Evangelical 
Magazine.'  In  1870  and  1871  he  edited  two 
series  of  essays  on  church  problems  by 


Reynolds 


296 


Reynolds 


various  writers,  entitled  'Ecclesia'  (Lon- 
don, 8vo),  and  in  1874  he  published  lectures 
on  '  John  the  Baptist '  in  the  new  series  of 
'  Congregational  Union  Lectures.'  They 
reached  a  third  edition  in  1888.  He  -wrote 
frequently  for  the  '  Expositor,'  and  contri- 
buted to  the  '  Dictionary  of  Christian  Bio- 


In  1869  Reynolds  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  D.D.  from  Edinburgh  University, 
and  in  the  years  immediately  following  he 
was  engaged  on  the  project  of  enlarging  the 
Cheshunt  College  buildings,  in  celebration 
of  the  centenary  of  the  institution.  This 
work  was  completed  in  1872.  In  1888 
appeared  his  most  notable  work,  the  '  Intro- 
duction '  and  '  Exposition '  on  the  Gospel  of 
St.  John,  contributed  to  the  '  Pulpit  Com- 
mentary.' In  November  1894  failing  health 
compelled  him  to  resign  the  presidency  of 
Cheshunt  College,  and  in  May  1895  he 
withdrew  to  Broxbourne  in  Hertfordshire. 
He  died  at  Broxbourne  on  10  Sept.  1896, 
and  was  buried  in  Cheshunt  cemetery  on 
15  Sept.  On  17  Dec.  1840,  at  Walworth 
chapel,  he  married  Louisa  Caroline  (d. 
11  Oct.  1895),  only  surviving  daughter  of 
Silas  Palmer  of  Newbury,  Berkshire.  They 
had  no  children. 

On  21  Sept.  1882  Reynolds's  portrait, 
painted  by  Mr.  Sydney  Hodges,  was  pre- 
sented to  Cheshunt  College  by  the  past  and 
present  students.  A  replica  was  presented 
to  Mrs.  Reynolds. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned, 
Reynolds  was  the  author  of:  1.  'The  Be- 
ginnings of  the  Divine  Life :  a  Course  of 
Seven  Sermons,'  London,  1859, 8vo.  2. '  Notes 
on  the  Christian  Life :  a  Selection  of  Ser- 
mons,' London,  1865,  8vo.  3.  «  The  Philo- 
sophy of  Prayer  and  Principles  of  Christian 
Service ;  with  other  Papers,'  London,  1881, 
8vo.  4.  '  Buddhism :  a  Comparison  and  a 
Contrast  between  Buddhism  and  Christia- 
nity (' Present  Day  Tracts,'  2nd  ser.  No.  46), 
London,  1886,  8vo.  5.  '  Athanasius :  his 
Life  and  Lifework '  (Church  History  Series, 
No.  5),  London,  1889,  8vo.  6."  '  Light 
and  Peace:  Sermons  and  Addresses' 
('Preachers  of  the  Age'),  London,  1892,  8vo. 

7.  'Lamps  of  the  Temple,  and  other  Ad- 
dresses to  Young  Men,'  London,  1895,  8vo. 

8.  '  Who  say  ye  that  I  am  ? '  ('  Present  Day 
Tracts,'  No.  80),  London,  1896,  8vo.     He 
edited  the  '  Congregational  Register  for  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire '  (London,  8vo) 
from  1855  to  1857,  and  undertook  in  1884, 
in  conjunction  with  Owen  Charles  White- 
house,  the  prophecies  of  Hosea  and  Amos  in 
'  An  Old  Testament  Commentary  for  Eng- 
lish Readers.' 


, 


[Henry  Robert  Reynolds,  his  Life  and  Letters, 
edited  by  his  Sisters  (with  portraits),  1898; 
Congregational  Yearbook,  1897 ;  Memoir  pre- 
fixed to  Reynolds's  Who  say  ye  that  I  am? 
1896.]  E.  I.  C. 

REYNOLDS,  SAMUEL  HARVEY 
(1831-1897),  divine  and  journalist,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Samuel  Reynolds,  F.R.C.S.,  a 
surgeon  in  practice  in  High  Street,  Stoke 
Newington,  by  Elizabeth,  younger  daughter 
of  Harvey  Walklett  Mortimer,  a  gunsmith 
in  the  city  of  London  and  afterwards  a 
member  of  the  London  Stock  Exchange. 
His  paternal  grandfather  was  the  Rev.  John 
Reynolds,  a  Wesleyan  minister  and  a  per- 
sonal friend  of  John  Wesley.  He  was  born 
in  1831,  and  was  entered  at  Blundell's  school, 
Tiverton,  on  6  Feb.  1847,  but  left  it  in  the 
following  June.  On  the  foundation  of  St. 
Peter's  College,  Radley,  in  1847,  he  became 
(July)  its  first  pupil,  and  afterwards  (1897) 
wrote  his  reminiscences  of  the  school.  From 
Radley  he  was  elected  in  1850  to  a  scholar- 
ship at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  placed  in  the 
first  class  in  classics  at  moderations  at 
Michaelmas  1852,  and  in  the  first  class  in 
literee  kumaniores  at  Easter  1854.  He  ob- 
tained the  Newdigate  prize  poem  for  English 
verse  in  1853,  the  theme  being '  The  Ruins  of 
Egyptian  Thebes.'  On  2  Feb.  1855  he  was 
elected  probationer  fellow  of  Brasenose,  and 
actual  fellow  on  2  Feb.  1856.  He  afterwards 
became  tutor  and  bursar  of  the  college.  In 
1856  he  obtained  the  chancellor's  prize  for  an 
English  essay  on  '  The  Reciprocal  Action  of 
the  Physical  and  Moral  Condition  of  Coun- 
tries upon  each  other.'  He  proceeded  M.A.  in 
1857.  Intending  to  be  called  to  the  bar,  he 
was  admitted  a  student  of  Lincoln's  Inn  on 
23  Oct.  1858  (Line.  Inn  Admission  Register, 
ii.  283),  and  for  some  time  read  in  the 
chambers  of  equity  counsel ;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  an  accident  which  injured  his 
eyesight  he  abandoned  the  law  and  returned 
to  residence  in  Brasenose.  In  1860  he  took 
deacon's  orders.  He  devoted  himself  to 
college  work,  and  filled  in  succession  the 
offices  of  Latin  lecturer,  tutor,  and  bursar. 
In  1865  he  was  ordained  priest.  During 
1866,  1867,  and  1868  he  was  classical  ex- 
aminer in  the  university.  He  wrote  in  1865 
a  small  treatise  on  the  '  Rise  of  the  Modern 
European  System.'  This  was  intended  to 
form  part  of  a  '  System  of  Modern  History,' 
published  by  an  Edinburgh  firm.  In  1870 
he  edited,  for  the  series  known  as  the  '  Ca- 
tena Classicorum,'  the  first  twelve  books  of 
the  '  Iliad '  of  Homer,  with  a  preface  and 
notes. 

Reynolds  was  presented  in  March  1871  to 
the  college  living  of  East  Ham,  at  that  time 


Richardson 


297 


Richardson 


&  comparatively  small  district  of  about  two 
thousand  souls.  Soon  afterwards  he  joined 
the  staff  of  the  '  Times,'  and  to  the  columns 
of  that  newspaper  he  contributed  some  two 
thousand  leading  articles  between  August 
1873  and  December  1896  upon  a  great 
variety  of  topics,  literary,  political,  and 
financial.  Some  of  these  were  reprinted  in 
1898,  after  his  death,  in  a  volume  en- 
titled '  Studies  on  many  Subjects,'  which 
also  includes  a  selection  of  articles  written 
for  the  '  Westminster  Review '  between 
1861  and  1866.  To  these  literary  labours 
he  added  an  edition  with  notes  of  Bacon's 
4  Essays'  (1890)  and  -of  the  'Table-talk 
of  John  Selden '  (1892).  He  resigned  his 
living  in  December  1893,  and  removed  to 
The  Gables,  Abingdon,  '  to  be  near  enough 
to  the  Bodleian  for  study,  and  not  near 
enough  to  Oxford  for  society.'  Here  he  de- 
voted himself  to  literary  pursuits ;  but  as 
his  health  failed  he  sought  from  time  to 
time  the  milder  climate  of  the  south  of 
France.  He  died  at  Biarritz  on  7  Feb.  1897, 
and  was  buried  at  that  place  two  days  later. 
He  was  a  man  of  engaging  social  qualities, 
a  good  raconteur  with  a  caustic  wit.  His 
literary  style  was  lucid  and  terse. 

He  married,  on  12  April  1871,  Edith 
Claudia,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Claudius 
Sandys,  military  chaplain  at  Bombay,  and 
granddaughter  of  Colonel  Sandys  of 
Llanarth,  Cornwall.  He  left  no  issue. 

[Private  information  ;  Her.  T.  D.  "Raikes's 
Sicut  Columbse ;  Fifty  Years  of  St.  Peter's  Col- 
lege, Eadley,  1897,  pp.  35-46  ;  Some  Eecollec- 
tions  of  Eadley  in  1847;  W.  Crouch's  Memoirs 
of  the  Eev.  S.  H.  Eeynolds,  reprinted  from  the 
Essex  Eeview,  vol.  vi.  No.  22,  April  1897; 
Prefaces,  &c.,  to  Studies  on  many  Subjects, 
1898.]  I.  S.  L. 

RICHARDSON,  SIR  BENJAMIN 
WARD  (1828-1896),  physician,  only  son  of 
Benjamin  Richardson  and  Mary  Ward  his 
wife,  was  born  at  Somerby  in  Leicestershire 
on  31  Oct.  1828,  and  was  educated  by  the 
Rev.  W.  Young  Nutt  at  the  Barrow  Hill 
school  in  the  same  county.  Being  destined 
by  the  deathbed  wish  of  his  mother  for  the 
medical  profession,  his  studies  were  always 
directed  to  that  end,  and  he  was  early 
apprenticed  to  Henry  Hudson,  the  surgeon 
at  Somerby.  He  entered  Anderson's  Uni- 
versity (now  Anderson's  College),  Glasgow, 
in  1847,  but  a  severe  attack  of  famine  fever, 
caught  while  he  was  a  pupil  at  St.  Andrews 
Lying-in  Hospital,  interrupted  his  studies, 
and  led  him  to  become  an  assistant,  first  to 
Thomas  Browne  of  Saffron  Walden  in  Essex, 
and  afterwards  to  Edward  Dudley  Hudson 


at  Littlebury,  Narborough,  near  Leicester, 
who  was  the  elder  brother  of  his  former 
master. 

In  1850  he  was  admitted  a  licentiate  of 
the  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of 
Glasgow,  becoming  faculty  lecturer  in  1877, 
and  being  enrolled  a  fellow  on  3  June  1878. 
In  1854  he  was  admitted  M.A.  and  M.D.  of 
St.  Andrews,  where  he  afterwards  became 
a  member  of  the  university  court,  assessor 
of  the  general  council,  and  in  1877  an 
honorary  LL.D.  He  was  a  founder  and  for 
thirty-five  times  in  succession  the  president 
of  the  St.  Andrews  Medical  Graduates' 
Association.  He  was  admitted  a  member 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  Lon- 
don in  1856,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  in 
1865,  serving  the  office  of  materia  medica 
lecturer  in  1866.  He  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1867,  and  delivered 
the  Croonian  lecture  in  1873  on  '  The  Mus- 
cular Irritability  after  Systemic  Death.' 

In  1849  he  left  Mr.  Hudson  and  joined 
Dr.  Robert  Willis  of  Barnes,  well  known 
as  the  editor  of  the  works  of  William 
Harvey,  and  librarian  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  of  England  (1828-45).  Richard- 
son lived  at  Mortlake,  and  about  this  time 
became  a  member  of  '  Our  Club,'  where  he 
met  Douglas  Jerrold,  Thackeray,  Hepworth 
Dixon,  Mark  Lemon,  John  Doran,  and  George 
Cruikshank,  of  whose  will  he  became  an 
executor. 

Richardson  moved  to  London  in  1853-4, 
and  took  a  house  at  12  Hinde  Street,  whence 
he  moved  to  25  Manchester  Square.  In 
1854  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Blen- 
heim Street  Dispensary,  and  in  1856  to  the 
Royal  Infirmary  for  Diseases  of  the  Chest  in. 
the  City  Road.  He  was  also  physician  to 
the  Metropolitan  Dispensary  (1856),  to  the 
Marylebone  and  to  the  Margaret  Street  Dis- 
pensaries (1856),  and  in  1892  he  became 
physician  to  the  London  Temperance  Hos- 
pital. For  many  years  he  was  physician  to 
the  Newspaper  Press  Fund  and  to  the  Royal 
Literary  Fund,  of  the  committee  of  which 
he  was  long  an  active  member.  In  1854  he 
became  lecturer  upon  forensic  medicine  at 
the  Grosvenor  Place  School  of  Medicine, 
where  he  was  afterwards  appointed  the  first 
lecturer  on  public  hygiene,  posts  which  he 
resigned  in  1857  for  the  lectureship  on  phy- 
siology. He  remained  dean  of  the  school 
until  1865,  when  it  was  sold  and,  with  all 
the  other  buildings  in  the  old  Tattersall's 
yard,  demolished.  Richardson  was  also  a 
lecturer  about  this  time  at  the  College  of 
Dentists,  then  occupying  a  part  of  the  Poly- 
technic Institution  in  Regent  Street. 

In   1854  Richardson  was    awarded    the 


Richardson 


298 


Roberts 


Fothergillian  gold  medal  by  the  Medical 
Society  of  London  for  an  essay  on  the 
'  Diseases  of  the  Foetus  in  Utero  ; '  in  1856 
he  gained  the  Astley  Cooper  triennial  prize 
of  300  guineas  for  his  essay  on  '  The  Coagu- 
lation of  the  Blood.'  In  1868  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Medical  Society  of  London, 
and  on  several  occasions  he  was  president  of 
the  health  section  of  the  Social  Science  Asso- 
ciation, notably  in  1875,  when  he  delivered 
a  celebrated  address  at  Brighton  on '  Hygeia,' 
in  which  lie  told  of  what  a  city  should  be  if 
sanitary  science  were  advanced  in  a  proper 
manner.  In  the  same  year  he  gave  the 
Cantor  lectures  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  taking 
'  Alcohol '  as  the  subject.  He  was  elected 
an  honorary  member  of  the  Philosophical 
Society  of  America  in  1863,  and  of  the 
Imperial  Leopold  Carolina  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1867.  He  became  a  fellow  of 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  1877.  In 
June  1893  he  was  knighted  in  recognition 
of  his  eminent  services  to  humanitarian 
causes. 

He  died  at  25  Manchester  Square  on  21  Nov. 
1896,  and  his  body  was  cremated  at  Brook- 
wood,  Surrey.  He  married,  on  21  Feb.  1857, 
MaryJ.  Smith  of  Mortlake,  by  whom  he  left 
two  surviving  sons  and  one  daughter. 

Richardson  was  a  sanitary  reformer,  who 
busied  himself  with  many  of  the  smaller 
details  of  domestic  sanitation  which  tend 
in  the  aggregate  to  prolong  the  average  life 
in  each  generation.  He  spent  many  years 
in  attempts  to  relieve  pain  among  men  by 
discovering  and  adapting  substances  capable 
of  producing  general  or  local  anaesthesia, 
and  among  animals  by  more  humane 
methods  of  slaughter.  He  brought  into 
use  no  less  than  fourteen  anaesthetics,  of 
which  methylene  bichloride  is  the  best 
known,  and  he  invented  the  first  double- 
valved  mouthpiece  for  use  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  chloroform.  He  also  produced 
local  insensibility  by  freezing  the  part  with 
an  ether  spray,  and  he  gave  animals  eutha- 
nasia by  means  of  a  lethal  chamber.  He 
was  an  ardent  and  determined  champion  of 
total  abstinence,  for  he  held  that  alcohol 
was  so  powerful  a  drug  that  it  should  only 
be  used  by  skilled  hands  in  the  greatest 
emergencies.  He  was,  too,  one  of  the 
earliest  advocates  of  bicycling.  In  1863  he 
made  known  the  peculiar  properties  of  amyl 
nitrite,  a  drug  which  was  largely  used  in 
the  treatment  of  breast-pang,  and  he  intro- 
duced the  bromides  of  quinine,  iron,  and 
strychnia,  ozonised  ether,  styptic  and  iodised 
colloid,  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  and  ethylate 
of  soda,  substances  which  were  soon  largely 
used  by  the  medical  profession. 


Richardson  was  one  of  the  most  prolific 
writers  of  his  generation.  He  wrote  bio- 
graphies, plays,  poems,  and  songs,  in  addi- 
tion to  his  more  strictly  scientific  work. 
He  wrote  the  '  Asclepiad,'  a  series  of  original 
researches  in  the  science,  art,  and  literature 
of  medicine.  A  single  volume  was  issued  in 
1861,  after  which  it  appeared  quarterly  from 
1884  to  1895.  He  was  the  originator  and 
the  editor  of  the  '  Journal  of  Public  Health 
and  Sanitary  Review  '  (1855).  He  contri- 
buted many  articles,  signed  and  unsigned,  to 
the  '  Lancet '  and  to  the  '  Medical  Times  and 
Gazette.' 

[Vita  Medica,  chapters  of  medical  life  and 
work  by  Sir  B.  W.  Richardson,  London,  1897. 
The  author  was  engaged  upon  the  last  pages  of 
this  book  at  the  time  of  his  death.  See  also 
obituary  notice  in  the  Lancet,  1896,  ii.  1575  ; 
Yearbook  of  the  Royal  Soc.  1901,  pp.  187-8.] 

D'A.  P. 

RIGBY,  ELIZABETH,  afterwards  LADY 
EASTLAKE  (1809-1893),  author.  [See 
EASTLAKE.] 

RIVERS,  AUGUSTUS  HENRY  LANE 
FOX  PITT-  (1827-1900),  general  and  an- 
thropologist. [See  PiTT-RiVEES.] 

ROBERTS,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1830- 
1899),  physician,  born  at  Bodedern,  Angle- 
sea,  on  18  March  1830,  was  the  eighth  and 
youngest  son  of  David  Roberts,  surgeon,  of 
Mynydd-y-gof,  and  Sarah,  his  wife,  daughter 
of  Thomas  Foulkes  of  Machynlleth,  Mont- 
gomeryshire. He  was  educated  at  Mill  Hill 
school,  and  entered  University  College,  Lon- 
don, as  a  medical  student  in  October  1849. 
Here  he  was  early  attracted  to  the  study  of 
physiology  and  graduated  B.  A.  at  the  univer- 
sity of  London  in  1851,  with  the  highest 
honours  in  chemistry  and  animal  physiology. 
The  same  success  attended  him  throughout 
his  university  career,  and  he  graduated  M.B. 
in  1853,  after  securing  three  gold  medals,  a 
scholarship,  and  an  exhibition.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  admitted  a  licentiate  of  the 
Society  of  Apothecaries  and  a  member  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England, 
and  in  1854  he  graduated  M.D.  at  the  Lon- 
don University.  He  also  pursued  his  medical 
studies  in  Paris  and  Berlin. 

In  1854  Roberts  was  elected  house-surgeon 
at  the  Manchester  Royal  Infirmary,  and  on 
26  July  1855  was  appointed  full  physician  at 
the  unusually  early  age  of  twenty-five  ;  at 
the  same  time  he  became  lecturer  on  anatomy 
and  physiology  in  the  Royal  [Pine  Street] 
School  of  Medicine  at  Manchester.  In  1859 
he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  pathology,  and 
in  1863  lecturer  on  the  principles  and  practice 


Roberts 


299 


Roberts 


of  medicine  at  the  Owens  College,  with  which 
the  Royal  School  of  Medicine  had  become 
united,  and  he  became  afterwards  the  first 
professor  of  medicine  at  the  Victoria  Univer- 
sity, jointly  with  Dr.  Morgan,  holding  the 
office  from  1873  to  1876.  In  1864  Roberts 
was  so  deeply  interested  in  testing  the  value 
of  the  clinical  thermometer,  then  newly  re- 
introduced  by  Wunderlich  (1815-1877),  in 
cases  of  fever,  that  he  nearly  died  of  typhus 
contracted  in  the  wards  of  the  Royal  In- 
firmary at  Manchester. 

At  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
Roberts  was  admitted  a  member  in  1860 
and  a  fellow  in  1865.  He  delivered  the 
Gulstonian  lectures  in  1866  on  the  use  of 
solvents  in  the  treatment  of  urinary  calculi 
and  gout,  and  in  1880  he  gave  the  Lumleian 
lectures  on  the  digestive  ferments,  and  on 
artificially  digested  foods.  He  was  a  council- 
lor in  1882-3-4,  and  censor  in  1889-90.  In 
1892  he  delivered  the  Croonian  lectures  on 
the  chemistry  and  therapeutics  of  uric  acid, 
gravel,  and  gout,  and  he  was  the  Har- 
veian  orator  in  1897.  He  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  University  College,  London,  in 
1864,  and  on  7  June  1877  he  became  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  serving  as  a  member 
of  the  council  in  1890-1.  He  received  the 
Cameron  prize  in  1879  for  his  contributions 
to  practical  therapeutics,  more  especially  in 
relation  to  the  dietetic  treatment  of  disease, 
and  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Medical 
Association  at  Cardiff  in  1885  he  delivered 
an  address  on  feeding  the  sick.  When  the 
association  met  in  London  in  1895  he  was 
president  of  the  section  of  pharmacology  and 
therapeutics. 

Roberts  resigned  the  post  of  physician  to 
the  Royal  Infirmary,  Manchester,  on  26  Feb. 
1883,  and  in  1885  was  knighted.  He  moved 
from  Manchester  to  London  in  1889,  and  in 
1892  he  was  appointed  a  fellow  of  the  uni- 
versity of  London.  Here  he  soon  became  an 
active  member  of  the  committee  which 
manages  the  Brown  Institution,  and  was 
elected  chairman  of  the  committee  on  the 
death  of  Sir  Richard  Quain  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  m 
1897.  From  1896  until  his  death  he  repre- 
sented the  London  University  on  the  Gene- 
ral Medical  Council,  and  in  1898  he  was 
nominated  a  member  of  the  statutory  com- 
mission appointed  to  provide  adequate  uni- 
versity teaching  in  London.  In  1893  he 
served  as  the  medical  member  of  the  opium 
commission,  and  in  this  capacity  visited 
India. 

During  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life 
Roberts  invariably  spent  some  portion  of  each 
year  at  Bryn,  his  country  residence,  where  he 
took  the  greatest  interest  in  developing  his 


estate.  He  died  in  London  on  16  April  1899, 
and  is  buried  at  Llanymawddwy,  Merioneth- 
shire, a  village  near  his  house  at  Bryn. 

He  married,  in  1869,  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  Richard  Johnson,  sometime  president 
of  the  Manchester  chamber  of  commerce. 
She  died  in  1874,  leaving  one  son  and  a 
daughter,  both  of  whom  predeceased  their 
father. 

Roberts  was  an  able  physician,  whose 
work  covered  a  wide  field,  dealing  with  his- 
tology, physiology,  and  practical  medicine. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  physicians  in  this 
country  to  show  that  a  sound  knowledge  of 
physiology  might  be  turned  to  excellent  ac- 
count in  the  treatment  of  disease,  for  it  is  to 
his  especial  honour  that  he  introduced  the 
practice  of  feeding  invalids  with  foods  di- 
gested outside  the  body — a  method  which  has 
proved  of  the  utmost  service  and  has  saved 
very  many  lives. 

He  published :  1.  'An  Essay  on  Wasting 
Palsy  (Cruveilhier's  atrophy),'  London,  1858, 
8vo:  the  first  systematic  treatise  on  this 
disease  in  the  English  language.  2.  'On 
Peculiar  Appearances  exhibited  by  Blood- 
corpuscles  under  the  Influence  of  Solutions 
of  Magenta  and  Tannin,'  London,  1863,  8vo. 
This  short  paper,  contributed  to  the  Royal 
Society,  made  the  name  of  Roberts  familiar 
to  many  generations  of  medical  students,  for 
it  describes  the  appearances  known  as  '  Ro- 
berts's  maculae.'  3.  '  A  Practical  Treatise  on 
Urinary  and  Renal  Diseases,  including  Uri- 
nary Deposits,'  London,  1865, 8vo;  4th  edit, 
(edited  by  Dr.  Robert  Maguire)  1885, 12mo. 
4.  'On  Spontaneous  Generation  and  the 
Doctrine  of  Contagium  Vivum,  being  the 
Address  in  Medicine  delivered  at  the  Annual 
Meeting  of  the  British  Medical  Association,' 
London,  1877,  8vo.  Roberts  here  records  a 
number  of  carefully  devised  experiments 
dealing  with  the  sterilisation  of  liquids,  and 
arrived  at  the  important  conclusion  that '  the 
organisms  which  appear  as  if  spontaneously 
in  decomposing  fluids  owe  their  origin  to 
parent  germs  derived  from  the  surrounding 
media.'  5.  '  On  the  Digestive  Ferments, 
and  the  Preparation  and  Use  of  Artificially 
Digested  Food ;  being  the  Lumleian  Lec- 
tures for  the  Year  1880,'  2nd  edit.  London, 
1881,  8vo.  6.  'Lectures  on  Dietetics  and 
Dyspepsia,'  London,  1885,  8vo;  2nd  edit. 
1886.  7.  'Collected  Contributions  on  Di- 
gestion and  Diet,'  London,  1891. 

[The  Life  and  Works  of  Sir  William  Eoberts, 
by  the  late  D.  J.  Leech,  M.D.,  with  an  appendix 
containing  a  list  of  the  published  writings 
compiled  and  chronologically  arranged  by  C.  J. 
Cullingworth,  M.D. ;  the  Medical  Chronicle  for 
June  1899,  vol.  xi.  n.s. ;  British  Medical  Journal, 


Robinson 


Robinson 


^99,  i.  1063;  personal  knowledge;  Royal  So- 
ciety Yearbook,  1901,  pp.  202-5;  private  in- 
formation.] D'A.  P. 

ROBINSON,  SiRHERCULES  GEORGE 
ROBERT,  first  BARON  ROSMEAD  (1824-1 897), 
colonial  governor,  was  the  second  son  of  Ad- 
miral Hercules  Robinson  [q.  v.]  of  Rosmead, 
Westmeath,  Ireland,  and  Frances  Elizabeth, 
only  daughter  of  Henry  Widman  Wood  of 
Rosmead.  His  brother,  Sir  William  Cleaver 
Francis  Robinson  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  was  also  a 
successful  colonial  governor.  His  uncle,  Sir 
Bryan  Robinson  [q.  v.],  was  a  judge  in  New- 
foundland. Lord  Rosmead  was  born  on 
19  Dec.  1824  and  was  educated  at  Sandhurst. 
He  joined  the  army  as  second  lieutenant  in 
the  87th  regiment  (Royal  Irish  fusiliers)  on 
27  Jan.  1843,  became  first  lieutenant  on  6  Sept. 
1844,  but  retired  in  1846,  and  accepted  an  ap- 
pointment under  the  commissioners  of  public 
works  for  Ireland,  and  later  under  the  poor 
law  board.  He  did  special  service  during  the 
Irish  famine  of  1848.  In  1852  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  commissioner  to  inquire  into  the 
fairs  and  markets  of  Ireland. 

On  3  March  1854  Robinson  was  appointed 
to  one  of  those  posts  which  for  many  years 
formed  the  nurseries  of  colonial  governors, 
viz.  that  of  president  of  Montserrat  in  the 
West  Indies  :  he  assumed  oftice  on  12  April 
1854.  This  island  he  left  in  March  1855, 
and  on  28  March  arrived  in  the  neighbouring 
island  of  St.  Christopher,  to  which  he  was 
promoted  as  lieutenant-governor.  The  chief 
question  in  St.  Christopher  at  this  time  was 
that  of  immigration  from  India,  and  it  fell 
to  Robinson  to  arrange  for  the  introduction 
of  a  number  of  coolies.  His  brother,  William 
Francis,  began  his  colonial  career  under  him 
here  as  superintendent  of  immigrants.  In 
1 859  Hercules  was  promoted  to  be  governor  of 
Hong  Kong,  where  he  arrived  on  9  Sept.  1859, 
6o  that  he  held  the  government  during  the  war 
with  China  in  1860-1.  He  negotiated  with 
the  government  of  China  for  the  cession  of 
Kowloon,  and  carried  out  the  arrangements 
for  its  annexation.  He  had  also  much  to 
do  in  settling  the  finances  and  civil  list  of 
the  colony.  In  1863  he  was  a  member  of  a 
commission  to  inquire  into  the  financial  posi- 
tion of  the  Straits  Settlements. .  In  1865,  on 
the  expiration  of  the  ordinary  term  of  govern- 
ment, he  went  to  Ceylon,  arriving  on  30  March 
1865  at  Galle,  and  assuming  the  government 
at  Colombo  the  following  day.  Here  he  was 
brought  into  immediate  contact  with  the 
question  of  developing  a  flourishing  crown 
colony.  Railway  extension  and  telegraph 
construction  were  among  the  chief  problems 
of  the  hour,  and  in  such  a  colony  the  judg- 
ment of  the  governor  is  a  leading  factor  in 


the  final  determination  of  routes  and  the 
districts  to  be  served.  Robinson  reorganised 
the  public  works  department  of  the  colony 
on  the  lines  which  have  made  it  perhaps  the 
most  efficient  works  department  in  the 
colonies.  He  was  on  leave  of  absence  in 
England  from  August  1868  to  May  1869,  and 
finally  relinquished  the  government  at  the 
end  of  his  term  in  January  1872,  coming  to 
this  country  again  on  leave. 

In  February  1872  Robinson  was  gazetted  to 
the  government  of  New  South  Wales :  this 
promotion  to  one  of  the  great  colonies  even 
at  that  time  showed  that  he  had,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  crown,  succeeded  unusually 
well  in  his  previous  appointments.  His  re- 
cord in  New  South  Wales  was  of  course  in- 
terwoven with  the  acts  of  his  ministries,  the 
chief  of  which  were  led  by  Sir  Henry  Parkes 
[q.  v.  Suppl.]  and  Sir  John  Robertson  [q.  v.], 
but  Rusden  considers  that  his  personal  firm- 
ness did  much  towards  teaching  local  poli- 
ticians that  the  state  came  before  party 
interest.  He  arrived  at  Sydney  on  3  June 
1872,  and  on  13  Aug.  first  met  the  local 
parliament  in  proroguing  it  at  the  end 
of  its  ordinary  session.  The  question  of 
border  duties  as  between  New  South  Wales 
and  Victoria  and  South  Australia  was  one 
of  the  chief  matters  which  occupied  at- 
tention in  this  and  the  ensuing  year.  In 
the  middle  of  1874  the  case  of  the  bush- 
ranger Gardiner  stirred  a  good  deal  of  feel- 
ing, and  the  advice  of  ministers  to  the 
governor  produced  a  vote  of  censure  in  the 
new  parliament.  Otherwise  the  politics  of 
the  period  were  not  eventful.  In  September 
1874,  however,  Robinson  completed  a  work 
of  national  importance  by  negotiating  the 
cession  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  and  he  stayed  at 
Suva  administering  the  new  government  till 
the  arrival  of  Sir  Arthur  Gordon  (now  Lord 
Stanmore),  the  first  governor. 

On  19  March  1879  Robinson  left  New- 
South  Wales,  and  on  27  March  assumed  the 
governorship  of  New  Zealand,  to  which  he 
had  been  previously  gazetted.  Here  he 
found  Sir  George  Grey's  government  in 
power,  and  a  period  of  commercial  depres- 
sion weighing  on  the  colony  [see  GREY,  SIR 
GEORGE,  Suppl.];  some  small  troubles  with 
the  natives  were  also  pending.  Gisborne 
describes  Robinson's  regime  in  this  colony 
as  that  of  a  man  prudent  in  counsel  and 
energetic  in  action,  who  was  still  busy 
gathering  materials  for  his  own  judgment 
when  his  administration  was  cut  short  by 
his  transfer,  in  August  1880,  to  be  governor 
of  the  Cape  Colony  and  high  commissioner 
of  South  Africa.  The  dual  office  demands 
peculiar  ability ;  for  the  holder  has  his  mini- 


Robinson 


Robinson 


sters  to  consider  in  the  colony  itself,  while 
his  position  of  high  commissioner  throws 
upon  him  the  personal  responsibility  for 
action  outside  the  Cape  Colony. 

Robinson  went  to  the  Cape  at,  one  of  the 
most  critical  periods  of  its  history.  On  16  Dec. 
1880  the  malcontent  Boers  in  the  Transvaal 
had  declared  their  independence.  He  arrived 
in  Cape  Town  on  22  Jan.  1881.  In  February 
he  was  called  upon  to  negotiate  terms  of 
peace  in  circumstances  which  were  a  source 
of  deep  indignation  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  British  Empire.  When  peace 
was  concluded  he  had  to  face  an  extremely 
difficult  situation.  British  and  Boers  were 
entirely  out  of  sympathy.  The  antagonism 
was  not  only  between  the  British  colonies 
and  the  free  republics,  but  between  British 
and  Dutch  throughout  South  Africa  wher- 
ever they  came  into  contact.  The  native 
races  also  were  restless  and  discontented. 
So  far  as  his  personal  influence  could  affect 
such  a  situation,  he  handled  the  problem 
with  rare  tact  and  sagacity.  He  warded 
off  in  great  measure  the  bitter  hostility 
which  the  British  in  Africa  at  that  time 
nourished  towards  the  home  government ; 
he  showed  an  active  sense  of  the  necessity 
of  maintaining  British  influence  ;  and 
throughout  he  fostered  the  idea  that  a  cor- 
dial union  between  British  and  Dutch  was 
the  real  foundation  of  peace  and  progress  in 
South  Africa. 

It  was  not  very  long  after  the  convention 
of  1881  that  further  difficulties  with  the 
Boers  became  inevitable  owing  to  their 
action  in  the  native  territories  immediately 
beyond  their  borders.  In  October  1881  the 
Bechuana  chief  Montsioa  felt  apprehensive 
and  begged  British  protection,  which  was 
not  conceded.  Native  disputes  gave  excuse 
for  Boer  interference.  The  Transvaal  govern- 
ment professed  to  be  unable  to  restrain  its 
subjects  from  overrunning  the  Bechuana 
country.  By  the  end  of  1882  Robinson  was 
satisfied  that  things  could  not  drift  on  inde- 
finitely (MACKENZIE,  Austral  Africa,  i.  157). 
But  general  negotiations  with  the  South 
African  Republic  caused  delay,  and  the 
Transvaal  deputation  to  England  in  Novem- 
ber 1883  brought  Robinson  also  to  this 
country  to  assist  in  settling  the  revised 
convention  of  1884.  On  returning  to  the 
Cape  in  March  1884  he  made  great  efforts  to 
arrive  at  an  understanding  with  the  govern- 
ment of  the  South  African  Republic  as  to 
their  responsibility  for  checking  Boer  raiders, 
and  in  November  obtained  the  despatch  of 
Sir  Charles  Warren's  expedition,  with  a  view 
to  a  definite  settlement.  The  result  was  the 
annexation  of  Bechuanaland  to  the  British 


dominions  on  30  Sept.  1885.  This  settle- 
ment was  to  some  extent  marred  by  a  dispute 
with  Sir  Charles  Warren,  as  special  commis- 
sioner, respecting  the  general  control  of  the 
high  commissioner.  Sir  Charles  Warren,  on 
his  return  home,  urged  the  separation  of  the 
functions  of  high  commissioner  from  those  of 
governor  of  the  Cape ;  suggestions  were  made 
as  to  the  divergence  of  interest  between  the 
colony  and  the  home  government,  and  a  con- 
troversy began  which  lasted  for  three  years. 
The  matter  was  strenuously  taken  up  by 
Mr.  John  Mackenzie,  who  had  been  a  com- 
missioner in  Bechuanaland.  But  there  were 
strong  arguments  on  the  other  side.  Robin- 
son was  supported  by  the  Cape  parliament, 
and  eventually  the  existing  arrangement  was- 
maintained  (Parl.  Paper  C.  5488  of  1888  ; 
WILLIAMS,  British  Lion  in  Bechuanaland, 
sect.  ix.  p.  47). 

In  October  1886  Robinson  was  commis- 
sioned by  the  imperial  government  to  proceed 
to  Mauritius  to  investigate  the  charges  which 
had  been  brought  against  Sir  John  Pope- 
Hennessy  [q.  v.l,  the  governor  of  that  colony ; 
he  decided  against  the  governor,  whom  he 
suspended  from  the  exercise  of  his  functions. 
He  left  Mauritius  on  18  Dec.  and  returned 
to  Cape  Town  on  1  Jan.  1887. 

Although  the  ordinary  term  of  a  governor's- 
administration  had  now  run  out,  the  value 
of  Robinson's  work  was  such  that  his  term  of 
administration  was  extended.  He  was  now 
called  upon  to  take  a  fresh  step  towards- 
consolidating  the  British  power  in  South 
Africa.  It  became  known  during  1887  that 
the  Boers  were  contemplating  an  extension 
to  the  north,  and  early  in  1888,  by  the 
energy  and  insistence  of  Mr.  Cecil  Rhodes, 
a  treaty  was  made  with  Lobengula  which 
secured  for  Great  Britain  the  key  of  the  great 
area  to  the  northward.  Robinson  has  been 
accused  of  being  lukewarm  in  this  matter  ^ 
he  certainly  moved  more  slowly  than  Mr. 
Rhodes,  but  he  cannot  be  denied  credit  for 
his  share  in  the  policy.  This  treaty  was  fol- 
lowed on  30  Oct.  1888  by  the  Rudd  con- 
cession ;  but  before  the  Chartered  Company 
had  its  birth  Robinson  had  ceased  to  be  high 
commissioner.  On  1  May  1889  he  left  the 
Cape,  having  been  largely  instrumental  in 
establishing  peace,  in  promoting  good  feel- 
ing, in  improving  internal  communication, 
in  opening  up  new  territories  to  British 
enterprise,  in  securing  to  the  Cape  Colony  a 
surer  trade  and  improving  revenue,  and  in- 
fostering  a  sense  of  common  interest  with 
the  Dutch  republics,  as  shown  by  the  customs 
union  with  the  Orange  Free  State,  which  was 
consummated  in  1889.  His  farewell  speech 
created  some  stir  in  official  circles  because 


Robinson 


302 


Robinson 


he  declared  that  there  was  '  no  permanent 
place  in  South  Africa  for  direct  imperial 
rule,'  but  probably  too  much  importance  was 
at  the  time  attached  to  the  dictum. 

On  his  return  to  England  Robinson  looked 
upon  his  work  for  the  empire  as  practically 
at  an  end,  and  settled  down  in  London, 
devoting  himself  to  the  duties  of  various 
companies  which  claimed  his  services  as  a 
director.  IIo  was  in  particular  a  director 
of  the  London  and  "Westminster  Bank.  In 
1891  he  was  created  a  baronet.  For  six 
years  he  enjoyed  this  comparative  rest,  and 
then  in  the  spring  of  1895  came  a  call 
which  he  did  not  feel  himself  justified  in 
refusing.  He  was  asked  by  Lord  Rosebery's 
government  to  return  to  South  Africa  in  his 
old  position.  The  time  was  an  anxious  one. 
The  Transvaal  Boers  had  recently  had  con- 
siderable diplomatic  successes  in  their  deal- 
ings witli  the  British  government ;  and  they 
were  inclined  to  he  very  high-handed.  At 
the  same  time  there  was  a  deep  feeling  of 
resentment  among  the  British  who  had  made 
their  home  in  Johannesburg,  and  were  there 
subjected  to  vexatious  and  oppressive  re- 
strictions. 

Robinson  had  no  wish  to  return  to  South 
Africa,  but  the  summons  was  a  great  compli- 
ment, and  the  call  of  duty  was  one  which  he 
felt  bound  to  obey.  At  considerable  personal 
sacrifice  he  took  up  the  appointment  on  30  May 
1895.  The  choice  of  the  government  was 
fiercely  assailed  in  the  House  of  Commons 
(Hansard,  1895,  xxxii.  426),  among  others 
by  Mr.  Chamberlain,  who  within  a  few 
weeks,  by  the  turn  of  fortune's  wheel,  be- 
came himself  the  colonial  secretary  to  whom 
Robinson  was  responsible. 

Negotiations  for  substantial  concessions 
from  the  executive  of  the  South  African 
republic  were  still  in  progress  when,  on 
29  Dec.  1895,  Dr.  Jameson  made  his  raid  on 
the  frontier  of  the  republic,  and  Robinson 
was  face  to  face  with  one  of  the  worst  situa- 
tions that  the  history  of  the  empire  has 
seen.  It  is  almost  superfluous  to  say  that 
Robinson  had  no  sort  of  part  in  this  ill- 
advised  attempt.  He  had  been  kept  in 
ignorance  of  the  project  because  those  who 
conceived  it  knew  his  character.  Directly 
he  heard  of  the  attempt  he  endeavoured  to 
stop  it  by  telegraph,  but  was  too  late. 

On  2  Jan.  1896  Robinson  proceeded  to  Pre- 
toria to  negotiate  for  the  release  of  the  raiders. 
In  this  he  succeeded,  returning  to  Cape  Town 
on  14  Jan. ;  but  he  could  not  expect  to  do 
much  more.  The  troubles  which  were  at  the 
root  of  the  raid  were  left  to  breed  the  war  of 
1899 ;  but  for  this  Robinson  cannot  fairly  be 
held  responsible.  His  personal  influence  at 


any  rate  glossed  over  the  apparent  friction 
between  Dutch  and  British,  and  when  in 
May  1896  he  came  on  leave  to  England,  he 
left  comparative  calm  and  good  feeling  behind 
him.  Probably  he  was  the  only  man  who 
had  sufficient  prestige  to  cope  with  such  a 
crisis  and  save  a  war.  On  11  Aug.  1896  he 
was  made  a  baron  in  the  peerage  of  Eng- 
land, by  the  style  of  Baron  Rosmead  of 
Rosmead  in  Ireland,  and  of  Tafelberg  in 
South  Africa.  Immediately  afterwards  he 
returned  to  the  Cape,  where  he  proceeded 
with  the  work  of  conciliating  all  parties 
among  the  Dutch  and  British.  But  the 
failure  of  his  health  compelled  him  to  ask  to 
be  relieved  of  his  government.  On  21  April 
1897  he  left  the  Cape  for  England.  He 
never  really  recovered  his  health,  and  died 
at  42  Prince's  Gardens,  London,  on  28  Oct. 
1897.  He  was  buried  at  Brompton  ceme- 
tery on  1  Nov. 

Robinson  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 

greatest  of  the  colonial  governors  whom 
ritain  has  sent  out  during  the  nineteenth 
century;  and  his  name  will  always  be  par- 
ticularly connected  with  the  most  vigorous 
period  of  the  growth  of  South  African  empire. 
He  was  prudent,  cautious,  and  businesslike ; 
genial,  kindly,  and  free  from  pomposity; 
above  the  middle  height,  of  a  dignified 
presence.  An  excellent  appreciation  of  him 
is  that  of  Sir  Henry  Parkes,  the  Australian 
statesman  (Fifty  Years,  #c.,  i.  296).  He 
was  knighted  in  1859,  became  K.C.M.G.  in 
1869,  G.C.M.G.  in  1875,  and  a  privy  coun- 
cillor in  1882. 

Lord  Rosmead,  besides  being  a  good  man 
of  business  and  a  good  speaker,  was  a  sports- 
man, and  a  great  lover  of  horses  and  of  horse- 
racing  (LANG,  History  of  New  South  Wales, 
i.  422).  The  best  portrait  (by  Folingsby) 
of  Lord  Rosmead  hangs  in  the  hall  of  Go- 
vernment House,  Sydney.  Others  are  in 
the  possession  of  his  son,  Lord  Rosmead,  at 
Ascot,  and  of  his  daughter,  the  Hon.  Mrs. 
Durant,  who  also  possesses  a  bust  by 
Simonetti. 

Robinson  married,  on  24  April  1846,  Nea 
Arthur  Ada  Rose  D'Amour,  sixth  daughter 
of  Arthur  Annesley  Rath,  viscount  Valentia, 
and  left  a  son,  Hercules  Arthur  Temple,  who 
succeeded  him,  and  three  daughters,  all 
married. 

[Mennell'sDict.  of  Australasian  Biogr. ;  Times, 
29  Oct.  1897,  2  Nov.  1897;  Col.  Office  List, 
1897 ;  Colonial  Blue  Book  Reports,  &c. ;  Official 
Hist,  of  New  South  Wales  ;  Parkes's  Fifty 
Years  in  the  making  of  Australian  History,  i. 
296,  331,  ii.  106;  Kusden's  Hist,  of  Australia. 
iii.  501  sq. ;  Gisborne's  Rulers  and  Statesmen  of 
New  Zealand;  Cape  Argus,  29  Oct.  1897  ;  Cape 


Robinson 


Rodwell 


Times  (weekly   ed.),    3    Nov.    1897;    Wilmot's  j 
Hist,  of  our  own  Times  in   South  Africa,   ii. 
196  sq. ;  Mackenzie's  Austral  Africa,  1887,  pas-  ; 
sim  ;  Worsfold's  South  Africa,  passim  ;  Froude's  ' 
Oceana,  p.    68;   Life  and  Times  of  Sir  J.   C. 
Molteno,    1900  ;  Fitzpatrick's   Transvaal   from 
Within,    1899;    G.   jv    C[okayne]'s    Complete 
Peerage,  viii.  248,  530.]  C.  A.  H. 

ROBINSON,  SiEWILLI  AM  CLEAVER 

FRANCIS  (1834-1897),  colonial  governor, 
born  on  14  Jan.  1834,  was  the  fifth,  son  of 
Admiral  Hercules  Robinson  [q.  v.]  He 
entered  the  colonial  service  in  1855  as  pri- 
vate secretary  to  his  elder  brother  (Sir) 
Hercules  George  Robert  Robinson,  after- 
wards first  Baron  Rosmead  [q.  v.  Suppl.n, 
•who  was  then  lieutenant-governor  of  St. 
Kitts.  In  1859,  when  his  brother  became 
governor  of  Hongkong,  he  accompanied 
him  thither  in  the  same  capacity.  He  was 
president  of  Montserrat  in  1862,  and  from 
January  to  October  1865  he  administered 
the  government  of  Dominica.  From  23  May 
1866  to  1870  he  was  governor  of  the  Falk- 
land Islands,  and  from  5  July  1870  to  No- 
vember 1873  governor  of  Prince  Edward 
Island.  During  his  administration  the  ques- 
tion of  political  union  with  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  was  debated,  and  his  patience  and 
judicious  counsels  assisted  to  bring  about 
the  union  in  July  1873.  On  14  Nov.  1874  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Western  Austra- 
lia. He  assumed  the  administration  on 
11  Jan.  1875,  relinquishing  it  on  6  Sept. 
1^77,  after  his  appointment  as  governor  of 
tlio  Straits .  Settlements.  In  1878  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Bangkok  on  a  special  visit  to 
invest  the  king  of  Siam  with  the  G.C.M.G., 
on  which  occasion  he  was  invested  with 
the  grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Crown 
of  Siam,  which  he  received  permission  to 
wear.  On  10  April  1880  he  again  assumed 
the  office  of  governor  of  Western  Aus- 
tralia. During  his  second  governorship  of 
the  colony  he  was  successful  in  wiping  out  a 
debt  of  80,OOOZ.,  and  leaving  a  balance  of 
32,000/.  in  the  treasury.  He  remained  until 
17  Feb.  1883,  when  he  became  governor 
of  South  Australia.  In  1889  he  left  Ade- 
laide to  assume  the  acting  governorship  of 
Victoria,  during  the  absence  on  leave  of  Sir 
ll'-nry  Brougham  Loch  (afterwards  Baron 
Loch)  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  His  administration 
extended  from  9  March  to  18  Oct.  1889, 
and  was  marked  with  great  success.  After 
a  second  brief  tenure  of  office  from  16  to 
Nov.,  he  proceeded  to  England.  His 
administration  was  so  acceptable  in  Victoria 
that,  at  the  conclusion  of  Sir  Henry  Loch's 
governorship,  the  premier  and  the  leader  of 
opposition  were  about  to  send  a  joint  request 


to  the  colonial  office  that  Robinson  might 
be  nominated  his  successor  when  they  learnt 
that  Lord  Hopetoun  had  been  appointed. 
He  was  nominated  for  the  third  time  gover- 
nor of  Western  Australia,  that  he  might  by 
his  administrative  experience  and  previous 
knowledge  of  the  colony  facilitate  the  in- 
auguration of  responsible  government  in  the 
last  Australian  crown  colony.  While  in 
London  he  rendered  considerable  assistance 
both  to  the  colonial  office  and  to  the  Western 
Australia  delegation  in  aiding  the  passage 
of  the  constitution  bill  through  parliament. 
He  left  England  for  Perth  in  September  1890. 
He  retired  from  active  service  in  1895. 

Robinson  was  created  C.M.G.  in  1873, 
K.C.M.G.  in  1877,  and  G.C.M.G.  on  24  May 
1887.  He  was  a  musical  composer  of  some 
note,  and  wrote  among  other  compositions  a 
number  of  well-known  songs,  including  '  I 
love  thee  so,'  '  Imperfectus,'  and  'Thou  art 
my  Soul.'  Among  his  part  songs  were 
«  Autumn  Woods '(1885), 'For Thee '(1885), 
'  From  o'er  the  Sea '  (1886),  and  '  The  Rose 
in  October'  (1888).  He  died  at  his  resi- 
dence, 5  Cromwell  Houses,  South  Kensing- 
ton, on  2  May  1897.  On  7  April  1862  he 
married  Olivia  Edith  Dean,  daughter  of 
Thomas  Stewart  Townsend,  bishop  of  Meath. 
By  her  he  had  three  sons  and  two  daughters. 

[Burke's  Peerage,  s.v.  '  Rosmead ' ;  Mennell's 
Diet,  of  Australian  Biogr.  1892 ;  Parker's  Sir 
William  C.  F.  Robinson,  reprinted  from  the 
Centennial  Magazine,  July  1899  ;  National 
Observer,  7  Nov.  1891 ;  Colonial  Official  Lists; 
Times,  3  May  1897  ;  Hodder's  Hist,  of  South 
Australia,  1893,  ii.  96-123.]  E.  I.  C. 

RODWELL,  JOHN  MEDOWS  (1808- 
1900),  orientalist,  eldest  son  of  John  Medows 
Rodwell  and  Marianna  Kedington,  was 
born  at  Barham  Hall,  Suffolk,  on  11  April 
1808.  Educated  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds 
under  Dr.  Malkin,  he  was  admitted  on 
10  Nov.  1825  to  Gonville  and  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  held  a  scholarship 
(1827-30),  and  was  likewise  stroke  of  the 
first  college  boat ;  as  an  undergraduate  he 
was  also  a  contemporary  and  friend  of 
Darwin,  and  used  to  accompany  him  on 
botanising  expeditions.  He  graduated  B.A. 
1830,  M.A.  1833,  and  was  ordained  deacon  at 
Norwich  ono  June  1831,  and  priest  at  London 
on  17  June  1832.  After  curacies  at  Barham, 
where  his  uncle,  William  Kirby  (1759-1850) 
[q.  v.],  was  vicar,  and  at  Woodford,  Essex, 
he  became  rector  of  St.  Peter's,  Saffron 
Hill,  London  (1836-43),  and  lecturer  at  St. 
Andrew's,  Holborn.  In  1843  Bishop  Blom- 
field  gave  him  the  valuable  rectory  of  St. 
Ethelburga's,  Bishopsgate,  which  he  held 
till  his  death ;  but  after  some  thirty-five 


Rosmead 


Rothschild 


years  of  active  work  he  retired,  with  the 
bishop's  sanction,  under  a  medical  certificate 
from  residential  duty.  Some  of  the  curates- 
in-charge  after  this  time  introduced  a  cere- 
monial ritual  into  the  church  which  evoked 
the  opposition  of  protestant  agitators. 

Rodwell  appears  to  have  commenced 
oriental  studies  when  quite  a  young  man, 
by  reading  Hebrew  with  his  uncle,  the  Rev. 
R.  Kedington.  In  acquiring  the  elements 
of  Arabic  he  was  assisted  by  Catafago. 

His  greatest  literary  achievement  was  his 
English  version  of  the  Koran,  which  ap- 
peared in  1861  (2nd  edit.  1876),  and  is  con- 
sidered by  many  scholars  as  the  best  existing 
translation,  combining  accuracy  with  a  faith- 
ful representation  of  the  literary  garb  of  the 
original.  His  other  works  are  translations 
of  'Job'  (1864;  2nd  edit.  1868)  and 
'Isaiah'  (1881  ;  2nd  edit.  1886).  He  also 
issued  translations  of  collected  liturgies 
fromEthiopic  manuscripts  (1864),  and  from 
the  Coptic  (1866),  and  briefly  catalogued 
Lord  Crawford's  Coptic  and  Ethiopic  manu- 
scripts at  Haigh  Hall.  The  value  or  his  work 
.  was  recognised  by  his  election  to  an  honorary 
fellowship  of  his  college  on  7  Oct.  1886. 
Rodwell's  extraordinary  retentiveness  of 
mental  vigour  maybe  estimated  from  the  fact 
that  he  commenced  the  study  of  several  fresh 
languages  when  past  eighty  years  of  age, 
and  even  in  his  91st  year  (June  1898)  printed 
a  short  pamphlet  or  open  letter  on  the  de- 
rivation and  doctrinal  significance  of  the  word 
'  mass/  and  somewhat  later  corresponded 
with  the  present  writer  as  to  books  for 
the  acquirement  of  Sanskrit. 

He  died  at  his  house  at  St.  Leonards-on- 
Sea  on  6  June  1900,  and  is  buried  in  Ore 
cemetery,  Hastings. 

Rodwell  was  twice  married :  (l)in  1834  to 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  William 
Parker,  Rodwell's  predecessor  at  St.  Ethel- 
burga's,  by  whom  he  had  several  children, 
twosons  surviving,  one  being  the  Rev.  W.  M. 
Rodwell ;  (2)  about  1860,  to  Louisa  Rohrs. 

[Personal  knowledge  and  private  informa- 
tion; Kod well's  Works ;  J.  Venn's  Biographical 
History  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cam- 
bridge, ii.  198.]  C.  B. 

ROSMEAD,  BARON.  [See  ROBINSON, 
SIK  HERCTJLES  GEOKGE  ROBEBT,  1824- 
1897.] 

ROTHSCHILD,  FERDINAND  JAMES 
DE  (1839-1898),  known  as  Baron  Ferdinand 
Rothschild,  virtuoso,  born  at  Paris  in  1839, 
was  second  son  of  Baron  Anselm  de  Roth- 
schild of  Frankfort  and  Vienna,  by  his  first 
cousin  Charlotte,  eldest  daughter  of  Nathan 
Meyer  Rothschild  [q.  v.]  Both  father  and 


mother  were  grandchildren  of  Meyer  Am- 
schel  Rothschild,  the  founder  of  the  great 
financial  house.  He  was  educated  in  Vienna, 
but  settling  in  England  in  1860,  became  a 
British  subject  and  completely  identified  him- 
self with  the  country.     Buying  an  estate  of 
about  eight  hundred  acres  at  Waddesdon  in 
Buckinghamshire,  he   erected  thereon    the- 
mansion  of  Waddesdon  Manor,  after  the  style 
of  the  Chateau  de  Chambord.     In  1885  he- 
entered  parliament  for  the  Aylesbury  division 
and  retained  the  seat  as  long  as  he  lived.   But 
he  devoted  himself  more  particularly  to  social 
life  and  to  his  duties  as  a  country  gentle- 
man, building  up  a  model  estate,  breeding- 
stock,    and    entertaining  numerous   distin- 
guished  guests — among    the  latter  Queen 
Victoria  (14  May  1890),  the  Shah  of  Persia, 
the   German   Emperor    Frederick,   and   on 
several  occasions  King  Edward  VII  when 
prince  of  Wales.     He  was  extremely  inte- 
rested in  painting,  especially  that  of  the  Low 
Countries   and  the  work  of  Gainsborough 
and  Reynolds,  and  he  formed  a  fine  collec- 
tion at  Waddesdon.     In  a  family  of  collec- 
tors he  was  pre-eminent  for  his  ability.   The- 
attention  which  he  paid  to  the  art  of  the 
Renaissance,  especially   bindings,   enamels, 
furniture,  and  goldsmith's  work,  was  repaid 
by  a  splendid  collection  of  rare  objects  of  the- 
highest  quality.     His  collection  of  French 
books,  many  in  superb  bindings,  was  cata- 
logued partially  in  1897  (London,  4to,  pri- 
vate issue,  with  sixteen  plates).     His  own 
favourite    reading  was  among  the  French 
memoir  writers,  and  he  published  some  of 
his  gleanings  in  a  volume  entitled  '  Personal 
Characteristics  from  French  History '  (Lon- 
don, 1896,  seventeen  portraits,  no   index). 
Of  more  interest  is  '  Three  Weeks  in  South 
Africa'   (printed    for    private    circulation,. 
1895),  a  brightly  written  diary  of  a  trip  on 
board  the  Dunottar  Castle,  December  1894- 
February  1895.     In  July  1897  he  achieved 
a  considerable  triumph  as  a  collector  by  the- 
successful  purchase  of  a  Terburg,  a  Gerard 
Douw,  and  Cuyp's  '  View  on  the  Maas,'  from 
the  Six  Museum  at  Amsterdam — a  collec- 
tion hitherto  intact  (Times,  26  July  1897). 
He  was  elected   a  trustee   of  the  British 
Museum  on   7   Feb.   1896,   and  until   his 
death  he  took  a  keen  interest  in  the  work 
of  the  institution.      He  died  suddenly  of 
syncope  at  Waddesdon  on  18  Dec.  1898,  and 
by  his  will  left  a  superb  collection  of  jewels, 
plate,  and  other  works  of  art  to  the  British 
Museum,  on  the  condition  that  they  should 
36  kept  in  a  room  apart  from  the  other  col- 
ections,  to  be  known  as  the  '  Waddesdon 
Bequest  Room.'    This  room  was  opened  to 
the  public  on  9  April  1900  (Catalogue  of 


Rundle 


305 


Ruskin 


Waddesdon  Bequest).  He  also  bequeathed 
to  the  museum  library  fifteen  manuscripts, 
mostly  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies, richly  illuminated  and  on  vellum 
(Addit.  MSS.  35310-24).  By  far  the  finest 
of  these  is  a  Latin  breviary  (Addit.  MS. 
35311),  a  beautiful  example  of  early  fif- 
teenth-century French  work. 

On  7  June  1865  Rothschild  married  his 
cousin  Evelina,  daughter  of  Baron  Lionel 
Nathan  Rothschild  [q.  v.]  Upon  her  death, 
without  issue,  on  4  Dec.  1866,  he  erected  and 
endowed  as  a  memorial  to  her  the  Evelina 
Hospital  for  Children  in  the  Southwark 
Bridge  Road. 

[Times,  19  Dec.  1898;  Illustrated  London 
News,  24  Dec.  1898  (with  portrait) ;  Cat.  of 
Waddesdon  Bequest  (with  portrait),  1899 ; 
Burke's  Peerage,  s.v.  '  Rothschild  ' ;  Walford's 
County  Families ;  Ann.  Reg.  1898;  Brit.  Mus. 
Cat.]  T.  S. 

RUNDLE,  ELIZABETH  (1828-1896), 
author.  [See  CHABLES,  MRS.  ELIZABETH.] 

RUSKIN,  JOHX  (1819-1900),  author, 
artist,  and  social  reformer,  was  the  only 
child  of  John  James  Ruskin  (b..  1785),  who 
was  the  son  of  a  calico  merchant  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  Margaret  Cox  (b.  1781),  his  wife, 
the  daughter  of  a  skipper  in  the  herring 
fishery.  They  were  first  cousins,  and  mar- 
ried in  1818.  They  lived  at  54  Hunter 
Street,  Brunswick  Square,  London,  in 
which  house  (marked  with  a  tablet  by  the 
Society  of  Arts,  1900)  John  Ruskin  was 
born  on  8  Feb.  1819.  The  character  of  his 
parents  and  tenor  of  his  home  life  were  the 
chief  formative  forces  in  Ruskin's  educa- 
tion. As  a  boy  he  was  educated  by  his 
mother,  and  when  he  went  into  residence  at 
Oxford  she  went  also,  taking  lodgings  in  the 
High  Street,  where  her  husband  always 
joined  her  from  Saturday  to  Monday. 
Except  during  a  portion  of  his  short  married 
life,  Ruskin  lived  constantly  with  his  pa- 
rents ;  he  rarely  travelled  abroad  except  in 
their  company,  and  whenever  they  were 
separated  daily  letters  were  exchanged. 
His  father  died  in  1864 ;  his  mother  in  1871. 
They  are  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  Shir- 
ley, Kent.  The  inscriptions  on  the  monu- 
ment (designed  by  Ruskin)  state  that  John 
James  Ruskin  '  was  an  entirely  honest  mer- 
chant, and  his  memory  is,  to  all  who  keep  it, 
dear  and  helpful.  His  son,  whom  he  loved 
to  the  uttermost  and  taught  to  speak  truth, 
says  this  of  him.'  '  Beside  my  father's  body  I 
have  laid  my  mother's.  Nor  was  dearer 
earth  ever  returned  to  earth,  nor  purer  life 
recorded  in  heaven.'  A  further  monu- 
ment to  his  mother  was  the  restoration  of  a 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


spring  of  water  between  Croydon  and  Epsom, 
and  the  endowment  of  a  well.  A  tablet 
here  erected  bears  the  inscription  '  In  obedi- 
ence to  the  Giver  of  Life,  of  the  brooks  and 
fruits  that  feed  it,  of  the  peace  that  ends 
it,  may  this  well  be  kept  sacred  for  the  ser- 
vice of  men,  flocks,  and  flowers,  and  be  by 
kindness  called  Margaret's  Well.' 

'  I  have  seen  my  mother  travel,'  says 
Ruskin,  '  from  sunrise  to  sunset  on  a  sum- 
mer's day  without  once  leaning  back  in  the 
carriage.'  She  maintained  this  unbending 
attitude  in  the  education  of  her  son.  An 
evangelical  puritan  of  the  strictest  sect,  she 
held  strong  notions  on  the  sinfulness  even 
of  toys,  and  in  after  years  it  is  said  that 
the  pictures  in  her  husband's  house  were 
turned  with  their  faces  to  the  wall  on  Sun- 
day. With  no  playfellows,  and  no  toys 
beyond  a  single  box  of  bricks,  the  child's 
faculties  were  concentrated  from  his  earliest 
years  on  the  observation  of  nature  and  inani- 
mate things.  He  used  to  spend  hours,  he 
says,  in  contemplating  the  colours  of  the 
nursery  carpet.  When  he  was  four  the 
Ruskins  removed  from  Bloomsbury  to 
Herne  Hill  (No.  28).  The  garden  now  took 
the  place  of  the  carpet.  After  morning 
lessons  he  was  his  own  master.  His  mother 
would  often  be  gardening  beside  him,  but 
he  had  his  own  little  affairs  to  see  to,  '  the 
ants'  nest  to  watch  or  a  sociable  bird  or  two 
to  make  friends  with.'  The  gifts  of  expres- 
sion which  were  to  enable  him  to  show  to 
others  the  loveliness  he  discerned  owed 
their  first  cultivation  to  his  mother's  daily 
readings  in  the  Bible — 'the  one  essential 
part,'  he  says,  '  of  all  my  education.'  They 
read  alternate  verses,  she  '  watching  every 
intonation,  allowing  not  so  much  as  a  sylla- 
ble to  be  missed  or  misplaced.'  She  began 
with  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  and  went 
straight  through  to  the  last  verse  of  the 
Apocalypse,  and  began  again  at  Genesis  the 
next  day.  Ruskin  had  also  to  learn  the 
whole  of  '  the  fine  old  Scottish  para- 
phrases.' To  this  daily  discipline,  con- 
tinued until  he  went  up  to  Oxford,  he  attri- 
buted the  cultivation  of  his  ear  and  his  sense 
of  style. 

By  his  father  the  boy  was  initiated  in 
secular  literature  (especially  Scott's  novels 
and  Pope's '  Homer ')  and  in  art.  John  James 
Ruskin  had  settled  in  London  in  1807,  and 
two  years  later  entered  into  partnership  as 
a  wine-merchant  under  the  title  of  Ruskin, 
Telford,  &  Domecq — 'Domecq  contributing 
the  sherry,  Telford  the  capital,  and  Ruskin 
the  brains.'  He  combined  with  much 
shrewdness  in  business  a  genuine  love  of 
literature  and  a  strong  vein  of  romantic 


Ruskin 


306 


Ruskin 


sentiment.     His  taste  was  as  exact  in  art  as  j 
in  sherries,  and  he  '  never  allowed  me  to  ] 
look  for  an  instant '  (says  his  son)  '  at  a  bad  j 
picture.'     He  had  been  a  pupil  in  the  land-  j 
scape   class  of  Alexander  Is'asmyth  [q.  v.J  ! 
at  Edinburgh,  was  fond  of  sketching,  and 
delighted  in  reading  poetry  aloud,  in  buy- 
ing drawings  of  architecture  and  landscape, 
and  in  entertaining  artists  at  dinner.     In 
later  years  Turner,  George  Richmond,  and 
Samuel  Prout  formed  the  constant  dinner- 
party invited  by  the  father  to  celebrate  his 
son's  birthday.      The  atmosphere  in  which 
young  Ruskin  lived  and  moved  was  thus  at 
once  puritanical  and  artistic. 

An  important  part  of  his  education  was 
a  summer  tour  with  his  parents.  His  father 
was  in  the  habit  of  travelling  once  a  year 
for  orders,  and  on  these  journeys  he  com- 
bined pleasure  with  business.  He  travelled 
to  sell  his  wines,  but  also  to  see  pictures ; 
and  in  any  country  seat  where  there  was  a 
Reynolds,  or  a  Velasquez,  or  a  Vandyck,  or 
a  Rembrandt,  '  he  would  pay  the  surliest 
housekeeper  into  patience  until  we  had  exa- 
mined it  to  our  hearts'  content.'  Also  he 
travelled  leisurely — in  a  private  carriage 
hired  or  lent  for  the  expedition — and  he 
made  a  point  of  including  in  each  summer's 
journey  a  visit  to  some  region  of  romantic 
scenery,  such  as  Scotland  (in  1824,  1826, 
1827)  ;  the  English  lakes  (1824, 1826, 1830) ; 
and  Wales  (1831).  From  the  earliest  days 
the  young  Ruskin  had  accompanied  his 
parents  on  their  journeys,  perched  on  the 
top  of  a  box  in  the  '  dickey  '  of  a  post- 
chaise.  By  the  time  he  was  ten  he 
had  thus  seen  all  the  high  roads  and 
most  of  the  cross-roads  of  England  and 
Wales,  and  the  greater  part  of  lowland  Scot- 
land. Half  a  century  later  Ruskin  occa- 
sionally revived,  for  the  pleasure  of  himself 
and  his  friends — and  the  amusement  of  the 
districts  through  which  they  passed — the 
practice  of  posting  tours,  and  had  a  posting 
carriage  of  the  old  fashion  built  for  him. 
'  In  all  mountain  ground  and  scenery,'  he 
says,  '  I  had  a  pleasure  as  early  as  I  can 
remember,  and  continuing  till  I  was  eighteen 
or  twenty,  infinitely  greater  than  any  which 
has  been  since  possible  to  me  in  anything ; 
comparable  for  intensity  only  to  the  joy  of 
a  lover  in  being  near  a  noble  and  kind  mis- 
tress, but  no  more  explicable  or  definable 
than  that  feeling  of  love  itself.'  He  was 
encouraged  by  his  parents  to  write  diaries 
and  versify  his  impressions.  At  home  a 
little  table  was  always  kept  apart  for  his 
work,  and  there  the  child  would  sit  drawing 
or  writing  while  his  mother  knitted  and  his 
father  read  aloud.  His  parents  paid  him  a 


shilling  a  page  for  his  literary  labours,  and 
bound  up  his  juvenilia,  which  are  still  pre- 
served at  Brantwood.  He  spent  his  pocket- 
money  in  minerals,which  were  his  earliest  and 
constant  hobby.  At  the  age  of  four  he  had 
begun  to  read  and  write ;  at  seven  he  was 
hard  at  work  in  printing  volumes  of  stories; 
at  eight  he  began  to  write  verses.  His 
father  burst  into  tears  of  joy  when  the  son's 
first  article  appeared  in  print.  His  mother 
had  designed  him  for  the  church,  hoping  he 
would  become  '  a  glorified  Dean  Milman ; ' 
and  both  his  parents  were  '  exquisitely 
miserable  at  the  first  praises  of  a  clear- 
dawning  Tennyson.'  His  early  poems, 
which  were  to  him  the  Latin  exercises  of 
other  schoolboys,  deal  with  '  dropping 
waters/  '  airy  fortresses,'  '  taper-pointed 
leaves,'  and  '  glittering  diamonds  from  the 
skies.'  Some  verses  written  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  have  a  note  of  genuine  feeling: 

There  is  a  thrill  of  strange  delight 
That  passes  quivering  o'er  me, 

When  blue  hills  rise  upon  the  sight 
Like  summer  clouds  before  me. 

In  this  year  (1833)  the  summer  tour  took  a 
wider  scope.  His  father  had  brought  home 
among  his  treasures  from  the  city  a  copy  of 
Prout  s '  Sketches  in  Flanders  and  Germany.' 
'  As  my  mother  watched  my  father's  plea- 
sure and  mine,'  says  Ruskin, '  in  looking  at 
the  wonderful  places,  she  said,  "  Why  should 
we  not  go  and  see  them  in  reality  ?  "  My 
father  hesitated  a  little,  then  with  glittering 
eyes  said,  "  Why  not  ?  "  And  so  they 
went  to  the  Rhine  and  Switzerland,  and 
two  years  later  to  Switzerland  and  Italy. 
These  were  the  first  of  a  series  of  posting 
tours  through  all  the  more  romantic  regions 
of  Europe — Spain,  Greece,  and  Norway  ex- 
cepted — which  father,  mother,  and  son  took 
together  for  nearly  thirty  years.  -They 
travelled  always  in  their  own  carriage  with 
a  courier.  They  went  by  easy  stages,  stop- 
ping at  their  son's  will  to  examine  minerals 
here,  to  study  pictures  there,  and  to  sketch 
and  wander  everywhere.  Those  were  '  the 
olden  days  of  travelling,  now  to  return  no 
more,'  as  Ruskin  lamented  in  the  '  Stones  of 
Venice,'  '  in  which  distance  could  not  be 
vanquished  without  toil,  but  in  which  that 
toil  was  rewarded  partly  by  the  power  of 
deliberate  survey  of  the  countries  through 
which  the  journey  lay,  and  partly  by  the 
happiness  of  the  evening  hours  when,  from 
the  top  of  the  last  hill  he  had  surmounted, 
the  traveller  beheld  the  quiet  village  where 
he  was  to  rest,  scattered  among  the  meadows 
beside  its  valley  stream,  or,  from  the  long- 
hoped-for  turn  in  the  dusty  perspective  of 


Ruskin 


3°7 


Ruskin 


the  causeway,  saw  for  the  first  time  the  \  of  two  years  to  a  day  school  at  Camberwell, 


towers  of  some  famed  city,  faint  in  the  rays 
of  sunset.'  These  '  hours  of  peaceful  and 
thoughtful  pleasure '  were  important  ele- 
ments in  Ruskin's  education.  The  first 
sight  of  the  snowy  Alps  (in  1833)  opened, 
he  savs,  a  new  life  to  him,  '  to  cease  no  more 
except  at  the  gates  of  the  hills  whence  one 
returns  not.  It  is  not  possible  to  imagine, 
in  any  time  of  the  world,  a  more  blessed 
entrance  into  life,  for  a  child  of  such  tem- 


perament as  mine. 


kept  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Dale  (1797-1870) 
[q.  v.]  His  school  course  was  interrupted 
by  an  attack  of  pleurisy.  He  afterwards 
attended  lectures  three  times  a  week  at 
King's  College.  His  first  drawing  master 
(1831)  was  Mr.  Runciman ;  later,  he  had 
lessons  from  Copley  Fielding  and  J.  D. 
Harding.  But  the  decisive  influence  in  this 
sort  was  the  acquisition  in  1832,  as  a  birth- 
day present  from  Mr.  Telford,  of  a  copy  of 


and  their  people  were  alike  beautiful  in 
their  snow  and  their  humanity  ;  and  I  wanted 
neither  for  them  nor  myself  sight  of  any 
thrones  in  heaven  but  the  rocks,  or  of  any 
spirits  in  heaven  but  the  clouds.  I  went 
down  that  evening  from  the  garden  terrace 
of  Schaffhausen  with  my  destiny  fixed  in 
all  of  it  that  was  to  be  sacred  and  useful.' 


For  me  the  Alps    Rogers's  'Italy'  with    Turner's    vignettes. 


He  set  to  work  at  once  to  copy  them,  and 
from  that  day  forth  Turner  obtained  his 
whole  allegiance. 

In  October  1836  Ruskin  matriculated  at 
Oxford,  and  in  the  following  term  went  into 
residence  as  a  '  gentleman-commoner '  at 
Christ  Church.  At  Oxford  as  elsewhere  his 
studies  were  diffusive.  He  kept  up  his 


With  the  study  of  nature — associated  through    drawing  and  took  great  delight  in  scientific 


romantic  literature  with  memories  of  human 
valour  and  passion — that  of  art  went  hand 
in  hand.  His  inspection  of  the  chief  picto- 
rial treasures  of  Great  Britain  was  now  dis- 
ciplined by  close  study  in  the  great  galleries 
of  Europe.  Those  of  Vienna,  Madrid,  and 
St.  Petersburg  must  be  excepted ;  nor  did 
Ruskin  ever  visit  Holland — a  neglect  which 
may  perhaps  partly  explain  his  lack  of  sym- 
pathy with  the  Dutch  schools.  For  his 
early  study  of  them  he  was  largely  depen- 
dent on  the  Dulwich  Gallery,  which  was 
close  to  his  home  and  from  which  he  drew 
so  many  references  in  '  Modern  Painters.' 

The  more  formal  part  of  Ruskin's  educa- 
tion was  less  fortunate.  He  once  suggested 
for  his  epitaph  the  curse  of  Reuben  :  '  Un- 
stable as  water,  thou  shalt  not  excel,'  and 
said,  '  It  is  strange  %that  I  hardly  ever  get 
anything  stated  without  some  grave  mistake, 
however  true  in  my  main  discoveries.' 
There  was  nothing  in  his  early  education  to 
drill  him  into  exact  scholarship  or  encourage 
concentration.  Up  to  the  age  of  ten  his 
mother  taught  him.  A  classical  tutor  was 
then  called  in.  He  was  Dr.  Andrews, 
father  of  Coventry  Patmore's  first  wife. 
After  her  marriage  Ruskin  became  a  friend 
of  the  poet,  and  wrote  enthusiastically  in 
praise  of  '  The  Angel  in  the  House.'  An- 
drews was  impressed  by  the  boy's  precocity, 
and  wanted  to  take  him  on  to  Hebrew  be- 
forehe  was  well  grounded  in  Greek.  Another 
tutor,  Mr.  Rowbotham,  taught  him  French 
and  mathematics.  Ruskin  had  a  fair  con- 
versational knowledge  of  French,  and  was 
always  a  reader  of  French  literature.  Of 
mathematics  he  was  fond,  and  this  was  the 
branch  of  his  early  studies  which  gave  him 
least  trouble.  Next  Ruskin  went  for  part 


work  with  Buckland  (then  a  canon  of  Christ 
Church).       His    Latin,  he   says,  was   the 
worst  in  the  university,  and  to  the  end  of 
his  career  he  '  never  could  get  into  his  head 
where  the  Pelasgi  lived  or  the  Heraclidse 
returned  from.'    A  private  tutor,  Osborne 
Gordon,  was  employed  to  patch   up   such 
holes,  and  in  recognition  of  Gordon's  ser- 
vices Ruskin's  father  gave  o,000/.  for  the 
augmentation  of  Christ  Church  livings.     In 
'pure   scholarship'  Ruskin  never  attained 
any  proficiency.     His  love  of  Greek  litera- 
ture lasted  throughout  his  life.     To  Plato 
especially  he  was  strongly  attached,  for  '  the 
sense  of  the  presence  of  the   Deity  in   all 
things,  great  or  small,  which  always  runs 
in  a  solemn  undercurrent  beneath  his  ex- 
quisite  playfulness  and   irony '  (Stones  of 
Venice,  li.  ch.  8.     The  influence  of  Plato 
upon  Ruskin  has  been  traced  in  a  pamphlet 
by  William  Smart,  1883).     In  the  Oxford 
of  Ruskin's  day  little  heed  was  paid    to 
Greek  art   or   archaeology,  and  he  '  never 
loved  the  arts  of  Greece  as   others  have ' 
(Lectures  on  Art,  §  111),  though  in  after 
years  he  devoted  some  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject.    His  'Aratra  Pentelici '  (1872)  gives 
his  views  on  Greek  sculpture.     It  abounds 
in  clever  aperqus,  but  his  thesis  that  Greek 
artists  did  not  aim  at  ideal  beauty  cannot 
be  accepted.     His  analysis  of  the  myths  of 
Athena  as  the  life-giving  and  spirit- inspiring 
'  Queen  of  the  Air'  (1869)  often  shows  real 
insight,  but  is  fanciful.     The  first  section  of 
the  book  is  headed  '  Athena  Chalinitis,'  but 
Ruskin  '  never  laid  to  heart  the  significance 
of  the  Greek  quality  of  restraint  which  this 
epithet  ascribes  to  the  goddess '  (NORTON). 
Among  his  Oxford  friends  and  contempo- 
raries  was   (Sir)   Charles   Newton    [q.    v. 

x  2 


Ruskin 


308 


Ruskin 


Suppl.],  who  in  1852  endeavoured  to  per- 
suade Ruskin  to  accompany  him  to  Athens 
and  Mitylene.  The  trip  was  vetoed  by  his 
parents,  and  '  Greek  and  Goth '  went  their 
several  ways  (Prat.  ii.  ch.  viii.)  At  a  later 
time  Ruskin  became  interested  in  excava- 
tions, gave  General  di  Cesnola  1,000/.  for 
diggings  in  Cyprus,  and  presented  most  of 
the  finds  to  the  British  Museum.  Of  his 
contemporaries  at  Christ  Church  Ruskin 
has  drawn  some  brilliant  sketches  in  '  Prae- 
terita.'  lie  formed  a  close  and  lifelong 
friendship  with  (Sir)  Henry  Acland  [q.  v. 
Suppl.],  to  whom  he  was  drawn  both  by 
common  artistic  tastes  and  by  Acland  s 
type  of  radiant  manhood;  another  friend- 
ship, which  developed  more  slowly,  was 
with  Henry  George  Liddell  [q.  v.  Suppl.] 
Though  no  athlete,  Ruskin  was  accepted 
into  '  the  best  set.'  Pusey  never  spoke  to 
him,  and  by  '  the  Oxford  movement '  he 
was  untouched.  He  spoke  sometimes  at 
the  Union.  One  motion  supported  by  him 
was  characteristic :  '  that  intellectual  edu- 
cation as  distinguished  from  moral  discipline 
is  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the  lower 
order  of  a  nation.'  In  the '  Life  and  Letters 
of  F.  W.  Robertson '  there  is  a  reference  to 
4  a  very  ingenious  and  somewhat  sarcastic 
speech '  by  Ruskin  in  defence  of  the  stage 
which  greatly  pleased  the  house. 

Ruskin  devoted  much  of  his  time  at  Ox- 
ford to  writing  verse.  He  competed  for  the 
Newdigate  prize  in  1837,  with  a  poem  on 
'  The  Gipsies '  (won  by  A.  P.  Stanley),  and 
in  1838  on  '  The  Exile  of  St.  Helena '  (won 
by  J.  H.  Dart).  Ruskin's  unsuccessful  essays 
are  included  in  his  '  Poems '  (1891).  In  1839 
he  won  the  prize  with  a  poem  on  '  Salsette 
and  Elephanta'  (recited  in  the  theatre  at 
Oxford  on  12  June  and  published  in  that 
year  ;  new  ed.  1878).  The  composition  has 
some  good  lines,  as,  e.g. : 

Though  distant  shone  with  many  an  azure  gem 
The  glacier  glory  of  his  diadem  ; 

but  on  the  whole  it  must  be  pronounced 
neither  better  nor  worse  than  most  poems  of 
its  class.  Verses  by  him  had  already  ap- 
peared in  '  Friendship's  Offering,'  and  he 
contributed  for  some  years  to  that  and  other 
miscellanies  of  the  period.  Some  of  his 
album  verses  were  pretty  and  have  found 
their  way  into  collections.  He  continued 
as  an  occasional  amusement  throughout  his 
life  to  write  songs  and  rhyming  letters,  but 
by  the  time  he  was  twenty-six  he  abandoned 
'  versification  as  a  serious  pursuit,  having 
come  to  the  extremely  wholesome  conclusion 
that  in  poetry  he  could  express  nothing 
rightly  that  he  had  to  say.' 


Ruskin's  Oxford  course  was  interrupted 
by  ill-health,  which  may  have  been  accen- 
tuated by  a  disappointment  of  the  heart. 
lie  had  fallen  in  love  with  one  of  the 
daughters  of  his  father's  French  partner  (the 
Adele  of  his  poems).  As  a  suitor  he  com- 
bined, he  tells  us, '  the  single-mindedness  of 
Mr.  Traddles  with  the  conversational  abili- 
ties of  Mr.  Toots,'  and  his  Parisian  flame 
laughed  whole-heartedly  at  the  literary 
offerings  with  which  he  sought  to  commend 
himself  to  her.  In  1840  she  married  a 
handsome  young  French  nobleman.  Shortly 
afterwards,  at  Easter  in  that  year,  when 
Ruskin  was  putting  on  a  spurt  for  his  ex- 
aminations, he  was  seized  with  a  consump- 
tive cough  and  spat  some  blood.  The  drop 
was  not,  as  in  the  case  of  Keats,  his  death- 
warrant,  but  it  was  a  death-blow  to  hopes 
of  academical  distinction.  He  went  down 
from  Oxford  and  for  nearly  two  years  was 
dragged  about  in  search  of  health,  through 
Switzerland  and  Italy  and  to  Leamington 
(where  he  derived  great  benefit  from  Dr. 
Jephson's  treatment).  Memorials  of  these 
travels  are  given  in  Ruskin's  '  Letters  to 
Dale  '  (1893).  In  a  few  years  Ruskin  out- 
grew his  tendency  to  consumption.  He  was 
fond  of  walking  and  of  climbing  among  the 
Alps ;  and  in  after  years  of  rowing,  as  also 
of  manual  exercise.  He  retained  far  into 
old  age  evidences  of  unabated  vigour  in 
hair  still  thick  and  brown ;  and  could  often 
be  seen  rowing  his  boat  (of  his  own  design) 
across  the  lake  in  half  a  gale  of  wind.  But 
he  was  never  a  very  strong  man,  and  he 
taxed  to  the  uttermost  by  constant  mental 
strain  such  strength  as  he  possessed.  In 
April  1842,  having  recovered  his  health, 
Ruskin  went  up  to  Oxford,  and  was  given  an 
honorary  double-fourth.  He  graduated  B.A. 
in  1842  and  M.A.  in  1843.  He  was  deeply 
sensitive  of  '  the  ineffable  charm  '  of  Oxford 
and  loved  the  university  dearly.  But  it 
was  among  the  hills  and  clouds,  the  trees 
and  the  mosses,  that  he  really  graduated. 

It  was.  however,  as  '  an  Oxford  graduate  ' 
that  he  first  emerged  into  fame.  He  had 
already  in  his  teens  appeared  in  print.  His 
first  published  words,  '  Enquiries  on  the 
Causes  of  the  Colour  of  the  Rhine,'  and '  Con- 
siderations on  the  Strata  of  Mont  Blanc,' 
were  printed,  when  he  was  fifteen,  in  Lou- 
don's  '  Magazine  of  Natural  History '  (1834, 
vol.  viii.  pp.  438  and  644),  to  which  he  con- 
tributed some  other  geological  studies  two 
years  later  (ib.  1836,  vol.  ix.  p.  533).  An  ar- 
ticle by  him  also  appeared  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  'Transactions  of  the  Meteorological 
Society '  (1839).  More  important  was  a 
series  of  articles  in  London's  '  Architectural 


Ruskin 


309 


Ruskin 


Magazine '  (1837-8).  After  a  tour  in  Switzer- 
land and  Italy  in  1835  Ruskin  had  returned 
with  his  parents  in  1837  to  one  of  the  haunts 
of  his  boyhood,  the  Lake  country.  The 
contrast  between  the  cottages  of  Westmore- 
land and  of  Italy  struck  him  as  typical  of 
that  between  the  countries  themselves,  and 
during  the  autumn  following  he  wrote  on 
'  The  Poetry  of  Architecture  ;  or,  the  Archi- 
tecture of  the  Nations  of  Europe  considered 
in  its  Association  with  National  Scenery 
and  National  Character.'  These  papers, 
written  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  lay  down  a 
line  of  study  which  Ruskin  afterwards  pur- 
sued in  '  Seven  Lamps '  and  '  Stones  of 
Venice.'  They  show  how  securely  he  had 
now  found  his  literary  medium.  They  con- 
tain, as  he  said  fifty  years  later, '  sentences 
nearly  as  well  put  together  as  any  I  have 
done  since.'  The  nom  de  plume — Kata 
Phusin — adopted  for  these  and  some  other 
contributions  to  the  same  magazine  was  ex- 
pressive of  the  temper  in  which  he  was  pre- 
sently to  discourse  in  '  Modern  Painters.' 
'  Accuse  me  not  of  arrogance,  If  having 
walked  with  Nature,'  &c.,  was  the  motto  of 
the  later  work. 

As  early  as  in  1836  (when  he  was  seven- 
teen) Ruskin  had  produced  the  germ  which 
grew  into  his  principal  book.  To  the  Aca- 
demy's exhibition  of  that  year  Turner  had 
sent  three  pictures  characteristic  of  his  later 
manner — 'Juliet  and  her  Nurse,'  'Rome 
from  Mount  Aventine,'  and  '  Mercury  and 
Argus.'  They  were  fiercely  attacked  in 
'  Blackwood,'  and  young  Ruskin,  roused 
thereby  '  to  height  of  black  anger,  in  which 
I  have  remained  pretty  nearly  ever  since,' 
wrote  an  answer.  Ruskin's  father  sent  the 
article  to  Turner.  The  old  man  thanked  his 
youthful  champion  for  his  '  zeal,  trouble, 
and  kindness,'  but  sent  the  manuscript,  not 
to  '  Blackwood,'  which  he  did  not  consider 
worth  powder  and  shot,  but  to  the  purchaser 
of  'Juliet,'  Mr.  Munro  of  Novar.  A  copy 
of  the  article  was  found  among  Ruskin  s 
papers  after  his  death.  The  work  laid  aside 
when  Ruskin  went  up  to  Oxford  was  re- 
sumed when  he  had  taken  his  degree.  In 

1840  he  had  been  introduced  to  Turner.     In 

1841  he  had  paid  his  first  visit  to  Venice.     In 

1842  he  was  greatly  impressed  by  Turner's 
Swiss  sketches.     To  an  incident  in  May  of 
that  year  Ruskin  attributes  his  '  call.'     '  One 
day,'  he  says,  '  on  the  road  to  Norwood  I 
noticed  a  bit  of  ivy  round  a  thorn  stem, 
which  seemed  even  to  my  critical  judgment 
not  ill  "  composed ; "  1  proceeded  to  make  a 
light-and-shade    pencil  study  of   it  in   my 
grey-paper  pocket-book,  carefully  as  if  it 
had  been  a  bit  of  sculpture,  liking  it  more 


i  and  more  as  I  drew.  When  it  was  done  I 
saw  that  I  had  virtually  lost  all  my  time 
since  I  was  twelve  years  old,  because  no  one 
had  ever  told  me  to  draw  what  was  really 
there ! '  Later  in  the  year  he  travelled  in 
France  and  Switzerland,  and  on  his  return 
he  set  to  work  on  the  first  volume  of  '  Mo- 
dern Painters.'  The  title  was  suggested  by 
the  publishers  (Messrs.  Smith,  Elder,  &  Co.) 
in  lieu-  of  '  Turner  and  the  Ancients.'  The 
scope  of  the  book  is  indicated  by  the  author's 
sub-title  (afterwards  suppressed)  :  '  Their 
superiority  in  the  Art  of  Landscape  Paint- 
ing to  all  the  Ancient  Masters  proved  by 
Examples  of  the  True,  the  Beautiful,  and 
the  Intellectual,  from  the  Works  of  Modern 
Artists,  especially  from  those  of  J.  M.  W. 
Turner,  Esq.,  R.A.'  The  volume  was  pub- 
lished in  April  1843  anonymously  by  'A 
Graduate  of  Oxford.'  Ruskin's  father  feared 
that  the  treatise  would  lose  in  authority  if 

'  its  author's  youth  were  disclosed  :  he  was 
then  twenty-four.  The  success  of  the  book 

j  was  immediate.    A  second  edition  was  called 

j  for  in  the  following  year.  In  all  seven  edi- 
tions of  the  first  volume  in  separate  form 
were  published;  that  of  1851  was  the  first 
to  bear  the  author's  name.  The  volume, 
originating  in  a  defence  of  Turner's  later 
manner,  had  grown  into  a  treatise  on  the 
principles  of  art,  declaring  that  art  means 
something  more  than  pleasing  arrangement 
of  lines  and  colours  ;  that  it  can,  and  there- 
fore ought  to,  convey  ideas  as  being  a  kind 
of  language;  that  the  best  painter  is  he 
who  conveys  the  most  and  highest  ideas  of 
truth,  of  beauty,  and  of  imagination ;  and 
then,  by  way  of  example,  that  Turner's  work 
was  full  of  interesting  truths,  while  the 
Dutch  and  French-Italian  landscapists  were 
very  limited  in  their  view  of  the  varied  facts 
of  nature.  The  latter  part  of  his  theme  led 
the  author  to  make  a  close  study  of  moun- 
tains, clouds,  and  sea,  and  to  enrich  his  pages 
with  passages  of  glorious  description.  The 
closeness  of  his  reasoning,  the  wealth  of 
illustrative  reference,  the  tone  of  authority, 
the  audacious  criticism  of  established  repu- 
tations, and  the  beauty  of  the  word-painting 
made  a  great  and  lasting  impression.  Words- 
worth pronounced  the  author  a  brilliant 
writer,  and  placed  '  Modern  Painters'  in  his 
lending  library  at  Rydal  Mount  (KNIGHT,  ii. 
334).  Tennyson  saw  it  lying  on  Rogers's 
table,  and  longed  very  much  to  read  it  at 
his  leisure  (Life,  i.  223).  Ruskin  had  been 
taken  to  see  Rogers  some  years  before.  He 
appeared  occasionally  at  the  poet's  break- 
fasts, and  corresponded  with  him  from 
Venice.  Sir  Henry  Taylor  wrote  to  Mr. 
Aubrey  de  Vere  begging  him  to  read  '  a 


Ruskin 


3io 


Ruskin 


book  which  seems  to  me  to  be  far  more 
deeply  founded  in  its  criticism  of  art  than 
any  other  that  I  have  met  with  .  .  .  written 
with  great  power  and  eloquence '  (COLLING- 
WOOD, p. 94)  'For  a  critic  to  be  so  much  of 
a  poet,'  wrote  Mrs.  Browning, '  is  a  great 
thing.'  Sydney  Smith  said  it  was  '  a  work 
of  transcendent  talent,  presented  the  most 
original  views,  and  the  most  elegant  and 
powerful  language,  and  would  work  a  com- 
plete revolution  in  the  world  of  taste' 
(Prat.  ii.  ch.  ix.)  Dearer  to  Ruskin  than 
the  praises  of  the  great  world  was  the  delight 
of  his  parents.  On  New  Year's  day  his 
father  bought  for  him  Turner's  picture  of 
'  The  Slaver,' '  well  knowing  how  to  please 
me.  The  pleasures  of  a  new  Turner  to  me 
nobody  ever  will  understand.' 

The  young  author  was  not  lured  by  praise 
into  hurried  production ;  nor  was  the  success 
of  the  first  volume  of  '  Modern  Painters  '  a 


of  Ruskin's  life.  '  But  for  that  porter's 
opening  I  should,'  he  said,  '  have  written 
the  "  Stones  of  Chamouni "  instead  of  the 
"  Stones  of  Venice,"  and  I  should  have 
brought  out  into  full  distinctness  and  use 
what  faculty  I  had  of  drawing  the  human 
face  and  form  with  true  expression  of  their 
higher  beauty.  ...  I  felt  that  a  new  world 
was  opened  to  me,  that  I  had  seen  that  day 
the  art  of  man  in  its  full  majesty  for  the 
first  time ;  and  that  there  was  also  a  strange 
and  precious  gift  in  myself  enabling  me  to 
recognise  it.'  With  this  conviction  Ruskin 
returned  home  in  the  autumn  of  1845  to 
Denmark  Hill,  whither  his  parents  had 
removed  in  1843  to  a  large  house  with 
spacious  grounds,  and  proceeded  to  write 
out  a  second  volume  of  '  Modern  Painters.' 
The  enlargement  of  its  scope  was  at  once 
obvious.  Instead  of  a  defence  of  the 
moderns,  we  heard  now  the  praise  of  the 


decisive  point  in  his  career.     He  was  still  |  ancients.     Whereas  the  closing  paragraphs 
giving  much  of  his  best  effort  to  drawing,  :  of  Ruskin's  first  volume  are  an  exhortation 

to  truth  in  landscape,  those  of  the  second 


with  steadily  increasing  skill,  and  to  the 
geological  and  mineralogical  studies,  in 
which  to  the  end  he  keenly  delighted.  He 
set  to  work  to  continue  his  studies  in  art, 
but  it  was  still  an  open  question  which  was 
to  be  the  main  work  of  his  life.  In  1844  he 
went  with  his  parents  to  Switzerland,  and 
studied  mountains  at  Chamouni  andZermatt. 
At  the  Simplon  they  met  James  David 
Forbes  [q.  v.],  whose  viscous  theory  of  glaciers 
Ruskin  afterwards  defended  with  great 
warmth.  On  his  way  home  he  spent  some 
time  in  Paris,  studying  old  masters  at  the 
Louvre.  Next  year  he  went  abroad  without 
his  parents,  but  attended  by  a  valet  and 
Couttet  the  guide.  At  Macugnaga,  where 
he  spent  some  weeks,  he  devoted  himself 
to  close  study  of  Shakespeare, '  which  led 
me  into  fruitful  thought,  out  of  the  till 
then  passive  sensation  of  merely  artistic  or 
naturalist  life.'  Other  writers  to  whom 
Ruskin  professed  himself  mainly  indebted 
were  Dante,  George  Herbert,  Wordsworth, 
and  Carlyle.  From  Macugnaga  he  went  to 
Pisa,  Lucca,  and  Venice,  and  to  this  tour 
he  attributes  a  turning  point  in  his  life  and 
work.  At  Lucca  he  was  profoundly  im- 

Sressed  by  the  recumbent  statue  of  Ilaria  di 
aretto  (described  in  Modern  Painters,  vol.  ii. 
sec.  i.  chap,  vii.,  and  in  The  Three  Colours  of 
Preraphaelitism).  Beside  this  tomb  he 
'  partly  felt,  partly  A'owed,  that  his  life  must 
no  longer  be  spent  only  in  the  study  of  rocks 
and  clouds.'  At  Venice  (whither  J.  D. 
Harding  accompanied  him)  they  went  one 
day  to  see  the  then  unknown  and  uncared- 
for  Tintorets  in  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco. 
It  was  a  revelation,  and  decided  the  current 


are  a  hymn  of  praise  to  '  the  angel-choirs  of 
Angelico,  with  the  flames  on  their  white 
foreheads   waving  brighter   as  they  move, 
and  the  sparkles  streaming  from  their  purple 
wings  like  the  glitter  of  many  suns  upon  a 
sounding  sea.'     The   second  volume,  pub- 
lished  in  April  1846,  confirmed  and  esta- 
blished Ruskin's  fame,  for  though  published 
anonymously  the  authorship   was  by  this 
time  an  open  secret.     This  treatise,  though 
marred  by  a  narrowness  of  temper  and  by 
some   other  faults,  mercilessly  exposed  by 
the  author  himself  in  his  notes  to  a  revised 
edition  in  1882,  occupies  a  central  place  in 
Ruskin's  system.    It  sets  forth  the  spiritual 
as  opposed  to  the  sensual  theory  of  art.    It 
expresses  what  he  elsewhere  calls  '  the  first 
and    foundational    law    respecting    human 
contemplation   of   the    natural  phenomena 
under  whose  influence  we  exist,  that  they 
can  only  be  seen  with  their  properly  belong- 
ing joy,  and  interpreted  up  to  the  measure 
of  proper  human   intelligence,  when  they 
are  accepted  as  the  Avork  and  the  gift  of  a 
Living  Spirit  greater  than  our  own.'     The 
author's  acute  analysis  of  the  functions  of 
imagination  in   art,   and    his  descriptions, 
often   not   accurate   in   detail,  but   always 
original  and  suggestive,  of  pictures  by  the 
Florentine  masters  and  Tintoret,  added  to. 
the  attraction  of  the  volume.     In  style  it 
bears    evident    traces    of    an   imitation  of 
Hooker,  whom  Ruskin  had  been  urged  by 
Osborne  Gordon  to  study. 

The  completion  of  '  Modern  Painters ' 
was  interrupted  for  ten  years  by  various 
studies  and  by  domestic  circumstances.  In 


Ruskin 


Ruskin 


1847  Ruskin  was  invited  by  Lockhart  to 
review  Lord  Lindsay's  '  History  of  Christian 
Art '  for  the  '  Quarterly '  (June  1847).  He 
did  so,  he  says,  for  the  sake  of  Lockhart's 
daughter,  for  whose  hand  he  was  a  suitor, 
but  he  was  doomed  to  a  second  disappoint- 
ment in  love,  followed  like  his  first  by  a 
breakdown  in  his  health.  His  parents 
presently  urged  him  to  propose  to  the 
daughter  of  old  friends  of  theirs.  Euphemia 
('  Erne ')  Chalmers  Gray  was  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Mr.  George  Gray,  a  lawyer,  of 
Bowerswell,  Perth.  She  used  to  visit  the 
Ruskins  at  Herne  Hill ;  and  it  was  for  her, 
in  answer  to  a  challenge,  that  he  wrote  in 
1841,  at  a  couple  of  sittings,  one  of  the 
most  popular  of  his  minor  books,  '  The  King 
of  the  Golden  River.'  She  had  grown  up 
into  a  great  beauty,  and  her  family,  no  less 
than  Ruskin's  parents,  were  anxious  for  the 
match.  On  10  April  1848  they  were  mar- 
ried at  Perth.  He  was  about  ten  years  her 
senior,  and  much  more  so  in  habits  of  life 
and  thought.  The  honeymoon  was  cut 
short  by  the  bridegroom's  ill-health.  After 
a  continental  tour  later  in  the  year,  they 
settled  in  London  at  31  Park  Street.  Rus- 
kin was  by  this  time  one  of  the  literary 
celebrities  of  the  day,  and  had  many  friends 
and  acquaintances  in  the  literary  and  artistic 
world.  Among  these  were  Mr.  G.  F.  Watts, 
the  Brownings,  Miss  Jean  Ingelow,  Carlyle, 
Froude,  and  Miss  Mitford,  whose  closing 
years  he  brightened  with  many  delicate  and 
generous  kindnesses.  Ruskin's  wife  was 
presented  at  court,  and  occasionally  he  took 
her  to  evening  crushes.  But  he  could  not 
live  long,  he  said,  with  a  dead  brick  wall 
opposite  his  window,  and  London  life  inter- 
fered with  the  literary  works  in  which  he 
was  absorbed.  He  retreated,  therefore,  with 
his  wife  to  a  house  on  Herne  Hill,  and 
afterwards  to  his  parents  at  Denmark  Hill. 
The  winters  of  1849-50  and  of  1851-2  the 
Ruskins  spent  at  Venice — he  hard  at  work 
on  measuring  and  sketching  and  reading, 
and  only  occasionally  finding  inclination  for 
social  distractions.  '  I  broke  through  my 
vows  of  retirement  the  other  day,'  he  wrote 
to  Mr.  Fawkes  of  Farnley  (Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, April  1900)  '  to  take  Effie  to  one  ot 
Marshal  Radetsky's  balls  at  Verona.  The 
Austrians  have  made  such  a  pet  of  her  that 
she  declares  if  she  ever  leaves  Venice  it 
must  be  to  go  to  Vienna.'  In  the  summer 
of  1851  Ruskin  had  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Millais.  '  I  have  dined  and  taken  break- 
fast with  Ruskin,'  writes  the  painter (2  July), 
'  and  we  are  such  good  friends  that  he  wishes 
me  to  accompany  him  to  Switzerland  this 
summer.'  Millais's  great  picture  of  1853 


was  the  'Order  of  Release'  (now  in  the 
Tate  Gallery);  the  figure  of  the  woman 
was  painted  from  Mrs.  Ruskin.  In  that 
summer  the  Ruskins  had  taken  a  cottage  at 
Glenfinlas.  Millais  and  his  brother  William 
accompanied  them,  and  stayed  for  some 
weeks  at  the  neighbouring  inn.  Sir  Henry 
Acland  was  also  for  a  time  of  the  party. 
The  events  of  this  tour  are  described  in  the 
'  Life  of  Millais '  (vol.  i.  chap,  v.),  where 
several  sketches  of  Mrs.  Ruskin  by  the 
artist  are  given.  '  We  have  immense  enjoy- 
ment,' he  wrote  to  a  friend,  '  painting  out 
on  the  rocks,  and  having  our  dinner  brought 
to  us  there,  and  in  the  evening  climbing  up 
the  steep  mountains  for  exercise,  Mrs.  Ruskin 
accompanying  us.'  Millais's  portrait  of 
Ruskin  (No.  3  below)  was  done  at  this 
time.  Ruskin  was  writing  the  'Lectures 
on  Architecture  and  Painting,'  which  he 
delivered  at  Edinburgh  in  November  1853 
and  published  as  a  book  in  the  following 
year.  Millais  drew  the  frontispiece,  and 
Ruskin  took  occasion  to  allude  in  terms  of 
high  praise  to  the  work  of  him  and  other 
pre-Raphaelites.  Shortly  afterwards  a 
nullity  suit  was  instituted  by  Mrs.  Ruskin. 
The  case  was  undefended  by  Ruskin;  the 
marriage  was  annulled,  and  on  3  July  1855 
Millais  was  married  at  Bowerswell  to 
Euphemia  Chalmers  Gray. 

The  years  of  Ruskin's  married  life  were  a 
period  of  great  literary  activity.  Soon  after 
the  second  volume  of  '  Modern  Painters ' 
had  appeared,  Turner  was  seized  by  illness, 
and  his  works  began  to  show  a  conclusive 
failure  of  power.  Ruskin  felt  free  to  pursue 
the  completion  of  his  task  without  the 
pressure  under  which  he  had  at  first  placed 
himself,  and  proceeded  to  collect  at  large 
and  at  leisure  materials  for  an  elaborate 
examination  of  the  canons  of  art.  This  led 
him  far  afield  into  various  lines  of  work. 
He  spent  the  autumn  of  1848,  after  a  tour 
to  Amiens  and  Normandy,  in  writing  '  The 
Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture.'  This  was 
an  attempt  to  apply  to  architecture  some  of 
the  principles  he  had  sought  to  enforce  in 
the  case  of  painting.  The  Seven  Lamps 
were  sacrifice,  truth,  power,  beauty,  life, 
memory,  and  obedience ;  and  the  final  test 
of  the  excellence  of  a  work  of  architecture 
was  to  be  the  spirit  of  which  it  was  an 
expression.  The  book  is  narrow  in  its 
religious  outlook,  and  in  later  years  its 
author  denounced  its  '  wretched  rant.'  But 
it  contains  some  of  Ruskin's  finest  passages, 
and  it  had  considerable  influence  in  en- 
couraging the  Gothic  revival  of  the  time. 
The  interest  taken  by  Ruskin  a  few  years 
later  in  the  architecture  of  the  Oxford 


Ruskin 


312 


Ruskin 


Museum  is  recorded  in  the  book  which  he 
and  Acland  published  on  the  subject  in 
1859.  '  Seven  Lamps '  was,  further,  '  the 
first  treatise  in  English  to  teach  the  real 
significance  of  architecture  as  the  most 
trustworthy  record  of  the  life  and  faith  of 
nations.'  It  was  published  on  10  May  1849, 
and  has  been  the  most  widely  circulated 
of  Ruskin's  larger  works.  It  was  the  first 
of  them  to  be  illustrated. 

Another  by-work  of  this  period  was 
Ruskin's  advocacy  of  the  pre-Raphaelites. 
At  the  time  when  he  took  up  their  cause  he 
had  no  personal  acquaintance  with  them, 
and  their  work  was  independent  of  his  influ- 
ence, though  Mr.  Holman  Hunt  had  read  the 
first  two  volumes  of  '  Modern  Painters,'  and 
felt  they  were  '  written  expressly  for  him ' 
(Contemporary Review, April  1886).  In  1851 
the  academy  pictures  of  Millais  and  Hunt 
were  bitterly  attacked  in  the  '  Times.' 
Millais  asked  Co ventry  Patmore  [q.v.  Suppl.] 
to  see  if  Ruskin  would  take  up  their  cause. 
Patmore  did  so,  and  on  13  and  30  May  letters 
from  Ruskin  appeared  in  the '  Times '  warmly 
defending  the  young  artists.  Ruskin  also 
wrote  to  Millais  offering  to  buy  'The  Return 
of  the  Dove  to  the  Ark.'  To  a  new  edition 
of  '  Modern  Painters '  in  this  year  he  added 
a  note  of  strong  praise  of  pre-Raphaelitism. 
In  August  he  issued  a  pamphlet  entitled 
'  Pre-Raphaelitism,'  in  which  he  again  de- 
fended Millais  and  Mr.  Holman  Hunt  against 
the  critics,  and  instituted  a  comparison  be- 
tween the  former  painter  and  Turner,  find- 
ing in  both  alike  the  same  sincerity  of  pur- 
pose. Ruskin's  intervention  on  behalf  of  the 
pre-Raphaelites  was  a  turning-point  in  their 
fortunes.  It  encouraged  the  painters  them- 
selves, confirmed  patrons  and  picture-dealers, 
and  caused  many  of  the  critics  to  reconsider 
their  opinions.  Ruskin's  personal  connection 
with  Rossetti,  the  third  of  the  pre-Raphaelite 
group,  came  somewhat  later.  In  1853  he 
had  been  in  correspondence  with  McCracken 
(aBelfast  packing-agent,  and  one  of  Rossetti's 
first  buyers),  highly  extolling  the  artist's 
work,  and  in  April  1854  he  made  Rossetti's 
acquaintance.  He  admired  Rossetti  greatly, 
and  helped  him  liberally,  agreeing  to  buy,  if 
he  happened  to  like  it,  whatever  Rossetti 
produced.  '  I  cannot  imagine  any  arrange- 
ment more  convenient  to  my  brother,'  says 
Mr.  W.  M.  Rossetti, '  who  was  thereby  made 
comfortable  in  his  professional  position.'  A 
year  later  Ruskin  made  equally  generous 
provision  for  Rossetti's  fiancee,  Miss  Siddal ; 
ne  settled  150/.  a  year  upon  her,  taking  her 
drawings  up  to  that  value.  She  was  thus 
enabled  to  go  abroad  for  her  health.  Some 
characteristic  letters  from  Ruskin  to  '  Ida, 


as  he  called  her,  are  published  in  Mr.  W.  M. 
Rossetti's  '  Ruskin,  Rossetti,  and  Pre- 
Raphaelitism  '  (1899).  Ruskin  was  also  an 
admirer  of  Rossetti's  early  poetry,  and  paid 
for  the  publication  of  his  translations  from 
'  Early  Italian  Poets.'  He  did  not  admire 
the  painter's  habits.  '  If  you  wanted  to 
oblige  me,'  he  wrote,  '  you  would  keep  your 
room  in  order  and  go  to  bed  at  night.  All 
your  fine  speeches  go  for  nothing  with  me 
till  you  do  that.'  In  later  years  their  friend- 
ship cooled.  The  part  of  disciple  was  not 
one  which  Rossetti  could  play,  even  to  a 
master  so  delicate  in  his  patronage  as 
Ruskin. 

Ruskin  followed  up  his  letters  and  pam- 
phlets on  the  pre-Raphaelites  by  a  series  of 
annual  '  Notes  on  the  Royal  Academy ' 
(1855-9).  The  notes  were  very  popular 
with  the  public,  but  less  so  with  the  artists. 
Ruskin  hoped  that  certain  criticisms  passed 
by  him  on  a  friend's  picture  would  '  make 
no  difference  in  their  friendship.'  '  Dear 
Ruskin,'  replied  the  artist,  '  next  time  I 
meet  you,  I  shall  knock  you  down;  but  I 
hope  it  will  make  no  difference  in  our  friend- 
ship.' '  D the  fellow  ! '  said  another 

young  artist  who  enjoyed  the  critic's  ac- 
quaintance ; '  why  doesn't  he  back  his  friends  ? ' 
The  jealousies  thus  provoked  among  his  artist 
friends  caused  Ruskin  to  discontinue  the 
publication,  resuming  it  only  for  one  year, 
in  1875.  'Punch'  put  the  complaint  at  the 
time  into  the  mouth  of  an  academician  : 

I  paints  and  paints, 
Hears  no  complaints, 

And  sells  before  I'm  dry ; 
Till  savage  Ruskin 
Sticks  his  tusk  in, 

And  nobody  will  buy. 

The  lament  was  not  unnatural,  for  at  this 
period  Ruskin  held  the  position  almost  of  an 
art-dictator,  and  his  opinions  were  a  power- 
ful factor  in  the  sale-rooms.  He  somewhere 
explains  that  he  was  compelled — perhaps  as 
a  just  nemesis  for  his  heterodox  political 
economy — to  buy  in  the  dearest  and  sell  in 
the  cheapest  market ;  for  that  whenever  he 
sold  a  Turner  the  price  was  run  down  be- 
cause a  drawing  which  he  did  not  care  to  keep 
could  not  be  worth  much,  while  the  price  of 
one  which  he  wanted  to  buy  was  at  once 
run  up.  Ruskin's  counsel  was  sought  after  by 
amateurs,  by  Louisa  Lady  Waterford  among 
the  number  (see  Story  of  Two  Noble  Lives. 
In  W.  B.  SCOTT'S  Autobiographical  Notes  are 
some  references  to  Ruskin's  work  at  Walling- 
ton  House,  Northumberland,  for  Sir  Walter 
and  Lady  Trevelyan,  close  friends  of  both 
men).  Ruskin's  position  as  an  expert  was 


Ruskin 


313 


Ruskin 


recognised  by  various  commissions  and  com- 
mittees on  artistic  subjects.  On  the  subject 
of  the  National  Gallery  Ruskin  wrote  at  this 
time  several  letters  and  pamphlets.  Turner, 
who  had  a  warm  regard  for  both  the  Ruskins, 
had  appointed  the  son  one  of  his  executors. 
Foreseeing  the  litigation  that  ensued,  Ruskin 
declined  to  act.  But  when  at  last  the  estate 
came  out  of  chancery,  Ruskin  undertook  the 
arrangement  of  the  works  which  passed  to 
the  nation,  and  in  this  connection  compiled 
several  catalogues.  The  labour  of  sorting 
the  nineteen  thousand  sketches  was  enor- 
mous. The  arrangement  of  the  Turner 
drawings  which  still  obtains  at  the  National 
Gallery  is  Ruskin's,  but  he  protested,  fre- 
quently and  ineffectually,  against  the  place 
allotted  to  them. 

These  were  not  the  only  by-works  which 
interrupted  the  completion  of  '  Modern 
Painters.'  Ruskin  saw  Venice  crumbling 
away  before  his  eyes  and  her  pictures  un- 
cared  for.  He  set  himself,  before  it  was  too 
late,  to  trace  the  lines  of  her  fading  beauty, 
and  '  to  record,  as  far  as  I  may,  the  warning 
which  seems  to  me  to  be  uttered  by  every 
one  of  the  fast-gaining  waves  that  beat,  like 
passing  bells,  against  the"  Stones  of  Venice." ' 
With  regard  to  this  book,  published  1851-3, 
Ruskin  often  complained  that  no  one  ever 
believed  a  word  of  his  moral  lessons  deduced 
from  the  history  of  Venice  as  recorded  in  her 
monuments.  But  there  has  never  been  more 
than  one  opinion  about  the  noble  eloquence 
and  haunting  beauty  of  the  descriptive  pas- 
sages, or  about  the  permanent  value  of  his 
work  among  the  earlier  masters  of  Venetian 
painting  and  sculpture  and  the  earlier  school 
of  Venetian  architecture.  Ruskin's  eminence 
as  a  writer  on  architectural  subjects  received 
some  official  recognition  in  1874,  when  a  pro- 
posal was  made  to  confer  the  gold  medal  of 
the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects 
upon  him.  He  was  travelling  in  Italy  at 
the  time,  and  was  indignant  at  various  re- 
storations then  in  progress.  He  declined 
the  honour,  on  the  ground  that  architects 
were  among  the  worst  offenders  (Ruskin 
Union  Journal,  March  1900).  '  Stones  of 
Venice,'  which  was  fully  illustrated  by  the 
author,  and  supplemented  by  a  series  of 
'  Examples  of  Venetian  Architecture,' drawn 
on  a  larger  scale,  cost  him  an  infinity  of 
labour,  of  which  he  has  left  several  records 
in  his  letters.  '  I  went  through  so  much 
hard,  dry,  mechanical  toil  at  Venice,'  he 
writes  to  Norton,  '  that  I  quite  lost,  before 
I  left  it,  the  charm  of  the  place.  Analysis 
is  an  abominable  business.  I  am  quite  sure 
that  people  who  work  out  subjects  thoroughly 
are  disagreeable  wretches.  One  only  feels  as 


one  should  when  one  doesn't  know  much 
about  the  matter.'  The  '  Stones  of  Venice  ' 
and  volume  ii.  of  '  Modern  Painters '  gave 
an  impetus  to  many  art  movements  of  the 
day.  Such  were  the  Arundel  Society,  which, 
largely  under  the  direction  of  his  friend  Mr. 
Edmund  Oldfield,  did  much  to  preserve 
records  of  the  wall  paintings  of  Italy  ;  and 
the  Society  for  the  Preservation  of  Ancient 
Buildings,  which  may  be  said  to  have  taken 
as  its  motto  Ruskin's  words,  '  Do  not  let  us 
talk  of  restoration  ;  the  theory  is  a  lie  from 
beginning  to  end.'  The  enlargement  of  the 
National  Gallery,  by  its  now  rich  collection 
of  early  religious  paintings,  is  also  in  no 
small  measure  owing  to  the  persistence  of 
Ruskin's  advocacy  and  the  influence  of  his 
works. 

From  another  point  of  view  the  gist  of 
'  Stones  of  Venice  '  was  the  chapter  (vi.  in 
vol.  ii.)  '  On  the  Nature  of  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture :  and  herein  of  the  true  functions  of 
the  workman  in  art.'  This  chapter,  in  which 
Ruskin  takes  as  the  touchstone  of  architec- 
tural styles  their  compatibility  with  the  happy 
life  of  the  workman,  struck  an  answering 
chord  in  William  Morris  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  A 
reprint  of  the  chapter  was  one  of  the  earlier 
productions  of  the  Kelmscott  press  (1892). 
'  In  future  days.'  said  Morris  in  a  preface 
thereto,  '  it  will  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
very  few  necessary  and  inevitable  utterances 
of  the  century.  To  some  of  us,  when  we  first 
read  it,  it  seemed  to  point  out  a  new  road  on 
which  the  world  should  travel.'  It  was  in 
this  spirit  that  the  chapter  had  been  reprinted 
in  1854  at  the  instance  of  Dr.  F.  J.  Furnivall 
(see  his  preface  to  '  Two  Letters '  from  Rus- 
kin to  F.  D.  Maurice  privately  printed  1890) 
for  distribution  at  the  opening  meeting  of 
the  Working  Men's  College  in  Great  Ormond 
Street.  '  Many  of  our  men  afterwards  told 
me,' says  Dr.  Furnivall, '  how  toucht  they  had 
been  by  Ruskin's  eloquent  appreciation  of 
their  class.'  Ruskin's  acquaintance  with 
Maurice  had  sprung  from  correspondence  on 
a  pamphlet  on  the  reunion  of  Protestant 
Christians  which  Ruskin  had  put  out  in  1851 
under  the  title '  Notes  on  the  Construction  of 
Sheepfolds  '—a  title  which  drew  down  upon 
the  author  an  indignant  remonstrance  from 
a  Scottish  farmer  who  considered  that  his 
shilling  had  been  obtained  on  false  pretences. 
Ruskin,  though  not  sympathising  with  Mau- 
rice's theology,  warmly  approved  his  social 
labours,  and  took  charge  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  drawing  classes  at  the  college. 
He  impressed  D.  G.  Rossetti  also  into  this  ser- 
vice, and  himself  attended  regularly  until 
May  1858,  after  which  time  he  gave  only 
occasional  lectures  or  informal  talks.  Rus- 


Ruskin 


3*4 


kin  was  the  first  to  provide  casts  from 
natural  leaves  and  fruit  in  place  of  the 
ordinary  conventional  ornament.  Among 
his  pupils  were  Mr.  George  Allen  (engraver, 
and  afterwards  lluskin's  publisher),  Arthur 
Burgess  (draughtsman  and  woodcutter), 
John  Bunney  (a  skilful  painter  of  architec- 
tural detail),  and  Mr.  William  Ward  (a 
facsimile  copyist  of  Turner).  Arising  out  of 
lluskin's  work  at  the  college  were  his  books 
on  'The  Elements  of  Drawing,'  1856,  and 
'  The  Elements  of  Perspective,'  1859. 

Meanwhile  Ruskin  was  engaged  in  many 
other  subsidiary  studies  for  the  completion 
of  'Modern  Painters.'     In  his  continental 
tour  of  1854  he  was  sketching  in  Switzer- 
land.    In  1855  he  made  studies  of  shipping 
at  Deal,  one  outcome  of  which  was  his  let- 
terpress to  Turner's  '  Harbours  of  England,' 
1856,  with  its  famous  description  of  a  boat. 
In  1856  he  was  again  in  Switzerland,  mak- 
ing studies  at  Chamouni  and  Fribourg  for 
'  Modern  Painters.'      In  1858  he  went  to 
Switzerland  and  Italy,  and  spent  some  time 
in  studying  Paul  Veronese  at  Turin.     '  One 
day  in  the  gallery,'  says  Mr.  Augustus  Hare, 
who  happened  to  be  there  at  the  same  time, 
'  I  asked  Ruskin  to  give  me  some  advice. 
He  said,  "  Watch  me."     He  then  looked  at 
the  flounce  in  the  dress  of  a  maid  of  honour 
of  the  queen  of  Sheba  for  five  minutes,  and 
then  painted  one   thread;    he   looked    for 
another  five  minutes,  and  then  he  painted 
another  thread.     At  the  rate  at  which  he 
was  working  he  might  hope  to  paint  the 
whole  dress  m  ten  years ;  but  it  was  a  lesson 
as  to  examining  well  what  one  drew  before 
drawing  it.'      Ruskin's  diaries  and  letters 
show  that  he  took  the  same  minute  labour 
in  recording  natural  facts  and  impressions  of 
places  and  pictures.      Some  illustration  of 
his  geological  studies  in  Switzerland  is  given 
in  the  '  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh,'  1858.    Nearly  all  serious  reading 
was  done,  he  says,  abroad ;  the  heaviest  box 
in  the  boot  being  always  full  of  dictionaries. 
The   subsequent  task   of   composition  was 
done  at  home  '  as  quietly  and  methodically 
as  a  piece  of  tapestry.     1  knew  exactly  what 
I  had  got  to  say,  put  the  words  firmly  in 
their  places  like  so  many  stitches,  hemmed 
the    edges   of    chapters   round  with  what 
seemed  to  me  the  graceful  flourishes,  touched 
them  finally  with  my  cunningest  points  of 
colour,   and    read  the  work  to   papa    and 
mamma  at  breakfast  next  morning,  as  a  girl 
shows  her  sampler.'   Ruskin  revised  carefully 
all  he  wrote ;  a  study  of  his  manuscripts 
shows  that  alterations  were  introduced  for 
accuracy  rather  than  for  display.     The  third 
volume  of  '  Modern  Painters '  was  written 


Ruskin 

at  Denmark  Hill  in  1855  and  published  in 
;he  following  January  ;  the  fourth  followed 
'n  April,  the  fifth  not  till  June  1860.  The 
multifariousness  of  the  work  which  delayed 
the  completion  of  the  book  has  been  shown 
in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  and  was  amus- 
ingly set  forth  in  a  letter  to  Mrs.  Carlyle  of 
October  1855 :  '  I  have  written  since  May 
good  six  hundred  pages.  Also  I  have  pre- 
pared about  thirty  drawings  for  engravers 
this  year,  retouched  the  engravings  (gene- 
rally the  worst  part  of  the  business),  and 
etched  some  on  steel  myself.  In  the  course 
of  the  six  hundred  pages  I  have  had  to  make 
various  remarks  on  German  metaphysics,  on 
poetry,  political  economy,  cookery,  music, 
geology,  dress,  agriculture,  horticulture,  and 
navigation,  all  of  which  subjects  I  have  had 
to  read  up  accordingly,  and  this  takes  time. 
.  .  .  During  my  above-mentioned  studies  of 
horticulture  I  became  dissatisfied  with  the 
Linnean,  Jussieuan,  and  everybody-elseian 
arrangement  of  plants,  and  have  accordingly 
arranged  a  system  of  my  own.  .  .  My  studies 
of  political  economy  have  induced  me  to 
think  also  that  nobody  knows  anything 
about  that ;  and  I  am  at  present  engaged  in 
an  investigation,  on  independent  principles, 
of  the  nature  of  money,  rent,  and  taxes,  in 
an  abstract  form,  which  sometimes  keeps  me 
awake  all  night.  .  .  I  have  also  several 
pupils,  far  and  near,  in  the  art  of  illumina- 
tion ;  an  American  young  lady  to  direct  in 
the  study  of  landscape  painting,  and  a  York- 
shire young  lady  to  direct  in  the  purchase 
of  Turners,  and  various  little  by-things 
besides.  But  I  am  coming  to  see  you ' 
(printed  by  Prof.  C.  E.  Norton  in  preface  to 
Brantwood  edition  of  Aratra  Pentelici). 

The  last  three  volumes  of  '  Modern  Paint- 
ers,' though  they  complete  with  some 
method  the  plan  of  the  work  originally 
laid  down  by  dealing  further  with  ideas  of 
beauty  and  discussing  ideas  of  relation,  con- 
tain Ruskin's  thoughts  on  innumerable  sub- 
jects. The  sub-title  which  the  author  gave 
to  the  third  volume,  '  Of  Many  Things,'  de- 
scribes the  whole  book.  It  is  '  a  mass  of 
stirring  thoughts  and  melodious  speech 
about  a  thousand  things  divine  and  human, 
beautiful  and  good.'  The  descriptive  passages 
in  the  later  volumes  give  back  to  the  reader's 
eyes  the  hills  and  clouds  and  fields  '  as  from 
a  fresh  consecration '  (address  presented  to 
Ruskin  at  Christmas  1885).  '  I  feel  now,' 
wrote  Charlotte  Bronte,  'as  if  I  had  been 
walking  blindfold ;  the  book  seems  to  give  me 
eyes.'  No  prose  book  ever  opened  so  many 
people's  eyes  to  what  nature  is,  to  her  beauty, 
her  colour,  to  the  stateliness  and  delicacy  of 
mountains  and  trees,  to  the  gracious  aspect 


Ruskin 


3*5 


Ruskin 


of  clouds,  piled  up  in  mountainous  cumuli, 
or  fleecy  and  floating,  or  dishevelled  and 
streaming  like  the  locks  of  the  Graise. 
'  Modern  Painters  '  contains  some  self-con- 
tradictions. It  was  not  a  treatise  written 
at  one  time.  It  embodies  the  development 
of  its  author's  ideas  from  his  seventeenth  to 
his  forty-first  year.  But  '  in  the  main  aim 
and  principle  of  the  book  there  is,'  says  Rus- 
kin, '  no  variation  from  its  first  syllable  to 
its  last.  It  declares  the  perfectness  and 
eternal  beauty  of  the  work  of  God ;  and 
tests  all  work  of  man  by  concurrence  with, 
or  subjection  to  that.'  In  its  immediate 
purpose — the  defence  of  Turner — 'Modern 
Painters '  is  '  the  most  triumphant  vindica- 
tion of  the  kind  ever  published.'  It  has  been 
called  also  '  the  only  book  in  the  language 
which  treats  to  any  purpose  of  what  is  called 
aesthetics '  (Mr.  Leslie  Stephen  in  National 
Review,  April  1900).  In  its  critical  remarks 
upon  painters  its  appreciations  will  survive, 
but  many  of  its  depreciations  were  exagge- 
rated, and  no  longer  stand.  Apart  from  any 
more  particular  thesis  the  book  is  a  sustained 
rhapsody  on  the  beauty  and  wonder  of 
nature,  the  dignity  of  art,  and  the  solemnity 
and  mystery  of  life.  '  I  venerate  Ruskin,' 
said  George  Eliot  after  reading  the  later 
volumes  of '  Modern  Painters,' '  as  one  of  the 
great  teachers  of  the  age.  He  teaches  with 
the  inspiration  of  a  Hebrew  prophet.'  In 
style,  no  less  than  in  matter,  '  Modern 
Painters'  shows  many  differences,  and  re- 
veals the  author's  increasing  mastery  over 
the  resources  of  language.  It  has  been  most 
admired  for  its  descriptive  passages,  and 
these  have  indeed  in  prose  never  been  sur- 
passed. The  only  objection  that  can  be 
urged  against  them  is  Matthew  Arnold's 
that  Ruskin  '  tries  to  make  prose  do  more 
than  it  can  perfectly  do.'  Ruskin  himself 
was  of  that  opinion.  The  great  poets,  he 
said,  did  in  a  line  what  he  did  less  perfectly 
in  a  page.  But  the  book  is  memorable  for 
much  else  than  its  word-paintings.  Tenny- 
son was  once  asked  to  name  the  six  authors 
in  whom  the  stateliest  English  prose  was  to 
be  found.  He  replied,  '  Hooker,  Bacon, 
Milton,  Jeremy  Taylor,  De  Quincey,  Rus- 
kin.' But  there  are  many  notes  in  '  Modern 
Painters.'  Its  author's  style  had  command 
of  pathos,  fancy,  humour,  irony,  as  well  as 
stateliness  and  sonorous  diction.  The  posi- 
tion attained  by  Ruskin  by  this  work  was 
recognised  by  a  distinction  conferred  upon 
him  in  1858,  an  '  honorary  studentship  '  of 
Christ  Church. 

The  last  three  volumes  of  Modern  Painters ' 
excited  additional  interest,  and  in  their  first 
edition  command  additional  value,  from  the 


beautiful  plates,  executed  mostly  from  Rus- 
kin's  own  drawings  by  the  best  engravers  of 
the  day.  Ruskin  never  cared  to  assert  his 
own  artistic  gifts,  and  no  adequate  exhibi- 
tion of  his  drawings  was  held  in  his  lifetime. 
In  1878  he  exhibited  a  few  of  his  own  land- 
scapes along  with  his  Turners  at  the  Fine 
Art  Society,  and  he  was  an  occasional  ex- 
hibitor at  the  Old  Water-colour  Society,  of 
which  he  was  elected  an  honorary  member 
in  1 873.  Some  of  his  drawings  are  in  public 
collections — the  St.  George's  Museum  at 
Sheffield  and  the  Ruskin  Drawing  School  at 
Oxford.  A  loan  exhibition  was  held  at  the 
Fine  Art  Society's  rooms  in  February  1901. 
He  was  an  artist  of  real  though  restricted 
talent.  He  seldom  attempted,  and  never 
successfully  mastered,  the  use  of  oil-colours. 
He  was,  as  he  says  himself,  deficient  in 
power  of  invention  and  design.  (A  painted 
window  at  the  east  end  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott's 
church  at  Camberwell  was  designed  partly 
by  Ruskin,  and  he  designed  a  window  for 
the  Oxford  Museum.)  He  had  no  skill 
in  the  representation  of  the  human  form, 
though  he  could  copy  the  figure  well  (e.g. 
his  copy  of  Carpaccio's  St.  George  at  Shef- 
field). But  his  architectural  drawings  are 
incomparable  in  their  kind,  and  some  of  his 
landscapes  are  as  good  as  Turner's.  The 
amount  of  his  artistic  production  is  astonish- 
ing, when  we  consider  it  as  only  a  by-work 
of  his  life.  It  may  be  said  that  he  was  the 
most  literary  of  artists  and  the  most  artistic  of 
critics.  What  he  claimed  for  himself  was  only 
such  skill  as  to  prove  that  he  knew  what  the 
good  qualities  of  drawing  are.  But  many 
of  his  landscapes  and  architectural  studies 
are  as  poetical  as  the  passages  of  written 
words  which  accompany  them.  Ruskin  is 
probably  the  only  man  who  has  described 
the  same  scenes  with  so  large  a  measure  of 
success  in  prose  and  verse  and  drawing. 
(For  illustrated  articles  on  Ruskin  as  an 
artist,  see  Scribner,  December  1898 ;  Studio, 
March  1900.) 

With  the  completion  of '  Modern  Painters ' 
begins  a  new  period  in  Ruskin's  literary  life. 
He  was  then  forty,  and  had  finished  the 
work  by  which  he  is  popularly  known  as  a 
writer  of  art.  He  now  embarked  on  a  new 
career.  The  title  of  his  Manchester  lectures 
in  1 857,  '  The  Political  Economy  of  Art,' 
was  significant.  Economics  were  henceforth 
to  take  the  place  of  art.  But  it  was  not  so 
much  a  change  as  a  development.  Ruskin's 
aesthetic  criticism  was  coloured  throughout 
by  moral  considerations.  '  Yes,'  said  his 
father,  after  one  of  Ruskin's  lectures  on  art, 
'  he  should  have  been  a  bishop.'  And  Ruskin 
himself  had  proclaimed  the  moral  basis  of 


Ruskin 


316 


Ruskin 


his  artistic  criticism.  '  In  these  books  of 
mine,'  he  wrote  in  '  Modern  Painters,'  '  their 
distinctive  character,  as  essays  on  art,  is 
their  bringing  everything  to  a  root  in  human 
passion  or  human  hope.  They  have  been 
coloured  throughout,  nay,  continually  al- 
tered in  shape,  and  even  warped  and  broken, 
by  digressions  respecting  social  questions, 
which  had  for  me  an  interest  tenfold  greater 
than  the  work  I  had  been  forced  into  under- 
taking. Every  principle  of  painting  which 
I  have  stated  is  traced  to  some  vital  or  spi- 
ritual fact,  and  in  my  works  on  architecture 
the  preference  accorded  finally  to  one  school 
over  another  is  founded  on  a  comparison  of 
their  influences  on  the  life  of  the  workman, 
a  question  by  all  other  writers  on  architec- 
ture wholly  forgotten  or  despised.'  But 
how  was  this  question  to  be  pushed  into  the 
front,  and  brought  into  vital  relation  with 
the  arts  ?  The  thing,  he  felt  with  increasing 
force,  had  to  be  done.  '  It  is  the  vainest  of 
affectations,'  he  wrote, '  to  try  and  put  beauty 
into  shadows,  while  all  real  things  that  cast 
them  are  left  in  deformity  and  pain.'  With 
such  thoughts  surging  in  his  brain  Ruskin 
went  off  to  Switzerland  so  soon  as  '  Modern 
Painters'  was  fairly  out  of  hand,  busied  him- 
self in  '  the  mountain  gloom,'  and  for  the 
next  ten  years  was  silent,  except  for  a  few 
occasional  papers  and  lectures  upon  merely 
artistic  matters.  He  withdrew  also  more 
and  more  from  the  world  and  from  his  old 
home  ties.  His  married  life  had  been  a 
failure,  and  the  days  passed  in  the  happy 
companionship  of  his  father  and  mother  were 
now  drawing  to  an  end.  His  economic 
heresies,  which  had  already  begun  to  appear 
in  his  lectures,  had  somewhat  weakened  the 
bond  of  intellectual  sympathy  between  him 
and  his  father ;  his  emancipation  from 
protestant  orthodoxy,  that  between  him  and 
his  mother.  He  remained  to  the  end  a 
most  dutiful  and  affectionate  son,  but  his 
inclinations  turned  to  solitude.  His  health 
and  spirits  were  alike  broken,  and  sombre 
thoughts  crowded  in  upon  him.  Another 
influence  which  tended  to  divert  Ruskin 
from  art  and  natural  history  was  his  friend- 
ship with  Carlyle.  They  had  become  ac- 
quainted soon  after  the  publication  of  the 
second  volume  of '  Modern  Painters.'  Ruskin 
was  a  frequent  visitor  at  Cheyne  Walk,  and 
Carlyle  would  sometimes  ride  over  to  Den- 
mark Hill  and  spend  the  afternoon  in  the 
gardens.  Ruskin  venerated  Carlyle  as  his 
master,  and  treated  him  with  beautiful  kind- 
ness and  deference.  Carlyle  on  his  side  en- 
couraged his  disciple  with  ungrudging  praise, 
and  heralded  each  approach  of  his  to  the 
battlefield  of  social  and  economic  contro- 


versy with  loud  applause.  '  No  other  man 
in  England,'  wrote  Carlyle  to  Emerson,  '  has 
in  him  the  same  divine  rage  against  falsity.' 
In  1860  Ruskin  was  at  Chamouni  with 
W.  J.  Stillman  (Century,  January  1888). 
The  greater  part  of  the  next  two  years,  in- 
cluding two  winters,  he  spent  in  Savoy  with 
Mr.  George  Allen,  mostly  at  Mornex. 
Wherever  he  happened  to  be,  Ruskin  was 
always  interested  in  the  '  condition  of  the 
people  '  question.  In  Italy  he  had  been  im- 
pressed by  the  necessity  of  preventing  in- 
undation and  promoting  irrigation  (Arrows 
of  the  Chace  and  Verona  and  its  Rivers). 
Among  the  Alps  he  made  several  attempts 
to  buy  land  from  various  communes  with  a 
view  to  instituting  agricultural  experi- 
ments. The  peasant  holders  thought  he  must 
have  discovered  a  secret  gold  mine  and  de- 
clined to  sell.  '  The  loneliness  is  very  very 
great,'  he  wrote  from  Mornex  to  Mr.  Charles 
Eliot  Norton  (whom  he  had  met  at  Geneva 
in  1856,  and  who  became  one  of  his  dearest 
friends),  '  and  the  peace  in  which  I  am  at  pre- 
sent is  only  as  if  I  had  buried  myself  in  a 
tuft  of  grass  on  a  battlefield  wet  with  blood.' 
It  was  in  this  mood  that  Ruskin  devoted 
himself  to  economic  studies.  The  result  of 
his  studies  and  the  body  of  his  economic 
doctrine  were  comprised  in  '  Unto  this  Last ' 
(1860),  being  papers  contributed  to  the 
'Cornhill;'  '  Munera  Pulveris'  (1862),  a 
sequel  to  the  foregoing,  contributed  in  part 
to  '  Fraser ; '  some  letters  on  «  Gold '  (1863) ; 
'  Time  and  Tide'  (1867),  and  various  minor 
letters  and  pamphlets  in  1868.  Faults  which 
had  not  been  absent  from  Raskin's  earlier 
books  on  art  are  conspicuous  in  his  economic 
writings.  Long  ago,  on  the  appearance  of 
the  first  volume  of '  Modern  Painters,'  Samuel 
Prout  had  pointed  out  the  danger  of  ex- 
aggeration and  discourtesy  in  controversy. 
In  his  books  on  economics  Ruskin's  petu- 
lance and  contemptuous  sarcasms  had  not 
always  the  justification  of  better  knowledge. 
He  was  grossly  unjust  to  Mill,  with  whose 
books  he  was  insufficiently  acquainted,  and 
he  raised  needless  animosities  by  not  suffi- 
ciently distinguishing  his  terms.  For  his 
sins  in  this  respect  he  paid  the  full  penalty  at 
the  time.  The  papers  in  the  '  Cornhill '  caused 
so  much  offence  that  Thackeray  stopped 
their  publication — an  event  that  did  not 
interrupt  Ruskin's  friendly  relations  with  the 
editor ;  and  even  Carlyle's  recommendation 
and  the  friendship  of  Froude,  then  the  edi- 
tor of '  Fraser,'  did  not  avail  to  avert  a  like 
fate  in  that  magazine.  Time  brought  its  re- 
venges, and  Ruskin  lived  to  see  '  Unto  this 
Last '  (the  book  which  he  preferred  to  all  the 
rest  both  for  its  substance  and  for  its  style) 


Ruskin 


317 


Ruskin 


attain  a  great  vogue,  and  to  find  many  of  his 
ideas  and  suggestions  pass  into  the  accepted 
political  currency.  In  the  main  his  strength 
as  an  economic  writer  lies  where  also  lies 
his  strength  as  an  aesthetic  writer — namely, 
in  his  penetrating  power  of  vision.  To  break 
down  the  walls  which  in  a  complicated 
social  system  hide  from  men's  eyes  the  actual 
and  ultimate  facts  was  Ruskin's  mission. 
Carlyle  called  Ruskin's  economical  essays 
'  fierce  lightning  bolts,'  and  in  very  truth 
'  his  impeachments  (of  the  existing  order) 
flash  on  the  perceptive  sense  as  lightning  on 
the  eye.'  His  was  one  of  the  principal  forces  '• 
of  the  time  in  quickening  the  sympathies 
and  elevating  the  moral  standards  of  the  com-  j 
munity.  In  the  field  of  economic  theory  I 
the  prominence  given  by  Ruskin  to  some 
fallacies — such  as  his  denial  of  the  produc- 
tivity of  exchange  and  his  condemnation  of 
interest  as  distinguished  from  usury — inter- 
fered for  some  time  with  the  acceptance  of 
him  as  a  serious  authority.  Moreover,  his 
expositions,  though  often  displaying  the 
greatest  logical  dexterity,  were  not  presented 
in  a  continuous  and  systematic  form.  He 
had  a  love  of  paradox  and  wilful  mystifica- 
tion, and  it  requires  some  tact  to  disentangle 
serious  propositions  from  playful  fancies. 
But  gradually  Ruskin's  work  made  itself 
felt — especially  for  its  insistence  upon  the  im- 
portance of  the  biological  factor  in  all 
economic  questions ;  and  his  writings  have 
powerfully  contributed  to  that  recasting  of 
economic  doctrine  which  is  still  in  progress. 
He  insisted  (1)  '  that  political  economy  can 
furnish  sound  laws  of  national  life  and  work 
only  when  it  respects  the  dignity  and  moral 
destiny  of  man ;  (2)  that  the  wise  use  of 
wealth,  in  developing  a  complete  human 
life,  is  of  incomparably  greater  moment  to 
men  and  nations  than  its  production  or  ac- 
cumulation, and  can  alone  give  these  any 
vital  significance ;  (3)  that  honourable  per- 
formance of  duty  is  more  truly  just  than 
rigid  enforcement  of  right ;  and  that  not  in 
competition  but  in  helpfulness,  not  in  self- 
assertion  but  in  reverence,  is  to  be  found  the 
power  of  life  '  (address  presented  to  Ruskin 
in  1885).  Of  the  political  suggestions  con- 
tained in  his  economic  writings  of  this  period, 
some  have  by  this  time  been  carried  out,  and 
all  are  now  within  the  range  of  practical 
discussion.  His  principal  points  were :  a 
system  of  national  education,  the  organisa- 
tion of  labour,  the  establishment  of  govern- 
ment training  schools,  old-age  pensions  (for 
'  soldiers  of  the  ploughshare  as  well  as  of  the 
sword '),  and  the  provision  of  decent  homes 
for  the  working  classes.  It  requires  some 
effort  to  realise  that  this  was  the  programme 


which  forty  years  ago  was  howled  out  of  the 
magazines. 

Ruskin  greatly  extended  his  influence 
during  the  period  1855-70  by  lectures  in 
all  parts  of  the  country.  A  complete  list  is 
given  in  Wise  and  Smart's  '  Bibliography.' 
Exclusive  of  lectures  at  Oxford,  they  number 
fifty.  He  lectured  at  Eton  and  Woolwich ; 
at  the  Royal  Institution  and  before  various 
learned  societies ;  at  working  men's  clubs 
and  institutes ;  in  most  of  the  principal 
towns  of  the  country.  Sometimes  the  lec- 
tures were  announced  to  be  on  art,  some- 
times on  politics,  or  science,  or  history,  or 
economics.  The  titles  mattered  little.  He 
apologised  on  one  occasion  for  calling  his 
lecture  '  Crystallography,'  when  it  turned  out 
to  be  on  '  Cistercian  architecture.'  With 
Ruskin  the  teaching  of  art  was  the  teach- 
ing of  everything.  He  used  the  platform  as 
a  pulpit.  His  eloquence  was  that  of  the 
writer  rather  than  the  orator.  He  once  told 
a  London  audience,  with  a  touch  of  his  pecu- 
liar humour,  that  he  had  intended  to  de- 
liver them  an  extempore  lecture,  but  that 
the  trouble  of  writing  an  extempore  lecture 
and  then  learning  it  by  heart  was  too  much 
for  him,  and  so  he  would  simply  read  what 
he  had  to  say.  He  was  a  magnificent  reader. 
The  quotations  from  Homer  or  from  Chaucer 
or  from  some  other  favourite  author  were 
declaimed  as  no  other  public  man,  except 
Gladstone,  could  have  declaimed  them.  He 
read  his  own  works  with  such  perfect  atten- 
tion to  emphasis  and  rhythm  that  they 
vibrate,  like  a  strain  of  music,  in  the  memo- 
ries of  his  hearers.  His  voice  was  not 
powerful,  but  had  a  peculiar  timbre,  which 
was  at  once  penetrating  and  attractive.  His 
old-fashioned  pronunciation,  with  the  pecu- 
liar roll  of  the  r's,  seemed  to  be  in  perfect 
harmony  with  the  mediaeval  strain  in  his 
thought.  Everywhere  he  had  crowds  hang- 
ing on  his  lips.  Even  the  scientific  men 
whom  he  loved  to  denounce  came  and  said, 
'  Let  him  roar  again.'  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  nearly  all  Ruskin's  later  books 
were  written  for  oral  delivery.  He  had  no 
space  to  convince  by  a  long  train  of  argu- 
ment. His  aim  was  to  impress,  and  often  to 
startle.  In  a  few  emphatic  sentences  he 
sought  to  bring  his  hearers  to  what  he  con- 
sidered the  root  of  the  matter.  The  style  he 
adopted  was  often  too  curt  and  absolute.  But 
it  was  simpler,  less  elaborate,  less  self-con- 
scious than  that  of  his  earlier  works.  '  It  is 
not  a  style  of  purple  patches,  but  its  whole 
substance  is  crimsoned  with  the  passionate 
feeling  that  courses  through  the  eager  and 
animated  words  '  (NORTON).  An  important 
series  of  lectures,  delivered  to  various  audi- 


Ruskin 


318 


Ruskin 


ences  in  1857-8-9,  were  brought  together 
under  the  title  '  The  Two  Paths '  (1859).  The 
title  indicates  a  common  thread  of  doctrine  j 
running  through  discourses  on  many  different 
subjects — namely,  the  responsibility  of  the 
student  for  choice  between  art  which  is  con- 
ventional in  design,  and  pursued  for  the  sake 
of  display,  and  art  which  is  devoted  to  the 
record  of  natural  fact.  At  Christmas  1863 
Ruskin  returned  from  his  mountain  solitudes. 
On  3  March  1864  his  father  died.  Miss 
Joanna  Ruskin  Agnew,  his  second  cousin 
once  removed,  then  came  to  live  with  his 
mother,  but  Ruskin  for  some  time  did  not 
leave  her  side.  In  1866,  1868,  and  1869  he 
made  tours  with  various  friends  on  the  con- 
tinent. In  the  former  year  he  sided  with 
Carlyle  on  the  Jamaica  question,  and  made 
a  speech  at  a  meeting  of  the  Eyre  defence 
committee.  Of  the  lectures  of  this  period, 
the  most  important  were  those  on  the  plea- 
sures of  reading  and  the  sphere  of  women, 
collected  under  the  title  '  Sesame  and  Lilies ' 
(1865),  and  on  the  duty  of  work  and  its 
reward,  collected  as  '  The  Crown  of  Wild 
Olive '  (1866).  To  the  same  period  belongs 
'  The  Ethics  of  the  Dust '  (1866),  a  series 
of  conversational  lessons,  delivered  at  a 
girls'  school  (Winnington  Hall,  Cheshire),  in 
which,  taking  crystals  as  his  text,  Ruskin 
drew  from  them  such  lessons  as  their  various 
characteristics  suggested.  '  A  most  shining 
performance,'  wrote  Carlyle,  when  the  lec- 
tures were  published  ;  '  not  for  a  long  while 
have  I  read  anything  a  tenth  part  so  radiant 
with  talent,  ingenuity,  lambent  fire.'  Rus- 
kin's  next  work  of  importance  was  sug- 
gested by  the  reform  agitation.  In  a  series 
of  '  Letters  to  a  Working  Man  at  Sunder- 
land,'  first  published  in  newspapers  at  Man- 
chester and  Leeds  (March  to  May  1867),  and 
afterwards  collected  into  '  Time  and  Tide ' 
(1867),  Ruskin  embodied  his  thoughts  on  the 
question  of  the  day.  The  letters  are  discur- 
sive and  fanciful,  but  their  main  drift  was 
to  show  that  true  '  reform '  must  be  indi- 
vidual rather  than  by  class,  and  moral  rather 
than  political.  In  this  same  year  (1867) 
the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred 
upon  Ruskin  at  Cambridge,  and  he  delivered 
the  Rede  lecture  (not  yet  published).  His 
subject  was  '  The  Relation  of  National 
Ethics  to  National  Art.'  In  1879  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford  proposed  to  confer  the 
honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.,  but  the  proposal 
was  postponed  owing  to  his  illness.  The 
degree  was  conferred  in  his  absence  in  1893. 
In  1871  he  had  been  elected  lord  rector  of 
St.  Andrews  University,  but,  as  a  professor 
in  an  English  university,  he  was  found  to 
be  ineligible. 


In  connection  with  Raskin's  role  as  a 
preacher,  some  facts  may  be  stated  about  his 
practice.  Of  the  riches  described  by  him  in 
those  books,  '  The  Treasures  of  true  Kings,' 
he  was  himself  a  persistent  accumulator 
and  distributor.  During  his  father's  life- 
time the  son  was  allowed  to  act  as  his 
almoner — in  generous  and  judicious  help  to 
artists,  and  in  all  sorts  of  gentle  and  secret 
charity.  On  his  father's  death  Ruskin  in- 
herited a  fortune  of  157,000/.,  in  addition 
to  a  considerable  property  in  houses  and 
land.  The  whole  of  this  was  dispersed  dur- 
ing his  lifetime,  and  he  lived  during  his  last 
years  on  the  proceeds  of  his  books.  In 
1885,  by  deed  of  gift,  he  made  over  his 
house  and  its  contents  to  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Arthur  Severn,  to  whom  also  by  will  he 
left  the  residue  of  his  property,  'praying 
them  never  to  sell  the  estate  of  Brantwood, 
nor  to  let  any  portion  of  it  upon  building 
lease,  and  to  accord  during  thirty  consecu- 
tive days  in  each  year  such  permission  to 
strangers  to  see  the  house  and  pictures  as 
I  have  done  in  my  lifetime.'  (As  literary 
executors  Ruskin  appointed  Mr.  C.  E.  Nor- 
ton and  Mr.  A.  Wedderburn,  Q.C.)  De- 
tails of  much  of  Ruskin's  expenditure  are  to 
be  found  in  curious  pieces  of  self-revelation 
embodied  in  the  appendices  to  '  Fors  Cla- 
vigera.'  His  pensioners  were  numbered  by 
hundreds ;  his  charities,  if  sometimes  indis- 
criminate, were  as  delicate  as  they  were 
generous.  He  educated  promising  artists, 
and  gave  commissions  for  semi-public  enter- 
prises. He  presented  valuable  collections 
of  Turners  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  To 
the  Natural  History  Museum  he  presented 
several  mineralogical  specimens,  including 
the  large  '  Colenso  diamond'  ('  in  honour  of 
his  friend  the  loyal  and  patiently  adaman- 
tine first  bishop  of  Natal')  and  the  '  Ed- 
wardes  Ruby'  ('in  honour  of  the  invincible 
soldiership  and  loving  equity  of  Sir  Herbert 
Edwardes's  rule  by  the  shores  of  Indus'). 
To  many  schools  and  colleges  he  presented 
cabinets  of  minerals  or  drawings.  In  some 
forms  of  philanthropy  he  was  a  pioneer.  He 
established  a  model  tea  shop.  He  organised, 
for  the  relief  of  the  unemployed,  gangs  of 
street  cleaners.  He  was  the  first  to  give 
Miss  Octavia  Hill  the  means  of  managing 
house  property  on  the  principle  of  helping 
the  tenants  to  help  themselves.  He  sharec 
as  well  as  gave.  He  thought  no  trouble  too 
great  to  encourage  a  pupil  or  befriend  the 
fallen. 

With  the  last  decade  of  Ruskin's  active 
life  (]  870-80)  his  career  entered  on  a  new 
phase.  The  writer  on  economics  now  es- 
sayed to  become  practical  reformer.  In  part 


Ruskin 


319 


Ruskin 


the  attempt  was  the  payment  of  '  ransom.' 
The  quiet  and  comfort  of  the  house  and 
grounds  at  Denmark   Hill  became  intole- 
rable to  him  from  the  thought  of  the  misery 
of  London.     In  1871  his  mother  died,  and 
the   house  was    given    up.      Miss  Agnew 
married  Mr.  Arthur  Severn,  and  they  lived 
in  the  old   Ruskin  home  on  Herne  Hill. 
Ruskin  bought  from  William  James  Linton 
[q.  v.  Suppl.]   a  house   on  Coniston   lake, 
overlooking   the    Old  Man,   called  Brant- 
wood.     This  was  his  home  for  the  remain- 
der of  his  life.     For  some  years,  however, 
he  paid  frequent  visits   to  London,  where 
he  still  mixed  in   congenial  society.      He 
was  also   a   member  of  the   Metaphysical 
Society.    The  enlargement  of  the  house  and 
grounds  at  Brantwood  became  one  of  his 
principal  pleasures,  but  he  could  not  enter 
into  his  peace  without  making  some  effort  to 
cure  what  seemed  to  him  the  anarchy  out- 
side.    He  established  first  an  organ  for  his 
propaganda.     This  was  '  Fors  Clavigera,'  a 
monthly  letter '  to  the  workmen  and  labourers 
of  Great  Britain.'     It  is  one  of  the  curio- 
sities of  literature.     Its  discursiveness,  its 
garrulity,  its  petulance  are  amazing.      On  j 
reading  it  one  is  not  inclined  to  dispute 
what  Ruskin  somewhere  says  of  himself, 
that  he  was  '  an  impetuous  and  weakly  com- 
municative person.'     Some   of  the   eccen- 
tricity of  his  monthly  miscellany  was  due 
to  the  gradual  approach  of  a  morbid  irrita- 
bility of  the  brain.     But  '  Fors '  is  full  of  , 
passionate  intensity;  it  abounds  in  forcible  j 
writing,  and  the  ingenuity  with  which  in- 
numerable threads  are  knit  together  to  en- 
force the   author's   economic  principles  is 
remarkable.     For  his  new   organ   Ruskin 
provided  himself  with  a  new  publisher.   He 
set  up  his  old  pupil,  Mr.  George  Allen,  in 
the  trade,  and  established  a  system  of  net 
prices.     At  first  no  discount  was  allowed 
to  the  booksellers ;  they  were  expected  to 
add  their  own  percentage  to  the  published 
price.     After  a  few  years  this  heroic  policy 
was  abolished.     The  sale  of  Ruskin's  books 
rapidly  grew,  and  for  many  years  before  his 
death  yielded  him  on  the  average  4,000/.  a 
year.     In  America  the  sale  of  his  books  in 
cheap  pirated  editions  had  for  many  years 
been    very  extensive.      Ruskin's    monthly 
organ  was  used  to  preach  a  crusade  and  to 
found  a  society.    '  I  will  stand  it  no  longer,' 
he  cried  in  the  opening  number  of  'Fors' 
(January  1871),  and   threw  himself   with 
characteristic  enthusiasm  and  self-sacrifice 
into  an  attempt  to  found  a  Utopia  in  Eng- 
land.    There  was  to  be  a  guild  of  com- 
panions enrolled  under  the  banner  of  St. 
George  to  make  '  a  merrie  England.'  Tithes 


were  to  be  given,  and  Ruskin  himself  paid 
7,000/. — a  tithe  of  his  then  remaining  pos- 
sessions— into  a  trust  for  the  purposes  of  the 
guild.  Sir  Thomas  Dyke  Acland  and  Francis 
Cowper-Temple  (afterwards  Lord  Mount- 
Temple)  were  the  original  trustees.  In  May 
1871  the  scheme  was  made  public.  In 
'  Fors '  for  that  month  Ruskin  called  on  any 
landlords  to  come  and  help  him  '  who  would 
like  better  to  be  served  by  men  than  by  iron 
devils,'  and  any  tenants  and  any  workmen 
'  who  could  vow  to  work  and  live  faithfully 
for  the  sake  of  the  joy  of  their  homes.' 
'  That  food  can  only  be  got  out  of  the  ground 
and  happiness  out  of  honesty'  were  the  first 
two  principles  which  the  guild  of  St.  George 
was  to  demonstrate;  the  third  was  that 
'  the  highest  wisdom  and  the  highest  treasure 
need  not  be  costly  or  exclusive'  (Prince 
Leopold's  speech  on  Ruskin).  The  esta- 
blishment of  these  principles  led  to  three 
corresponding  experiments,  of  (1)  an  agri- 
cultural, (2)  an  industrial,  and  (3)  an  ar- 
tistic character  respectively.  The  agri- 
cultural experiments  were  not  a  brilliant 
success.  Ruskin  drew  many  charming  pic- 
tures of  his  ideal  settlements,  but  the  realities 
did  not  correspond  to  them.  Sometimes 
the  land,  sometimes  the  settlers,  and  some- 
times both  proved  intractable.  Ruskin 
reaped  from  St.  George's  Farms  a  plentiful 
crop  of  disappointments  and  grumbles.  An 
exception  may  be  made  in  favour .  of  St. 
George's  land  at  Barmouth,  of  which  an 
attractive  account  by  Blanche  Atkinson  has 
been  published  (1900). 

Among  industrial  experiments  which  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  owe  their  origin  to  Ruskin 
were  the  revival  of  the  hand-made  linen 
industry  in  Langdale,  which  under  Mr. 
Albert  Fleming — '  master  of  the  rural  in- 
dustries of  Loughrigg' — gives  employment 
to  many  of  the  peasants.  Of  a  like  nature 
was  a  cloth  industry  at  Laxey,  in  the  Isle 
of  Man,  established  for  Ruskin  by  Mr.  Eg- 
bert Rydings ;  there  are  also  one  or  two 
co-operative  undertakings  of  a  successful 
character  which  owe  their  inception  to  Rus- 
kin's teaching  (see  COOK'S  'Studies  in 
Ruskin'  and  '  Ruskin  and  Modern  Business' 
in  the  Spectator,  17  Feb.  1900). 

The  artistic  branch  of '  St.  George's'  work 
took  shape  in  a  museum  at  Sheffield.  Ori- 
ginally established  in  1875  in  a  cottage  at 
Walkley  with  Henry  Swan,  a  former  pupil 
of  Ruskin  at  the  Working  Men's  College,  as 
curator,  the  management  of  the  museum 
was  in  1890  taken  over  by  the  Sheffield 
corporation,  and  removed  to  an  old  hall  in 
Meersbrook  Park.  Ruskin  had  for  some 
years  employed  artists  to  sketch  mediaeval 


Ruskin 


320 


Ruskin 


buildings  in  France  and  Italy,  and  copy 
pictures.  An  exhibition  of  these  drawings 
was  held  at  the  Fine  Art  Society  in  May 
1380.  Most  of  them  are  now  at  Sheffield. 
Ruskin  also  sent  to  the  museum,  largely  at 
his  own  cost,  a  collection  of  minerals  and 
precious  stones,  architectural  casts,  draw- 
ings by  himself  and  others,  and  a  few  manu- 
scripts. The  collection,  admirably  cata- 
logued and  arranged  by  its  second  curator, 
Mr.  William  White,  attracts  many  visitors ; 
it  contains  a  series  of  examples  illustrating 
Ruskin's  point  of  view  in  many  arts,  and 
his  ideas  of  the  true  function  of  local 
museums.  St.  George's  schools  were  to  be 
another  institution  in  what  Ruskin  some- 
times called  his  '  island  of  Barataria.'  For 
he  was  not  always  quite  so  serious  as  his 
disciples  supposed.  It  is  not  reported  that 
he  received  with  unmixed  gratitude  the 
homage  of  a  disciple  who  spent  most  of  his 
time  in  traversing  the  country  with  his  own 
letters  for  delivery  by  foot,  in  order  to  dis- 
countenance the  accursed  railway  system. 
Ruskin  did  not  establish  the  schools  which 
he  sketched  out  very  attractively  in  '  Fors.' 
But  he  wrote  a  prosody  for  use  in  them,  and 
edited  a  '  Shepherd's  Library.'  Of  more  im- 
mediate applicability  were  the  May  Queen 
and  Rose  Queen  festivals,  which  he  esta- 
blished in  some  existing  schools  with  cha- 
racteristic generosity  and  ingenuity  in  grace- 
ful ordinance.  He  took  much  trouble  in 
corresponding  with  the  queens  of  his  crown- 
ing (Saint  George,  October  1900).  Ruskin 
was  also  the  inspirer  and  the  first  president 
of '  The  Art  for  Schools  Association,'  a  body 
which  has  done  extensive  work  in  circu- 
lating high-class  pictures  among  the  ele- 
mentary schools. 

Ruskin's  practical  contributions  towards 
establishing  Utopia  were  suggestive  in  many 
directions  rather  than  conclusive  in  any. 
In  judging  them,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  years  in  which  he  entered  upon 
the  role  of  social  reformer  were  also  those 
in  which  he  was  working  himself  almost  to 
death  at  Oxford.  In  1870  a  professorship  of 
fine  arts  (endowed  by  Felix  Slade  [q.  v.] )  was 
for  the  first  time  established  at  Oxford,  and 
Ruskin  accepted  a  call  to  create  the  part  of 
art  professor.  The  work  which  he  put  into 
it  was  enormous.  In  the  first  place  he 
delivered  a  long  series  of  lectures:  eleven 
courses  (1870-7),  two  courses  (1883-4). 
Eight  of  his  later  works  (enumerated  in  the 
bibliography  below),  several  of  them  in- 
cluding illustrations  specially  prepared,  were 
written  as  Oxford  lectures.  On  these  he 
took  greater  pains,  he  said,  than  on  any  of 
his  other  books,  and  in  them  he  revised  and 


recast  in  the  light  of  maturer  knowledge 
the  whole  body  of  his  art-teaching.  The 
inaugural  course  is  the  final  and  most 
compact  of  all  his  statements  on  the  funda- 
mental canons  of  art.  He  was  at  the  same 
time  engaged  in  preparing  handbooks  (never 
completed)  on  geology  ("Deucalion')  and 
botany  ('Proserpina').  Ruskin  was  not  in 
sympathy  or  touch  with  the  scientific  move- 
ment of  his  time.  But  he  had  an  extra- 
ordinary gift  for  observation.  He  used  to 
say  that  he  might,  if  he  had  chosen,  have 
become  the  first  geologist  in  Europe.  His 
interest  in  geology  and  mineralogy  was 
constant,  and  he  anticipated  in  1863  some 
of  the  modifications  since  made  in  the 
glacier  theories  of  the  day.  For  an  instance 
of  Ruskin's  acute  observation,  mingled  with 
fancy  and  poetry,  the  reader  may  refer  to 
his  description  of  the  swallow  in  '  Love's 
Meinie.' 

Ruskin  conceived  it  to  be  a  further  part  of 
his  professorial  duty  '  to  give  what  assis- 
tance I  may  to  travellers  in  Italy.'  The 
result  was  a  series  of  guide-books  to  Venice, 
Florence,  and  Amiens  (see  bibliography  be- 
low, 35,  39,  40,  and  46).  For  the  purpose 
of  these  books,  as  also  of  fresh  illustrations 
for  his  lectures,  Ruskin  made  several  con- 
tinental journeys,  devoting  special  study  to 
the  works  of  Botticelli  and  Carpaccio. 
Ruskin  also  founded  a  drawing  school  at 
Oxford,  to  which  he  presented  many  valuable 
works  of  art.  He  endowed  a  drawing  mas- 
ter, giving  5,000/.  to  the  university  for  this 
purpose,  and  devoted  long  days  to  arranging 
series  of  examples  (including  many  sketches 
of  his  own  made  for  this  purpose)  and  cata- 
loguing them.  Ruskin  taught  in  the  school, 
but  very  few  undergraduates  attended. 
His  lectures,  on theother  hand,  were  crowded. 
For  his  first  lecture  (8  Feb.  1870),  an- 
nounced for  the  museum,  the  crowd  was  so 
great  that  an  adjournment  had  to  be  made 
to  the  Sheldonian  theatre.  '  I  have  heard 
him  lecture  several  times,'  says  Mr.  Mai- 
lock,  '  and  that  singular  voice  of  his,  which 
would  often  hold  all  the  theatre  breathless, 
haunts  me  still  sometimes.  There  was 
something  strange  and  aerial  in  its  exquisite 
modulations  that  seemed  as  if  it  came  from 
a  disconsolate  spirit  hovering  over  the 
waters  of  Babylon  and  remembering  Sion.' 
(For  impressions  of  Ruskin's  Oxford  lectures 
see  COOK'S  Studies  in  Ruskin  and  Century 
Mag.  February  1898.) 

Ruskin  also  devoted  much  time  to  culti- 
vating the  friendship  of  individual  members 
of  the  university.  In  April  1871  he  was 
admitted  an  honorary  fellow  of  Corpus.  His 
rooms — on  the  first  floor  right  of  No.  2  stair- 


Ruskin 


321 


Ruskin 


case  in  the  fellows'  buildings — in  which  he 
placed  many  of  his  choicest  pictures,  draw- 
ings,  minerals,  and  manuscripts,  were  '  an 
artistic  Mecca,'  and  '  an  intellectual  centre 
of  the  highest  kind '  (see  '  Ruskin  at  Corpus' 
in  the  Pelican  Record,  June  and  December 
1894).     Among  Ruskin's  disciples  at  Oxford 
was  Mr.  Mallock,  who  has  given  a  good  pic- 
ture of  him  under  the  figure  of  Mr.  Herbert 
— the   only  character  sketch  in  '  The  New 
Republic '  which  is  not  a  caricature.    Prince 
Leopold  was  a  constant  attendant  at  Rus- 
kin's lectures,  and  Ruskin  stayed  with  him 
at  Windsor  Castle  in  January  1878.     The 
prince  was  one  of  the  trustees  for  the  Ruskin 
drawing  school,  and  in  his  first  public  address 
(on  '  University  Extension,'  at  the  Mansion 
House,  19  Feb.  1879)  paid  a  high  tribute  to 
'the  privilege  of  Professor  Ruskin's  teaching 
and  friendship.'     One  of  the  methods  which 
Ruskin   adopted   for  gathering   a  circle  of 
ardent  young  men  around  him  was  the  sub- 
ject of  much  sarcastic  comment.     This  was 
the  road-digging   experiment   at    Hinksey. 
A  cynical  don  was  fond  of  describing  the  I 
strange   adventures  which   befell  him  and 
his  horse  when  they  unwittingly  attempted 
to  ride  along  the  Ruskin  road.     No  one  was 
more  alive  to  the  humorous  side  of  the  affair 
than  Ruskin  himself.      The  road,  he  used 
laughingly  to  admit,  was  about  the  worst, 
in  the  three  kingdoms,  and  for  any  level 
places  in  it  he  gave  the  credit  to  his  gar- 
dener,  whom  he   incontinently  summoned 
from   Brantwood.      But  this  experimental 
application  of  '  the   gospel   of  labour '  at- 
tracted a  good  deal  of  attention.     In  later 
years  Ruskin  used  to  talk  of  Tolstoi  as  his 
successor,  and  Tolstoi  on  his  side  spoke  of 
Ruskin  as  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  the 
age  (Cornhill,  June  1892).  Among  the  road- 
diggers  was  Arnold  Toynbee   [q.  v.],   and 
upon  him  '  intercourse  with  Ruskin  had  a 
stimulating   effect   more  durable  than  the 
actual  improvement  of  the  road  near  Hink- 
sey'  (F.   C.  MONTAGUE,   Arnold   Toynbee}.  \ 
'  I   tell  you,'  said  Ruskin  at  the   close  of  ( 
one  of  his   Oxford  lectures,  'that  neither 
sound  art,  policy,  nor  religion,  can  exist  in 
England  until,  neglecting,  if  it  must  be, 
your  own  pleasure   gardens  and  pleasure 
chambers,  you  resolve  that  the  streets  which 
are  the  habitation  of  the  poor,  and  the  fields 
which  are  the  playgrounds  of  their  children, 
shall  be  restored  to  the  rule  of  the  spirits, 
whosoever  they  are,  in  earth  and  heaven, 
that  ordain  and  reward,  with  constant  and 
conscious  felicity,   all   that   is  decent  and 
orderly,  beautiful  and   pure.'     It  was   the 
conviction  of   this  truth  that   led  shortly 
afterwards  to  Toynbee's  work  in  the  East- 
VOL.  in. — sup. 


end,  and  to  the  various  university  '  settle- 
ments '  which  grew  out  of  it.  Ruskin's  in- 
fluence has  been  considerably  spread  by 
Ruskin  societies,  unions,  and  guilds  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  In  Oxford  a 
hall  for  working  men  is  called  by  his  name, 
and  in  Tennessee  a  Utopian  settlement. 

Under  the  double  strain  of  his  work  at 
Oxford  and  of  that  of  St.  George's  guild 
Ruskin's  health  broke  down.  During  all 
this  period  he  was  also  largely  engaged  in 
writing  letters  to  the  press  on  polemical 
subjects  and  in  a  polemical  temper.  He  was 
like  the  living  conscience  of  the  modern 
world,  and  felt  acutely  the  wrongs  and 
wrongdoings  of  others.  In  no  age  could 
his  sensitive  heart  have  escaped  these  sor- 
rows. '  Le  pauvre  enfant,  il  ne  sait  pas 
vivre '  was  the  verdict  of  his  Swiss  guide 
upon  him.  In  an  earlier  age  he  might  have 
become  a  saint.  In  his  own  age  he  spent 
himself,  his  time,  and  his  wealth  in  trying 
to  illuminate  and  ennoble  the  lives  of  others. 
He  was  well  aware  that  the  dispersal  of  his 
energies  in  so  many  directions  militated 
against  full  success  in  any.  Yet  he  craved 
in  moments  of  weariness  for  immediate  and 
tangible  results.  He  was  disappointed  that 
more  of  his  friends  did  not  come  forward 
and  enrol  themselves  under  St.  George's 
banner.  '  It  is  not  my  work  that  drives  me 
mad,'  he  once  said,  '  but  the  sense  that  no- 
thing comes  of  it.'  The  strain  upon  his 
nervous  system  was  increased  by  a  private 
sorrow.  He  was  deeply  attached  to  a  young 
Irish  lady,  Miss  Rose  La  Touche  (the 
'  Rosie '  of  '  Prseterita,'  vol.  iii.)  She  had 
been  introduced  to  him  as  a  young  girl  in 
1858;  he  had  taught  her  drawing  and  hoped 
in  after  years  to  make  her  his  wife.  In  1872 
she  decided  that  it  was  impossible.  Re- 
ligious differences  were  among  the  obstacles. 
She  was  a  strict  evangelical.  A  little  work 
of  prose  and  verse  published  by  her  in  1870 
is  expressive  of  a  deeply  religious  but  some- 
what morbid  temperament.  She  fell  into 
ill-heath  and  died  in  1875.  In  Ruskin's 
writing  three  phases  in  religious  feeling  may 
be  distinguished.  He  was  brought  up  in 
the  strictest  sect  of  evangelicalism.  In 
middle  life  he  outgrew  this  early  faith,  and 
though  he  never  lost  his  conviction  of  a  per- 
sonal God  his  views  were  widely  tolerant. 
In  the  writings  of  his  middle  period  he 
seldom  made  any  appeal  to  Christian  sanc- 
tions. The  virtue  which  he  taught  was  that 
of  the  Greeks,  '  whose  notion  of  heroism  was 
giving  one's  life  for  a  kiss  and  not  getting  it.' 
From  1875  onwards  he  resumed  in  his  writ- 
ings, under  the  stress  of  heightened  feeling, 
a  more  definitely  Christian  standpoint.  Of 


Ruskin 


322 


Ruskin 


him,  as  of  other  eminent  men,  it  was  ru- 
moured that  he  was  inclined  to  Roman 
Catholicism.  He  enjoyed  lunching,  it  was 
true,  with  '  my  darling  cardinal '  (Manning), 
hut  he  found  the  '  puff  pastry  like  papal 
pretensions — you  had  but  to  breathe  on  it 
and  it  was  nowhere.'  The  death  of '  Rosie ' 
was  the  greatest  grief  of  Ruskin's  life.  He 
suffered  much  from  sleeplessness  and  had 
unnaturally  vivid  dreams.  He  came  in 
contact  with  spiritualism,  and  mediums 
showed  him  the  spirit  of  his  dead  lady. 
Her  memory  mingled  in  his  mind  with 
the  vividly  realised  presence  of  St.  Ursula, 
whose  picture  by  Carpaccio  was  the  subject 
of  many  references  in  his  later  lectures. 
In  1878  he  had  arranged  an  exhibition  of 
his  Turners  at  the  Fine  Art  Society,  and 
had  nearly  finished  a  catalogue  for  it,  when 
he  was  seized  with  a  dangerous  attack  of 
brain  fever.  In  a  few  weeks  he  recovered, 
and  was  able  to  add  some  further  notes  to 
the  catalogue.  A  body  of  subscribers  pre- 
sented him  at  this  time  with  Turner's  draw- 
ing of  'Spliigen.'  Ruskin's  favourite 
Turners  hung  in  his  small  and  simple  bed- 
room at  Brantwood.  (A  picture  by  Mr. 
Arthur  Severn  of  this  room  in  which  he  died 
was  exhibited  in  1900.)  In  the  same  year 
(1878)  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  was  opened, 
and  Ruskin  took  occasion  in  'Fors'  to  write 
an  enthusiastic  account  of  Sir  Edward 
Burne-Jones  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  whose  genius 
Ruskin  had  been  among  the  first  to  recog- 
nise, and  to  whom  in  earlier  years  he  had 
given  commissions  in  Italy.  Ruskin  at  the 
same  time  made  a  contemptuous  reference 
to  one  of  Mr.  Whistler's  '  Nocturnes.'  Mr. 
Whistler  brought  an  action  for  libel,  which 
was  tried  before  Baron  Huddleston  on  25 
and  26  Nov.  The  jury  awarded  the  plain- 
tiff one  farthing  damages.  Ruskin's  costs 
were  paid  by  a  public  subscription.  Mr. 
Whistler  took  his  revenge  in  a  characteris- 
tic pamphlet  (republished  in  'The  Gentle 
Art  of  making  Enemies  r).  In  1879  Ruskin 
resigned  his  professorship,  but  was  able  to 
do  occasional  work  on  his  many  unfinished 
books.  In  1880  and  1881  his  illness  re- 
curred. An  interval  of  restored  health  fol- 
lowed, and  in  1883  he  felt  well  enough  to 
accept  a  second  call  to  the  Oxford  profes- 
sorship. His  first  series  of  lectures  on '  The 
Art  of  England '  (the  leading  schools  and 
artists  of  the  day)  showed  no  failure  of 
power;  there  were  in  them  a  greater  geniality 
of  criticism  and  a  more  hopeful  outlook 
which  seemed  to  augur  well  for  the  future. 
But  the  promise  was  delusive.  The  excite- 
ment of  his  public  lectures,  attended  by 
ever-increasing  and  enthusiastic  audiences, 


was  too  much  for  him.  The  nervous  strain 
was  more  than  he  could  withstand.  A 
second  series  of  lectures,  on  '  The  Pleasures 
of  England,'  never  very  coherent,  was  broken 
off  on  the  advice  of  Acland,  Jowett,  and 
others  of  his  friends.  He  had  been  much 
vexed  by  the  refusal  of  the  university,  on 
the  ground  of  lack  of  funds,  to  give  him 
the  means  for  extending  the  Ruskin  drawing 
school.  This  was  followed  by  a  vote  for  a 
new  laboratory  in  which  vivisection  was  to 
be  permitted.  In  December  1884  Ruskin  re- 
signed his  professorship.  He  had  previously 
revoked  a  bequest  of  his  remaining  Turners 
and  other  treasures  to  the  university. 

Ruskin  now  retired  into  seclusion  at 
Brantwood.  His  cousin,  Mrs.  Severn,  with 
her  husband  and  family,  lived  with  him. 
To  her  he  was  deeply  attached ;  she  tended 
him  in  his  illness  and  saved  him  from  all 
preventable  irritations.  His  brain  attacks 
were  intermittent,  and  at  intervals  during 
the  next  five  years  he  did  a  good  deal  of 
miscellaneous  literary  work.  He  introduced 
to  the  public  the  sketches  of  Tuscan  life  in 
pen  and  pencil  by  his  American  friend,  M  iss 
Francesca  Alexander.  He  wrote  occasional 
articles  in  the  magazines ;  prefaced  various 
books  by  his  friends ;  wrote  a  life  of  Sir  Her- 
bert Edwardes(' A  Knight's  Faith');  and  con- 
tinued his  letters  on  questions  of  the  day  to 
the '  Pall  Mall  Gazette '  and  other  papers.  He 
also  interested  himself  in  educational  expe- 
riments in  the  Coniston  school.  But  the 
most  important  work  of  his  last  period  was 
the  fragment  of  autobiography,  undertaken 
at  the  suggestion  of  his  friend,  Prof.  C.  E. 
Norton,  and  published  at  intervals  during 
1885-9  under  the  title  of  '  Prseterita  :  out- 
lines of  Scenes  and  Thoughts  perhaps  worthy 
of  Memory  in  my  past  Life.'  This  book 
contains  occasional  passages  of  description 
as  fine  as  anything  in  '  Modern  Painters,' 
and  is  marked  throughout  by  limpid  ease  in 
the  narrative,  by  the  keenness  of  its  recol- 
lections, and  by  brilliant  character-sketches 
of  friends  and  acquaintances. 

'  Prseterita '  was,  however,  not  completed. 
Ruskin  had  planned  out  its  conclusion,  and 
chosen  titles — in  which  respect  he  always 
showed  a  curious  felicity — for  the  remaining 
chapters,  as  also  for  many  chapters  in  a 
supplementary  book  of  illustrative  letters, 
&c.,  called  '  Dilecta.'  But  the  excitement 
of  writing  was  too  much  for  him.  '  It  is 
all  nonsense,'  he  wrote  to  one  of  his  friends, 
'  what  you  hear  of  overwork  as  the  cause  of 
my  illness.  These  two  times  of  delirium 
were  both  periods  of  extreme  mental  energy 
in  perilous  directions.'  On  one  occasion  he 
was  talking  with  intense  eagerness  to  Car- 


Ruskin 


Ruskin 


lyle.  '  You  must  take  care,'  said  the  old  man ; 
'  you  will  be  making  yourself  ill  once  more.' 
Ruskin  quite  simply  stopped  short  like  a 
child.  '  You  are  right,  master,'  he  said, 
and  went  on  to  talk  of  something  else.  At 
a  later  period,  however,  he  sank  into  deep 
depressions,  and  longed  even  for  the  visions 
to  return.  '  They  were  mostly  visions  of 
hell,  it  is  true,'  he  said,  '  but  sometimes 
visions  of  heaven.'  In  the  spring  of  1887 
he  was  again  seized  with  brain  trouble.  He 
went  in  the  autumn  of  that  year  to  Sand- 
gate,  where  he  remained,  with  short  visits 
to  London,  until  the  following  summer — 
sometimes  able  to  write,  at  others  in  a  state 
bordering  on  insanity.  In  1888  he  made 
his  last  foreign  journey — to  France,  Switzer- 
land, and  Italy.  On  18  Sept.,  by  way  of  a 
short  epilogue  for  a  reissue  of  'Modern 
Painters,' he  wrote  'beneath  the  cloudless 
peace  of  the  snows  of  Chamouni  what 
must  be  the  last  words  of  the  book  which 
their  beauty  inspired  and  their  strength 
guided.'  His  foreign  tour  brought  him  no 
renewal  of  strength.  In  the  following  sum- 
mer he  spent  some  time  at  Seascale,  and 
there  he  wrote  a  chapter  of '  Prseterita.'  It 
is  dated  19  June  1889,  and  marks  the  close 
of  his  literary  career.  From  that  time  for- 
ward infirmities  of  mind  and  body  grew 
steadily  upon  him.  Physically  he  enjoyed 
fairly  good  health  for  some  years  ;  but  his 
brain  was  in  decay,  leading  sometimes  to 
disordered  violence,  more  often  to  listless 
calm.  '  Poor  finger ! '  he  said  to  one  of  his 
old  friends,  '  it  will  never  hold  pen  again. 
Well,  it  has  got  me  into  much  trouble ; 
perhaps  it  is  better  so.'  At  times  he  re- 
covered some  of  his  old  brightness,  and  talked 
of  things  and  places  and  persons  that  he 
loved ;  sometimes  also  piaying  chess,  a  game 
of  which  he  was  very  fond.  '  That's  my 
dear  brother  Ned/  he  said  one  night,  as  he 
passed  a  portrait  of  his  friend,  Burne-Jones, 
on  the  stairs.  The  artist  died  the  next 
day,  and  Ruskin  was  grievously  affected. 
As  outdoor  air  and  exercise  became  distaste- 
ful, his  hold  on  the  world,  alike  of  current 
affairs,  of  thought,  and  of  imagination,  grew 
weaker  and  weaker.  He  would  sit  still  for 
hours,  sometimes  looking  from  his  window 
upon  his  favourite  view  of  lake  and  fell ;  at 
other  times,  with  head  bent  listlessly,  seeing 
and  hearing  his  friends,  but  hardly  joining 
at  all  in  any  general  conversation.  On  his 
eightieth  birthday  he  was  presented  with 
illuminated  addresses  from  the  university 
of  Oxford,  and  from  a  body  of  admirers, 
including  most  of  the  leading  men  in  art 
and  literature.  On  18  Jan.  1900  he  was 
seized  by  influenza,  the  heart  failed,  and  on 


20  Jan.,  at  2  P.M.,  he  passed  peacefully 
away.  The  dean  and  chapter  of  Westmin- 
ster offered  a  grave  in  the  Abbey,  but  this 
was  declined  on  the  ground  that  he  had  ex- 
pressed a  wish  to  be  buried  wherever  he 
might  happen  to  die.  He  was  laid  in  the 
churchyard  of  Coniston  on  25  Jan.  In 
Poets'  Corner  there  is  to  be  a  medallion  of 
him  (by  Mr.  Onslow  Ford,  R.A.),  imme- 
diately above  the  bust  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
Ruskin  was  about  5  feet  10  inches  in 
height,  and  as  a  young  man  he  gave  the 
appearance  of  being  taller  owing  to  his 
slight  build.  In  later  years  his  shoulders 
were  bent,  and  his  whole  frame  seemed 
shrunk.  His  smile  was  always  radiant.  He 
had  piercing  blue  eyes  under  full  brows. 
In  middle  life  he  grew  side-whiskers  ;  from 
the  year  1879  a  beard  which,  in  his  old  age, 
was  allowed  to  grow  to  its  full  length,  giving 
him  a  very  venerable  appearance.  His  hair 
was  brown,  which  never  to  the  last  turned 
completely  grey.  A  light-brown  spun 
tweed,  a  double-breasted  waistcoat,  an  ill- 
fitting  blue  frock-coat  with  velvet  collar, 
unstarched  wristbands,  and  amplitude  of 
blue  necktie  worn  as  a  stock,  reflected  some- 
thing of  the  quaintness  of  his  mind  and 
talk.  If  it  were  not  for  the  peculiarly  deli- 
cate hands  and  tapering  fingers,  denoting 
the  artistic  gifts,  '  the  Professor '  (as  he  was 
habitually  called)  might  have  been  taken 
for  an  old-fashioned  country  gentleman. 
Ruskin  was  an  indefatigable  worker.  He 
always  rose  with  the  sun,  and  much  of  his 
literary  work  was  done  before  his  friends  or 
the  rest  of  his  household  were  awake.  He 
had  the  genius  for  friendship,  and  his  pri- 
vate correspondence,  no  less  than  his  public, 
was  large.  To  innumerable  friends  he  wrote 
in  the  charming  vein  which  is  to  be  seen  in 
'  Hortus  Inclusus '  and  other  collections, 
and  always  in  the  same  exquisitely  neat  and 
beautiful  handwriting.  To  strangers  who 
sought  his  help  he  would  often  write  the 
most  painstaking  letters  of  counsel  and  en- 
couragement. He  was  at  his  best  when 
showing  to  a  sympathetic  friend  his  collec- 
tions of  pictures  and  drawings,  his  precious 
stones  and  minerals,  his  manuscripts  and 
missals  at  Denmark  Hill  or  Brantwood,  for 
he  took  the  keenest  delight  in  sharing  his 
treasures  and  his  pleasures  with  others. 
He  was  sometimes  momentarily  hot-tem- 
pered, and  was  not  averse  from  the  use  of 
strong  language.  But  of  the  arrogance  and 
intolerance  often  displayed  in  his  writings 
when  he  assumed  the  prophet's  mantle,  there 
was  in  his  private  intercourse  no  trace. 
His  written  denunciations  of  classes  of  his 
fellow-countrymen  and  of  particular  persons 

T2 


Ruskin 


324 


Ruskin 


were  not  intended  to  be  taken  too  literally. 
No  one  was  more  courteous  to  radicals, 
lawyers,  political  economists,  scientific  per- 
sons, and  others  whom  he  professed  to  abhor. 
In  general  company  Ruskin's  conversation 
was  apt.  to  become  monologue.  On  these 
occasions  the  beauty  of  phrase  and  flow  of 
magical  words  were  wonderful  to  listen  to. 
D.  G.  Rossetti  said  that  some  of  these  mono- 
logues made  all  Ruskin's  written  words 
feeble  and  uninspired  by  comparison.  On 
more  familiar  occasions  he  was  whimsical,  ] 
paradoxical,  dictatorial,  incalculable.  There 
was  always  a  flash  of  irony  playing  about 
his  talk,  which  puzzled,  teased,  or  delighted 
his  listeners  according  to  their  tempera- 
ment. His  charm  of  manner  was  irresis- 
tible. '  No  one,'  says  Mrs.  Carlyle, '  managed 
Carlyle  so  well  as  Ruskin.  It  was  quite 
beautiful  to  see  him.  Carlyle  would  say 
outrageous  things,  running  counter  to  all 
Ruskin  cared  for.  Ruskin  would  treat  Car- 
lyle like  a  naughty  child,  lay  his  arms  j 
around  him,  and  say,  "  Now  this  is  too 
bad  !  "  *  Of  young  girls  Ruskin  was  the 
indulgent  and  devoted  slave.  But  to  all 
his  friends,  young  and  old,  boy  or  maid, 
humble  or  distinguished,  his  manner  had 
something  of  the  same  caressing  charm. 
'For  the  sake  of  others,'  says  Professor 
Norton,  '  who  have  not  known  him  as  I 
have,  I  would  declare  my  conviction  that 
no  other  master  of  literature  in  our  time 
has  more  earnestly  and  steadily  endeavoured 
to  set  forth,  for  the  help  of  those  whom  he 
addressed  whatsoever  things  are  true, 
honest,  just,  pure,  and  lovely ;  or  in  his  own 
life  has  more  faithfully  tried  to  practise  the 
virtues  which  spring  from  the  contemplation 
of  these  things.'  'To  my  dear  and  ethereal  | 
Ruskin,'  was  Carlyle's  inscription  in  the  | 
last  book  he  gave  to  his  disciple.  '  I  should  j 
wish,'  wrote  Jowett,  after  visiting  Ruskin  J 
at  Brantwood,  '  never  to  lose  the  impression 
of  the  kind  welcome  which  I  received  from 
him.  He  is  the  gentlest  and  most  innocent 
of  mankind.' 

Among  many  portraits  of  Ruskin  are: 
1.  As  a  child,  aged  three  and  a  half,  oil- 
picture  by  James  Northcote,  R.  A.  (at  Brant- 
wood).  In  this,  as  Ruskin  relates  in 
'  Praeterita,'  there  is  a  background,  at  the 
child's  special  request,  of  '  blue  hills.'  2.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-three,  water-colour  by 
George  Richmond,  R.A.,  exhibited  at  the 
academy,  1842  (at  Brantwood).  3.  At  the 
age  of  thirty-four,  oil-picture  by  Millais,  full- 
length,  standing  bareheaded  on  the  rocks 
beside  Glenfinlas  (in  the  collection  of  the 
late  Sir  Henry  Acland ;  now,  as  an  heirloom, 
in  the  possession  of  Rear-admiral  Acland). 


4.  At  the  age  of  thirty-eight,  head  in  chalk 
by  George  Richmond,  R.A.  (reproduced  as 
frontispiece  to  the '  Selections '  of  1862,  now 
at  Brantwood  ;  not  flattery,  said  the  artist, 
'  only  the  truth  lovingly  told  ').  5.  A  few 
years  later,  a  crayon  drawing  by  Rossetti 
(formerly  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Pocock  of 
Brighton).  6.  At  the  age  of  fifty-seven,  an 
etching  by  M.  Georges  Pilotelle  (produced 
for  Noseda  of  the  Strand).  7.  At  the  age  of 
sixty-one,  a  bust  by  Boehm  (in  the  Ruskin 
Drawing  School,  Oxford).  8.  A  year  later, 
1881,  life-size  portrait  in  water-colour  by  Mr. 
Herkomer,  R.A.,  exhibited  at  the  Grosvenor 
sameyear.  9.  Executed  in  1884,  and  exhibited 
at  the  New  Gallery  in  1889,  a  bust  by  Mr. 
Conrad  Dressier :  the  first  portrait  of  Ruskin 
with  a  beard :  '  it  makes  me  look  far  crazier,' 
said  the  sitter,  '  than  ever  I've  been.'  10. 
Painted  in  1898-9,  with  long  beard,  oil-pic- 
ture by  Arthur  Severn  (now  at  Brantwood). 
11.  A  very  fine  photograph  by  Mr.  F.  Holly er, 
half-length,  seated  with  long  flowing  beard, 
taken  in  1895.  (Illustrated  articles  on  por- 
traits of  Ruskin  appeared  in  the  '  Magazine 
of  Art '  for  1891.) 

The  complete  bibliography  by  Thomas  J. 
Wise  and  James  P.  Smart,  issued  in  1893, 
and  giving  letters,  lectures,  and  minor 
Ruskiniana,  included  1,152  entries.  114 
volumes  (large  or  small)  bear  Ruskin's 
name  as  author,  and  to  twenty-nine  other 
volumes  he  contributed  prefaces  or  other 
matter.  There  has  as  yet  been  no  collective 
edition  of  his  works.  Of  an  octavo  series  of 
'Works'  commenced  in  1871,  only  eleven 
volumes  were  published.  They  were  issued 
in  boards  and  in  what  is  now  called  in  the 
trade  '  Ruskin  calf,'  a  purple  chosen  by  him- 
self. Since  1882  many  of  the  books  have 
been  issued  in  a  uniform  edition,  crown  8vo 
(referred  to  below  as  '  small  edition ').  The 
following  is  a  chronological  list  of  the  prin- 
cipal works  and  editions  :  1.  '  The  Poetry  of 
Architecture,'  in  London's  'Architectural 
Magazine,' 1837-8;  first  published  separately, 
1893,  medium  4to  (illustrated).  2.  '  Modern 
Painters,'  1843,  vol.  i. ;  1846,  vol.  ii. ;  1856, 
vol.  iii.  (illustrated) ;  1856,  vol.  iv.  (illus- 
trated) ;  1860,  vol.  v.  (illustrated).  Vol.  i.  of 
the  first  and  second  editions  was  large  crown 
8vo;  the  third  edition  and  all  the  other 
volumes  were  imperial  8vo.  The  first  edition 
of  this  book  commands  high  prices  on  account 
of  the  plates.  '  Autograph  edition,'  1873, 
5  vols.  imperial  8vo  (impressions  from  the 
original  plates) ;  '  complete  edition,'  with 
new  index  and  collation  of  different  editions, 
1888,  6  vols.  imperial  8vo  (three  additional 
plates,  some  of  the  others  re-engraved); 
small  complete  edition  (reduced  plates), 


Ruskin 


325 


Ruskin 


1897, 6  vols.  crown  8vo. ; '  re-arranged  edition' 
of  vol.  ii.  1883,  crown  8vo  (now  in  5th  edit.) 
'  Frondes  Agrestes '  (readings  in '  M.P.')  1875, 
crown  8vo  (now  in  34th  thousand).  3.  'The 
Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture '  (illustrated), 
1 849,  imperial  8vo  (plates  drawn  and  etched 
by  the  author)  ;  second  edition  (plates  re- 
etched  by  R.  P.  Cuff),  1855 ;  third  edition 
(with  new  preface  and. selected  aphorisms 
set  in  larger  type),  1880  ;  small  edition,  1890 
(now  in  31st  thousand).  4.  'Poems,'  1850, 
post  8vo  (mostly  collected  from  periodicals), 
privately  printed.  Very  scarce  ;  a  copy  has 
fetched  501.  Published  (with  additions), 
1891,  2  vols.  4to,  illustrated;  small  edition 
(reduced  plates),  1891.  5.  'The  King  of 
the  Golden  River '  (illustrated  by  R.  Doyle), 
1851,  small  square  8vo  (now  in  22nd  thou- 
sand). A  fine  copy  of  the  first  edition  has 
fetched  IQl.  6.  '  Pre-Raphaelitism/  1851. 
7.  '  The  Stones  of  Venice  '  (illustrated),  im- 
perial 8vo,  vol.  i.  1851,  vol.  ii.  1853,  vol.  iii. 
1853  ;  'Autograph  edition '  of  the  three  vols. 
1874,  imperial  8vo  ;  '  complete  edition'  (with 
new  index),  1886,  3  vols.  imperial  8vo ; 
small  edition  (complete),  1898  ;  '  Traveller's 
edition '  (selected  chapters  with  new  matter, 
uuillustrated),  1879, 2  vols.  crown  8vo  (now 
in  its  eighth  edition).  '  On  the  Nature  of 
Gothic  Architecture,'  1854  (Kelmscott  Press 
edition,  1892).  8.  '  Examples  of  the  Archi- 
tecture of  Venice'  (plates,  with  descriptive 
letterpress),  1851,  atlas  folio.  9.  'Notes  on 
the  Construction  of  Sheepfolds,'  1851,  8vo 
(now  in  fourth  edition).  10.  '  Giotto  and  his 
Works  in  Padua '  (notes  to  accompany  a 
series  of  woodcuts  executed  for  the  Arundel 
Society),  1854,  royal  8vo ;  small  edition, 
with  photographic  illustrations  of  the  fres- 
coes, 1900.  11.  'Lectures  on  Architecture 
and  Painting'  (illustrated),  1853,  crown 
8vo;  small  edition,  1891  (now  in  its  6th 
thousand).  12.  '  Notes  on  some  of  the 
principal  Pictures  exhibited  in  the  Rooms 
of  the  Royal  Academy,'  &c.,  8vo,  No.  i.  1855, 
ii.  1856,  iii.  1857,  iv.  1858,  v.  1859,  vi.  1875. 
13.  '  The  Harbours  of  England'  (illustrated 
•with  engravings  from  drawings  by  Turner), 
1856,  folio ;  small  edition,  with  photogra- 
vures from  the  plates,  1894.  14.  '  Notes  on 
the  Turner  Gallery  at  Marlborough  House ' 
(oil-paintings  now  at  the  National  Gallery), 

1856,  8vo.      '  Catalogue    of    Sketches    and 
Drawings  by  Turner '  (now  at  the  National 
Gallery),   1857,   8vo.      'Catalogue    of    the 
Turner  Sketches  in  the  National  Gallery,' 

1857,  pt.  i.  8vo  (no  more  issued).     '  Cata- 
logue of  the  Drawings  and  Sketches  of  Tur- 
ner at  present  exhibited    in  the  National 
Gallery,'  L881, 8vo ;  illustrated  edition,  crown 
8vo,  1899.     15   '  The  Political  Economy  of 


Art/  1857,  16mo  ;  reissued  with  additional 
papers  under  the  title  '  A  Joy  for  Ever  (and 
its  Price  in  the  Market),'  1880  (vol.  xi.  of 
'  Works ')  ;  small  edition,  1887  (now  in  its 
13th  thousand).  16.  '  The  Elements  of 
Drawing '  (illustrated),  1857,  crown  8vo ; 
new  edition  (uniform  with  the  '  small  edi- 
tion'), 1892  (now  in  the  14th  thousand). 
17.  'Inaugural  Address  at  the  Cambridge 
School  of  Art,'  1858,  8vo.  18.  '  The  Oxford 
Museum,'  by  II.  W.  Acland  and  John  Ruskin 
(illustrated),  1859,  post  8vo ;  new  edition, 
with  preface  by  Acland  and  message  from 
Ruskin,  1893,  crown  8vo.  19.  'The  Two 
Paths '  (illustrated),  1859,  crown  8vo  ;  new 
edition  (vol.  x.  of  '  Works '),  1878,  8vo ; 
small  edition,  1887  (now  in  14th  thousand) ; 
the  edition  of  1859  contains  two  plates  after- 
wards cancelled.  20.  '  The  Elements  of 
Perspective,'  1859,  crown  8vo  (the  only  edi- 
tion). 21.  '  Unto  this  Last,'  1862,  foolscap 
8vo;  a  cheaper  edition,  now  in  its  35th 
thousand ;  '  Popular'  edition  (in  paper  covers) 
issued  in  1900,  and  now  in  its  34th  thou- 
sand ;  the  total  issue  of  the  book  has  ex- 
ceeded 70,000.  There  have  also  been  several 
editions  of  a  penny  pamphlet  of  extracts  en- 
titled '  The  Rights  of  Labour  according  to 
John  Ruskin.'  22.  '  Sesame  and  Lilies/ 

1865,  foolscap  8vo.     This,  the  most  popular 
of  Ruskin's  works,  has  been  issued  in  four 
different  forms  :  (a)  the  original  edition,  two 
lectures  with  no  preface ;  (b)  two  lectures, 
with  a  long  preface  (about  the  Alps),  1865, 
three  editions ;   (c)  '  Works '  series,   vol.  i. 
with  a  new  preface  (largely  autobiographi- 
cal), 1871,  and  an  additional  lecture  on  'The 
Mystery  of  Life '  ('  the  most  perfect  of  his 
essays ' — Mr.  Leslie  Stephen,  National  Rev. 
April  1900),  sixth  edition,  1900 ;  the  same 
contents   in   cheaper  form,  48th  thousand, 
1900;  (d)   original  edition  with  a  distinct 
preface,  1882 ;  50th  thousand,  1900.     In  all, 
at  least  110,000  copies  of  'Sesame'   have 
been  issued.    23.  '  The  Ethics  of  the  Dust/ 

1866,  crown  8vo ;  second  edition,  with  new 
preface,  1877  (now  in  its  21st  thousand). 
24.  '  The  Crown  of  Wild  Olive :  three  Lec- 
tures on   Work,  Traffic,   and   War,'   1866, 
foolscap  8vo   (two  other    editions  in  this 
form).     With  an  additional  lecture  on  '  The 
Future  of  England/and  an  appendixon*  Prus- 
sia,' '  Works/  vol.  vi.  (now  in  its  third  edit.) ; 
small  edition  of  the  same  (now  in  33rd  thou- 
sand).    25.  '  Time  and  Tide  by  Weare  and 
Tyne/  1867,  foolscap  8vo  ('  Works/  vol.  ii. 
1872);    small    edition  1886  (now  in  14th 
thousand).  26.  '  The  Queen  of  the  Air/ 1869, 
crown  8vo  ('  Works/  vol.  ix.  1874)  ;  small 
edition,  1887  (now  in  15th  thousand).     27. 
'  Lectures  on  Art  delivered  before  the  Uni- 


Ruskin 


326 


Ruskin 


versity  of  Oxford,'  1870,  8vo  (two  other  edi- 
tions in  this  form)  ;  small  edition,  with  new 
preface,  1887  (now  in  13th  thousand). 
Several  catalogues  of  the  collections  in  the 
Ruskin  Drawing  School,  referred  to  in  the 
'Lectures,'  were  issued,  1870-3.  28.  '  Fora 
Clavigera'  (illustrated),  1871-84,  8vo. 
Ninety-six  '  Letters  to  the  Workmen  and 
Labourers  of  Great  Britain,'  originally  issued 
as  separate  publications,  subsequently  col- 
lected into  8  vols.  (8vo)  and  4  vols.  (crown 
8vo).  The  first  and  second  thousands  of 
Letter  Ivii.  are  of  interest  to  collectors  as 
containing  '  an  attack  on  Mr.  Gladstone 
written  under  a  complete  misconception  of 
his  character.'  This  was  afterwards  omitted 
and  a  blank  space  left  '  in  due  memorial  of 
rash  judgment.'  Several  reports  and  papers 
referring  to  St.  George's  Guild  were  sepa- 
rately published.  A  '  Letter  to  Young 
Girls,'  reprinted  with  additions  from  '  Fors,' 
was  published  in  1876,  and  is  now  in  its 
72nd  thousand.  29.  'Munera  Pulveris,' 
1872,  being  vol.  ii.  of  the  '  Works ; '  small 
edition,  1886 (now  in  8th thousand).  '  Gold: 
a  Dialogue  connected  with  the  subject  of 
"Munera  Pulveris,"'  written  in  1863,  in 
reply  to  an  article  by  Professor  Cairnes,  and 
intended  for  'Fraser's  Magazine,'  was  first 
printed  (for  private  circulation)  in  1891. 

30.  '  Aratra  Pentelici :  Six  Lectures  on  the 
Elements  of  Sculpture '  (illustrated),  1872, 
being  vol.  iii.  of  the  '  Works.'    The  seventh 
lecture  of  this  course, '  The  Relation  between 
Michael  Angelo  and  Tintoret,'  was  published 
separately  and  ran  through  three  editions ; 
small   edition  of  the  seven  lectures,  1890. 

31.  ' The  Eagle's  Nest :  Ten  Lectures  on  the 
Relation  of  Natural  Science  to  Art,'  1872 
(vol.  iv.  of  the '  Works') ;  small  edition,  1887 
(now  in  12th  thousand).  32.  'Love's  Meinie: 
Lectures  on  Greek  and  English  Birds,' 1881, 
vol.  i.  8vo  (originally  issued  in  three  separate 
parts,  1873-81)  ;  small  edition,  1897.     The 
work  was  never  completed.     33.  '  Ariadne 
Florentina  :    Six   Lectures   on   Wood    and 
Metal  Engraving '  (illustrated) ;  originally 
issued  in  seven  separate  parts  (1873-6) ;  col- 
lected into  a  volume  (vii.  of  the  '  Works '), 
1876;     small     edition,    1890.       34.     'Val 
d'Arno :   Ten  Lectures  on  the  Tuscan  Art 
directly  antecedent  to  the  Florentine  Year 
of  Victories '  (illustrated),  1874  ('  Works,'  vol. 
viii.);  small  edition,   1890.     35.  'Mornings 
in  Florence,'   issued  in  six  separate  parts, 
1875-7,  crown  8vo ;  collected  into  a  volume 
1889  (now  in  llth  thousand).     36.  '  Proser- 
pina:   Studies  of  Wayside  Flowers  while 
the  Air  was  yet  pure  among  the  Alps  and 
in   the   Scotland   and   England  which  my 
Father  knew '   (illustrated) ;  issued  in  ten 


separate  parts,  1875-86,  8vo;  parts  i-vi. 
collected  into  vol.  i.  1879.  37.  '  Deuca- 
lion: Collected  Studies  of  the  Lapse  of 
Waves  and  Life  of  Stones '  (illustrated) ; 
issued  in  eight  separate  parts,  1875-83; 
parts  i-vi.  collected  into  vol.  i.  1879.  38. 
'  Bibliotheca  Pastorum,'  8vo :  vol.  i.,  '  The 
Economist  of  Xenophon,'  with  essay  by 
Ruskin,  1876  ;  vol.  ii.,  'Rock  Honeycomb: 
Broken  Pieces  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  Psalter 
laid  up  in  store  for  English  Homes,'  with 
preface  and  commentary  by  Ruskin,  1877  ; 
vol.  iii.  (not  issued) ;  vol.  iv.,  '  A  Knight's 
Faith :  Passages  in  the  Life  of  Sir  Herbert 
Edwardes,'  collated  by  Ruskin,  1885.  39. 
'  Guide  to  the  Principal  Pictures  at  the  Aca- 
demy of  Fine  Arts,  Venice,'  issued  in  two 
parts,  1877,  8vo ;  revised  and  corrected 
edition  in  one  volume,  1891.  40.  '  St. 
Mark's  Rest :  the  History  of  Venice,  writ- 
ten for  the  help  of  the  few  Travellers  who 
still  care  for  her  Monuments,'  issued  in  six 
separate  parts,  1877-84,  crown  8vo;  col- 
lected into  one  volume,  1884.  41.  'The 
Laws  of  Fesole  :  a  familiar  Treatise  on  the 
Elementary  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Drawing  and  Painting '  (illustrated),  issued 
in  four  separate  parts,  1877-8,  8vo ;  col- 
lected into  vol.  i.  1879.  No  more  was 
issued.  42.  '  Notes  by  Mr.  Ruskin  on  his 
Drawings  by  Turner  exhibited  at  the  Fine 
Art  Society's  Galleries,  March  1878;' 
twelve  editions  (8vo)  were  issued  in  rapid 
succession,  also  an  illustrated  edition,  4to. 
In  1900,  when  the  drawings  were  again 
exhibited  after  Ruskin's  death,  the  '  Notes ' 
were  reprinted.  43.  '  Notes  by  Mr.  Ruskin 
on  Samuel  Prout  and  William  Hunt, 
illustrated  by  a  Loan  Collection  of  Draw- 
ings exhibited  at  the  Fine  Art  Society's 
Galleries,  1879-80,'  8vo  ;  also  an  illustrated 
edition,  4to.  44.  '  Letters  to  the  Clergy  on 
the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Church,'  1879, 
crown  8vo.  4o.  '  Arrows  of  the  Chace,' 
1880,  2  vols.  8vo ;  a  collection  of  letters 
published  chiefly  in  the  newspapers,  1840-80. 
46.  '  Our  Fathers  have  told  us  :  Sketches  of 
the  History  of  Christendom  for  Boys  and 
Girls  who  have  been  held  at  its  Fonts. 
Part  i.  The  Bible  of  Amiens '  (illustrated), 
issued  in  five  separate  parts,  1880-5,  8vo; 
collected  into  a  volume,  1884.  A  separate 
'  Traveller's  edition '  of  chap.  iv.  crown  8vo 
was  issued  in  1881  to  serve  as  a  guide  to 
the  cathedral.  47.  'The  Art  of  England: 
Lectures  given  in  Oxford,'  1884,  small  4to. 
48.  '  The  Pleasures  of  England :  Lectures 
given  in  Oxford,'  1884,  small  4to,  issued  in 
four  separate  parts  ;  not  completed  or  sepa- 
rately collected;  small  edition  of  the  four 
parts  in  one  volume  together  with  47  (now 


Ruskin 


327 


Russell 


in  9th  thousand).  49. '  The  Storm  Cloud  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century :  Two  Lectures  de- 
livered in  the  London  Institution,'  1884, 
small  4to.  60.  'On  the  Old  Road,'  1885, 
3  vols.  8vo ;  a  collection  of  miscellaneous 
essays,  pamphlets,  &c.,  written  1834-85. 
61.  '  Prseterita,'  originally  issued  in  twenty- 
eight  separate  parts,  1885-9,  8vo ;  the  first 
twenty-four  parts  collected  into  vols.  i.  and 
ii.  1886-7  :  vol.  iii.,  issued  in  1900,  consists 
of  the  remaining  four  parts,  and  of  three 
parts  of  '  Dilecta'  (correspondence,  &c., 
illustrating  '  Praeterita ').  52.  '  Hortus 
Inclusus,'  1887,  small  8vo ;  letters  from 
Ruskin  to  the  Misses  Mary  and  Susie  Beever. 
53. '  Three  Letters  (by  Ruskin)  and  an  Essay, 
1836-41,  found  in  his  Tutor's  Desk '  (Rev.  t. 
Dale),  1893,  crown  8vo.  54. '  Verona  and  other 
Lectures  '  (illustrated),  1894,  medium  8vo. 

55.  '  Letters  addressed  to  a  College  Friend 
during  the  Years  1840-5,'  1894,  crown  8vo. 

56.  '  Lectures   on  Landscape   delivered   at 
Oxford  in  Lent  Term,  1871 '  (illustrated), 
1897,  folio.     In  addition  to  Ruskin's  pub- 
lished writings  he  had  at  various  times  col- 
lected materials  for  many  other  works.     A 
few   chapters,  found  completed   among  his 
manuscripts,  are  likely  to  be  included  in  a 
forthcoming  collected  edition  of  his  works. 
Of  late  years  Ruskin's  writings  have  attracted 
some  attention  on  the  continent.     Accounts 
or  translations  of  some  of  them  have  ap- 
peared in  French,  German,  Italian,  Dutch. 
The  most  important  of  the  foreign  Ruskiniana 
is  '  Ruskin  et  la  Religion  de  la  Beaute,'  by 
Robert  de  la  Sizeranne  (Paris,  1 897 ;  Eng- 
lish translation,  1899). 

[The  fullest  authority  for  Ruskin's  early  life 
is  Prseterita.  For  his  middle  life  it  is  less  com- 
plete, and  it  does  not  extend  beyond  1860. 
Most  of  his  other  writings,  and  especially  Fors 
Clavigera,  are  to  some  extent  autobiographical. 
The  Life  and  Work  of  John  Ruskin,  2  vols. 
1893,  and  The  Life  of  John  Ruskin,  1900,  by 
W.  G.  Collingwood,  are  written  by  one  who,  as 
a  pupil  at  Oxford,  and  afterwards  as  a  literary 
assistant  and  neighbour,  knew  him  well.  The 
Life  of  1900  contains  many  letters  by  Ruskin 
and  his  parents  not  elsewhere  published.  Mr. 
C.  E.  Norton's  prefaces  to  the  American  '  Brant- 
wood  '  edition  of  Ruskin's  Works  have  valuable 
biographical  matter.  Several  volumes  of  Ruskin's 
letters  have  been  privately  printed  in  Mr.  T.  J. 
Wise's  Ashley  Library.  A  large  number  of 
letters  Cnot  included  in  Arrows  of  the  Chace)  is 
given  in  Ruskiniana  (privately  printed,  1890). 
Another  collection  of  letters  appeared  in  the 
New  Review,  March  1892.  Letters  of  Ruskin 
and  other  references  to  him  appear  in  many 
biographies ;  among  others,  Rogers  and  his 
Contemporaries,  1889;  The  Letters  of  James 
Smetham,  J891  ;  The  Life  and  the  Friendships 


of  Mary  Russell  Mitford,  1882  ;  Froude'sLife  of 
Carlyle  in  London,  1884;  Letters  of  Joseph 
Severn,  1892;  Memoir  of  Dean  Liddell,  1899; 
Memoir  and  Correspondence  of  Coventry  Pat- 
more,  19  :().  In  addition  to  sources  already 
mentioned,  the  following,  among  others,  have 
been  referred  to :  Mrs.  Richmond  Ritchie's  Re- 
cords of  Tennyson,  Ruskin,  and  Browning,  1892 ; 
M.  H.  Spielmann's  John  Ruskin,  1900  ;  memoirs 
in  the  Daily  News  und  Manchester  Guardian, 
27  Jan.  1900;  private  information.]  E.  T.  C. 

RUSSELL,  CHARLES,  BAKON  RUSSELL 
OF  KILLOWEX  (1832-1900),  lord  chief  justice 
of  England,  was  born  at  Newry  on  10  Nov. 
1832.  He  was  the  elder  son  of  Arthur 
Russell  (1785-1845)  and  Margaret,  daughter 
of  Matthew  Mullin  and  widow  of  John 
Hamill,  a  merchant  of  Belfast.  The 
Russells  Avere  of  an  old  stock  long  settled 
in  the  county  of  Down.  The  family  had 
clung  to  the  ancient  faith,  and,  like  others, 
had  suffered  from  the  persecutions  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
Arthur  Russell  died  in  1845,  and  the  care 
of  his  young  family  devolved  upon  their 
clever  mother  and  their  paternal  uncle,  Dr. 
Charles  William  Russell  [q.  v.],  then  a  pro- 
fessor at  and  afterwards  president  of  May- 
nooth  College.  The  school  days  of  Charles 
Russell  are  described  in  the  petition  for  his 
articles,  presented  to  the  Incorporated  Law 
Society  of  Ireland  in  1848.  He  was  for  a 
short  time  at  a  diocesan  seminary  at  Belfast, 
then  for  two  years  at  a  private  school  in 
Newry,  finally  for  one  year  at  St.  Vincent's 
College,  Castleknock.  The  records  of  his 
school  career  are  scanty.  They  show  that  he 
was  a  hard-working  boy,  of  more  than 
average  attainments,  but  there  is  nothing  to 
indicate  that  he  displayed  any  brilliant  quali- 
ties. In  January  1849  he  commenced  his 
career  with  Cornelius  Denvir,  a  solicitor  at 
Newry^who  died  in  1852,  and  his  articles 
were  transferred  to  Alexander  O'Rorke  of 
Belfast.  He  was  admitted  a  solicitor  in 
January  1854.  For  six  months  he  took 
charge  of  an  office  of  O'Rorke's  in  London- 
derry. He  then  returned  to  Belfast,  and 
practised  on  his  own  account  in  the  county 
courts  of  Down  and  Antrim.  About  that 
time  injudicious  attempts  by  protestants  to 
proselytise  had  led  to  riots,  and  when  the 
reckoning  came  before  the  magistrates  Russell 
was  the  catholic  champion.  His  speeches 
were  reported  in  the  '  Ulsterman '  newspaper, 
and  were  as  able  as  many  he  afterwards 
delivered  when  at  the  bar.  On  one  occasion 
when  he  had  done  well  his  admirers  carried 
him  on  their  shoulders  to  his  hotel,  and  ho 
had  difficulty  in  preventing  the  celebration 
of  his  triumph  by  another  riot.  His  success, 


Russell 


328 


Russell 


and  the  advice  of  those  among  whom  he 
practised,  confirmed  his  resolve  to  become 
a  barrister  in  London. 

On  6  Nov.  1856  he  entered  at  Lincoln's 
Inn.  Before  doing  so  he  had  matriculated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  but  did  not 
graduate.  From  that  time  he  resided  in 
London.  In  1857  Henry  Bagshawe,  then  a 
junior  in  large  practice  at  the  equity  bar,  and 
now  a  county  court  judge,  invited  him  to 
become  a  pupil. 

While  in  these  chambers  he  is  described 
as  being  grave,  reserved,  and  hard-working. 
He  acquired  a  considerable  knowledge  of 
real  property  law,  but  conveyancing  and 
equity  drafting  did  not  interest  him,  and 
he  left  to  join  the  common  law  bar.  The 
Inns  of  Court  had  recently  appointed  five 
readers  to  teach  law.  Russell  attended  the 
lectures  of  Henry  Maine  in  '  Roman  Law 
and  Jurisprudence,'  of  Phillimore  in  '  Con- 
stitutional Law,'  Broom  on  the  '  Common 
Law,'  and  Birkbeck  on  '  Equity.'  By  close 
private  study  and  with  the  guidance  of  these 
distinguished  teachers  he  qualified  himself 
for  practice.  He  never  attended  the  cham- 
bers of  a  pleader.  The  common  law  pro- 
cedure acts  had  strucka  blow  at  technicalities 
which  that  class  of  practitioner  did  not  long 
survive.  He  found  time  to  write  for  news- 
papers and  magazines,  and  contributed  a 
weekly  letter  on  current  politics  to  the 
Dublin  '  Nation.'  In  Trinity  term  1858  he 
presented  himself  for  examination  for  the 
studentship  founded  by  the  Inns  of  Court. 
Though  unsuccessful  he  was  awarded  a 
certificate  of  honour.  On  10  Aug.  1858  he 
was  married  to  Ellen,  eldest  daughter  of 
Joseph  Stevenson  Mulholland,  M.D.,  of  Bel- 
fast. 

In  Hilary  term  1859  he  again  competed  for 
the  studentship,  which  was  awarded  to  Mr. 
Montague  Cookson, now  Crackanthorpe,  K.C. 
On  26  Jan.  in  that  year  he  was  called  to  the 
bar  and  joined  the  northern  circuit.  He 
practised  in  the  passage  court,  Liverpool, 
and  from  the  first  was  successful.  His  fee 
books  show  that  in  the  third  year  from  his 
call  he  made  over  300/.,  and  in  his  fourth 
year  over  1,000/. 

He  soon  began  to  be  known  in  London, 
and  argued  a  case  before  Lord  Westbury 
with  so  much  ability  as  to  procure  for  him 
the  offer  of  a  county  court  judgeship. 

In  1872  he  took  silk  at  the  same  time  as 
Fairer,  afterwards  Baron  Herschell  [q.  v. 
Suppl.]  They  speedily  divided  between 
them  the  mercantile  business  of  the  circuit. 
In  commercial  cases,  where  rights  mainly  de- 
pended on  written  evidence,  Russell's  know- 
ledge of  business  and  of  the  law  enabled  him 


to  go  straight  to  the  point  and  get  through  a 
long  list  with  great  smoothness  and  rapidity. 
But  where  there  was  a  conflict  of  evidence, 
his  style  of  advocacy  was  open  to  criticism 
and  complaint.  He  was  not  a  pleasant 
antagonist.  Occasionally  his  opponents 
were  made  to  feel  a  personal  pressure  fatal 
to  the  harmony  which  is  a  tradition  of  the 
bar.  Always  desperately  in  earnest  and 
determined  to  win,  he  was  neglectful  of  the 
small  amenities  which  soften  professional 
contests.  He  dealt  with  witnesses  who  gave 
their  testimony  in  good  faith  with  con- 
sideration, and  confined  his  cross-examina- 
tion in  such  cases  to  its  legitimate  purpose, 
viz.  to  glean  from  the  witnesses  such  admis- 
sions as  helped  to  reconcile  their  statements 
with  his  client's  case.  But  his  quick  temper 
sometimes  betrayed  him  into  attack,  and 
any  interference  for  the  protection  of  the 
witness  was  hotly  resented.  He  had,  how- 
ever, great  self-control,  and  was  able,  by  an 
effort  which  was  visible,  to  break  oft' an  angry 
discussion  and  proceed  with  the  case  as  if 
nothing  had  happened.  Opposing  counsel 
were  often  sorely  rufned,  but  his  manifest 
honesty  of  purpose  secured  him  indulgence. 
He  made  no  enemies.  As  years  went  by 
his  methods  were  less  aggressive,  and  old 
grievances  were  condoned  or  forgotten  by 
the  bar  and  the  profession.  On  his  circuit 
he  was  popular,  and  was  ever  ready  with  a 
kindly  word  and  a  helping  hand  for  a  de- 
serving junior. 

The  power  that  made  him  the  greatest 
advocate  of  his  time  was  best  displayed  when 
fraud  or  perfidy  or  malice  had  to  be  exposed. 
It  has  been  said  that  the  finest  actors  off  the 
stage  are  members  of  the  bar.  This  was  not 
true  of  Russell.  He  felt  the  indignation  and 
contempt  which  he  poured  upon  the  witness. 
His  searching  questions  flashed  in  rapid  suc- 
cession; his  vehemence  of  manner  and  his 
determination  to  force  out  the  truth  secured 
him  a  complete  mastery  of  the  dishonest 
witness.  His  extraordinary  power  when  ad- 
dressing a  jury  was  owing  not  so  much  to 
any  oratorical  display  as  to  the  authority 
which  he  could  always  exercise  over  those 
he  sought  to  influence.  Spellbound  under 
his  vigorous  and  often  passionate  reasoning, 
their  verdict  was  often  due  to  the  merits  not 
of  the  litigant  but  of  his  counsel. 

In  a  difficult  case  he  prepared  himself 
most  laboriously,  and  the  junior  or  solicitor 
who  failed  to  supply  him  with  the  informa- 
tion he  desired  felt  his  heavy  hand.  He 
was  often  as  impetuous  in  consultation  as 
he  was  in  court. 

In  1875  he  was  invited  to  stand  for  Dur- 
'  ham ;  but,  finding  that  his  religion  might  be 


Russell 


329 


Russell 


a  difficulty  in  his  way,  he  withdrew ;  and 
Farrer,  afterwards  Lord  Herschell,  who  upon 
his  advice  was  accepted  as  the  liberal  can- 
didate, was  returned. 

In  1876,  on  the  death  of  Percival  A. 
Pickering,  Q.C.,  he  applied  with  other  leaders 
of  the  circuit  for  the  vacant  judgeship  of  the 
court  of  passage  at  Liverpool.  The  appoint- 
ment was  given  to  Mr.  T.  Henry  Baylis,  Q.C., 
a  distinguished  lawyer,  in  whose  chambers 
the  home  secretary  (now  Viscount  Cross)  had 
been  a  pupil.  The  office  would  not  have  in- 
terfered with  private  practice.  In  1880, 
after  two  unsuccessful  attempts,  he  was  re- 
turned to  parliament  for  Dundalk.  He 
stood  as  an  independent  liberal,  and  was 
opposed  by  home-rulers  and  Parnellites. 
He  had  been  given  to  understand  that  he 
might  expect  personal  violence,  and  an 
attempt  was  made  to  assault  him  ;  but  he 
gave  such  convincing  proof  of  his  courage 
and  ability  to  defend  himself  that  he  was 
not  further  molested.  When  he  entered 
parliament  the  national  cause  was  repre- 
sented in  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  small 
minority  of  the  Irish  members.  It  was  not 
till  the  franchise  was  lowered  by  the  act  of 
1884,  and  as  many  as  eighty-five  members 
were  returned  from  Ireland  to  support  the 
demand  for  an  Irish  parliament,  that  he 
pledged  himself,  together  with  the  majority  of 
liberals,  to  the  policy  of  home  rule.  But. 
he  was  always  a  firm  supporter  of  the  Irish 
cause ;  and  before  the  alliance  between 
Gladstone  and  Parnell  he  spoke  con- 
stantly in  Irish  debates  and  voted  usually 
with  the  national  party.  In  February  1881 
he  opposed  the  coercion  bill.  W.  E.  Forster 
had  stated  that  the  measure  was  aimed  at 
'  village  blackguards.'  Russell  retorted 
with  some  effect  that  among  them  might  be 
found  some  '  village  Hampdens.'  The  pre- 
diction was  verified  in  the  following  year 
when  '  the  suspects '  were  released  from 
prison.  Many  of  them  were  men  of  good 
repute,  and  the  title  '  ex-suspect  '  became 
in  Ireland  one  of  distinction. 

In  March  1882  he  opposed  the  proposal 
for  an  inquiry  into  the  working  of  the  Land 
Act,  and  in  the  following  April  he  sup- 
ported the  government  in  their  change  of 
policy  which  led  to  the  release  of  Forster's 
prisoners.  He  resisted  strongly  the  mea- 
sure of  coercion  which  followed  upon  the 
Phoenix  Park  murders,  and  after  a  brief 
truce  renewed  the  warfare  between  the 
government  and  the  Irish  members.  He 
sought  by  various  amendments  to  mitigate 
the  severity  of  the  government  proposals.  In 
1883  he  delivered  a  long  speech  in  the  de- 
bate on  the  address,  complaining  that  the 


legitimate  demands  for  the  redress  of  Irish 
grievances  were  disregarded  ;  and  in  1884  he 
spoke  in  support  of  an  inquiry  into  the 
Maamtrasna  trials.  He  took  little  part  in 
debates  not  connected  with  Ireland.  In 
1883  he  spoke  in  favour  of  a  bill  for  creating 
a  court  of  criminal  appeal,  contending  that 
the  interference  of  the  home  secretary  with 
the  sentences  of  judges  was  unconstitutional; 
and  during  the  same  parliament  he  sup- 
ported the  granting  of  state  aid  to  voluntary 
schools. 

His  opinions  throughout  these  anxious 
times  were  wisely  measured  by  what  he 
considered  practicable.  On  Irish  questions 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  differ  from  the 
government ;  but  the  views  he  expressed 
were  temperate  and  conciliatory.  His  par- 
liamentary speeches  between  1880  and  1885 
did  not  add  to  his  great  reputation.  The  time 
was  not  propitious.  The  House  of  Commons 
was  exasperated  by  the  obstruction  which 
Parnell  was  conducting  with  so  much  skill, 
and  lent  an  unwilling  ear  to  discourses  on 
the  well-worn  topics  that  crime  would  be 
prevented  by  proper  remedial  measures,  and 
that  Ireland  must  be  governed  according  to 
Irish  ideas.  In  1882  he  was  offered  a  judge- 
ship.  He  was  tempted  to  accept  it,  for  he 
could  not  hope  to  retain  an  Irish  seat.  But 
he  declined  the  offer,  and  determined  to 
look  for  an  English  constituency.  In 
1885  he  was  returned  for  South  Hackney, 
and  was  appointed  attorney-general  in 
Gladstone's  government  of  1886.  His  re- 
election upon  taking  office  was  opposed  by 
the  conservatives,  but  he  was  again  re- 
turned. He  threw  himself  with  extraordi- 
nary energy  into  the  home  rule  struggle. 
The  alliance  between  liberals  and  Parnellites 
enabled  him  to  give  full  play  to  his  en- 
thusiasm, and  he  travelled  all  over  England 
addressing  public  meetings,  great  and 
small,  in  every  part  of  the  country.  He 
seemed  unconscious  of  what  such  exertions 
mean  to  most  men  in  point  of  fatigue  and 
weariness,  and  was  content  to  forego  the 
gratification,  so  essential  to  most  politicians, 
of  elaborate  notices  in  the  daily  press.  His 
speeches  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  the 
home  rule  bill  were  probably  his  best  par- 
liamentary performances.  In  supporting 
the  second  reading  he  referred  to  '  the  so- 
called  loyal  minority '  as  not  being  an  aid 
but  a  hindrance  to  any  solid  union  between 
England  and  Ireland.  '  Their  loyalty,'  he 
said,  '  had  a  close  relation  to  their  own 
status  and  their  own  interest.'  At  the 
general  election  of  1888  he  was  again  re- 
turned for  South  Hackney,  defeating  his 
opponent,  Mr.  C.  J.  Darling  (afterwards  a 


Russell 


330 


Russell 


judge  of  the  high  court),  by  a  small  majority. 
Ill  1887  he  resisted  the  passing  of  the 
coercion  bill  of  that  year  in  a  speech  of  con- 
siderable power. 

In  1888  the  Parnell  Commission  Act  was 
passed.  Its  object  was  declared  to  be  to 
create  a  tribunal  to  inquire  into  charges  and 
allegations  made  against  certain  members  of 
parliament  and  other  persons  by  the  de- 
fendants in  the  recent  trial  of  an  action  of 
O'Donnell  v.  Walter  and  another.  Three  of 
the  judges  were  appointed  commissioners, 
and  the  sittings  began  on  22  Oct.  Russell 
appeared  as  leading  counsel  for  Parnell,  and 
the  attorney-general,  Sir  R.  Webster  (now 
Lord  Alverstone  and  lord  chief  justice)  was 
on  the  other  side. 

The  cross-examination  of  many  of  the  Irish 
witnesses  called  by  the  attorney-general  de- 
volved upon  Russell,  and  was  conducted 
under  great  difficulty  and  with  great  suc- 
cess. He  had  no  notice  of  the  order  in  which 
they  would  appear,  and  had  little  informa- 
tion about  them.  Yet  it  was  said  that  few 
witnesses  left  the  box  without  being  suc- 
cessfully attacked  and  disparaged.  His 
famous  speech  for  the  defence  occupied  six 
days,  and  was  concluded  on  12  April  1889. 
It  was  well  suited  to  the  occasion  and  to  the 
tribunal,  and  was  undoubtedly  his  greatest 
forensic  effort.  The  delivery  was  so  slow 
and  so  deliberate  as  to  divest  the  speech  of 
all  oratorical  character.  It  began  with  an 
account  of  the  land  legislation  in  Ireland 
of  much  historical  value.  His  comments 
upon  the  witnesses  were  in  his  best  form, 
and  his  criticism  upon  the  conduct  of  those 
who  had  been  imposed  upon  by  Richard 
Pigott  [q.  v.]  were  strikingly  keen  and 
sagacious.  The  touching  words  with  which 
he  closed  his  speech  are  classic.  They  were 
spoken  with  an  emotion  which  in  court  he 
had  never  shown  before. 

In  1889  he  defended  Mrs.  Maybrick  on 
the  charge  of  poisoning  her  husband.  The 
case  excited  extreme  interest,  and  Russell 
felt  very  deeply  his  failure  to  save  her  from 
a  capital  conviction. 

In  1890  he  spoke  in  the  debate  in  the 
House  of  Commons  on  the  report  of  the 
special  commission.  His  speech  was  de- 
scribed in  the  '  Times '  as  being  that  of  an 
advocate,  but  '  a  very  able  speech  in  which 
argument,  invective,  cajolery,  and  eloquent 
appeals  to  prejudice  or  sentiment  were 
blended  with  practised  skill.' 

In  1892,  on  the  return  of  Gladstone  to 
power,  he  was  again  appointed  attorney- 

gneral,  and  was  once   more  returned  for 
ackney  by  a   large  majority.     In   1893, 
together  with  Sir  R.  Webster,  he  repre- 


sented Great  Britain  in  the  Behring  Sea 
arbitration.  The  points  in  controversy  were 
these.  The  United  States,  by  an  alleged 
purchase  from  Russia  in  1867,  set  up  as 
matter  of  title  an  exclusive  jurisdiction  over 
the  sealing  industry  in  the  Behring  Sea.  This 
was  denied  by  Great  Britain.  Independently 
of  this  title  the  United  States  claimed  to  be 
the  lawful  protectors  of  the  seals  bred  in  the 
islands  of  the  Behring  Sea,  as  trustees  for  all 
nations.  In  support  of  this  contention  a 
novel  legal  doctrine  was  advanced  by  Mr. 
Carter,  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  United 
States,  and  was  supported  by  an  address  of 
great  length  and  ingenuity.  The  arbitrators 
were  invited  to  apply  to  the  question  of 
pelagic  sealing  what  were  called  '  prin- 
ciples of  right,'  viz.,  those  rules  upon  which 
civilised  nations  ought  to  be  agreed.  This, 
it  was  said,  was  international  law.  This 
contention  was  combated  with  vigour,  and 
necessarily  with  great  labour,  by  Russell  and 
Sir  R.WTebster,  the  former  speaking  for  eleven 
and  the  latter  for  five  days.  They  contended 
that  international  law  consisted  of  the  rules 
which  civilised  nations  had  agreed  to  treat 
as  binding.  These  rules  were  not  to  be 
ascertained  by  reference  to  'principles  of 
right,'  but  were  to  be  found  in  the  records 
of  international  transactions.  It  was  argued 
that,  apart  from  actual  consent,  so  ascer- 
tained, there  was  no  universal  moral  standard. 
The  award  on  these  points  was  in  favour  of 
Great  Britain.  The  discussion  as  to  the  future 
regulations  for  the  management  of  the  sealing 
industry  occupied  eight  days.  Russell's  ser- 
vices were  acknowledged  by  the  conferring 
upon  him  of  the  grand  cross  of  St.  Michael 
and  St.  George. 

In  May  1894  he  succeeded  Charles  Synge 
Christopher,  lord  Bowen  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  as  lord 
of  appeal,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  for 
life  by  the  title  of  Russell  of  Killowen.  In 
June  of  the  same  year,  on  the  death  of  John 
Duke,  lord  Coleridge  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  he  was 
appointed  lord  chief  justice,  and  entered  upon 
that  part  of  his  career  in  which  he  earned 
the  reputation  by  which  he  will  be  best  re- 
membered. As  chief  justice  he  was  as  master- 
ful as  ever,  but  he  was  patient,  courteous,  and 
dignified.  In  his  knowledge  of  the  law  and 
in  those  qualities  requisite  for  the  discharge 
of  his  great  duties,  he  was  the  superior  of 
many  of  his  illustrious  predecessors.  No 
judge  gained  more  speedily  and  enjoyed  more 
fully  the  confidence  and  goodwill  of  the 
public. 

Outside  the  range  of  his  judicial  duties 
there  were  subjects  in  which  he  took  a  deep 
interest. 

In  1895  he  supported  the  judges  of  his 


Russell 


331 


Russell 


division  in  the  endeavour  to  establish  the 
court  for  the  trial  of  commercial  causes,  a 
project  which  for  many  years  had  been  met 
by  the  strenuous  and  successful  opposition 
of  Lord  Coleridge.  In  the  same  year  he  de- 
livered an  address  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Hall  on 
legal  education.  He  dwelt  at  length  on  the 
failure  of  the  existing  system,  and  insisted 
that  no  student  should  be  admitted  to  the 
degree  of  barrister  who  had  not  given  proot 
of  his  professional  competency.  He  be- 
stowed faint  praise  on  the  council  of  legal 
education,  and  urged  that  there  should  be 
a  charter  of  a  school  of  law  with  a  senate 
not  wholly  composed  of  benchers  and 
lawyers.  His  comments  were  resented  and 
entirely  disregarded.  It  was  said  the  public 
did  not  demand  any  change  in  the  existing 
system.  The  degree  of  barrister  no  more 
implied  a  knowledge  of  the  law  than  the 
degree  of  the  universities  was  a  guarantee 
of  scholarship.  The  old  formula  was  re- 
peated, that  the  best  lawyer  is  self-taught. 
It  was  pointed  out  that  prior  to  his  call  the 
chief  justice  himself  obtained  his  knowledge 
of  the  law  with  the  help  of  the  readers  of 
the  Inns  of  Court — an  excellent  argument 
for  the  existing  system  if  all  law  students 
were  as  able  as  Russell.  The  benchers  were 
firm ;  he  was  vox  clamantis  as  Westbury  and 
Selborne  had  been  before  him. 

The  years  following  were  occupied  by  his 
ordinary  judicial  duties ;  the  trial  of  the 
Jameson  raiders  in  1896  was  the  principal 
event ;  the  law  was  laid  down  by  Russell 
with  great  clearness  and  firmness,  and  the 
defendants  were  convicted. 

In  1896  he  visited  the  United  States  for 
the  purpose  of  delivering  an  address  to 
American  lawyers  assembled  at  Saratoga. 
He  chose  for  his  subject  '  Arbitration :  its 
Origin,  History,  and  Prospects.'  He  adhered 
to  the  view  that  he  had  laid  before  the 
Behring  Sea  arbitrators — that  international 
law  was  neither  more  nor  less  than  what 
civilised  nations  have  agreed  shall  be  binding 
on  one  another.  Amid  great  applause  he 
expressed  hopes  for  the  peaceful  settlement 
of  disputes  between  nations. 

In  1899,  on  the  death  of  Farrer,  lord 
Herschell,  he  was  appointed  in  his  place 
to  act  as  one  of  the  arbitrators  to  deter- 
mine the  boundaries  of  British  Guiana  and 
Venezuela  under  the  treaty  of  2  Feb.  1897. 
The  arbitration  was  held*  in  Paris,  Great 
Britain  being  represented  by  Sir  R.  Webster 
and  Sir  R.  Reid,  and  Venezuela  by  American 
counsel.  Though  he  took  little  part  in  the 
discussion,  he  displayed  in  the  conduct  of 
the  inquiry  his  old  power  of  seizing  upon 
and  directing  attention  to  the  vital  points, 


and  of  rescuing  the  argument  from  details 
which  only  obscured  the  real  issues.  The 
award  was  in  favour  of  Great  Britain,  and 
was  remarkable  for  the  fact  that  it  wa» 
arrived  at  unanimously. 

In  July  1900  he  left  town  for  the  North 
Wales  circuit.  At  Chester  he  was  attacked 
by  alarming  symptoms  of  illness, 'and  was 
advised  to  come  home.  In  a  few  days  it 
became  clear  that  there  was  grave  internal 
j  mischief.  After  an  attempt  to  relieve  him 
by  an  operation  he  died  on  10  Aug.  at 
2  Cromwell  Houses,  Kensington.  He  was 
buried  at  Epsom  on  the  14th.  He  was  sur- 
vived by  his  widow  and  five  sons  and  four 
daughters. 

In  Russell  were  combined  qualities  of 
character  and  temperament  that  are  usually 
found  apart.  He  was  a  blending  of  the 
northern  and  southern  Irishman.  With  his 
keen  intellect  and  resolute  will  he  united 
much  sensibility  and  even  enthusiasm.  He 
was  a  man  of  business  and  a  man  of  dreams. 
Under  a  manner  often  cold  and  severe  there 
lay  concealed  great  kindliness  and  considera- 
tion for  others. 

His  amusements  were  those  of  an  idle  man. 
He  did  not.  find  relaxation  in  books.  He  was 
an  indefatigable  player  of  whist  and  piquet, 
and  a  familiar  figure  on  race-courses.  His 
interest  in  horses  was  chiefly  confined  to 
'  blood-stock.'  He  possessed  a  store  of  know- 
ledge of  the  ancestors  and  descendants  of  dis- 
tinguished winners,  and  never  tired  of  dis- 
coursing of  them  in  congenial  company.  He 
prided  himself  upon  his  skill  in  identifying 
in  the  paddock  the  offspring  of  a  famous  sire. 

His  activity  and  energy  followed  him  in 
his  pursuit  of  recreation,  and,  if  bent  upon 
a  project,  he  was  careless  of  fatigue  and 
labour.  He  was  large-minded  in  his  views 
of  men  and  things,  and  his  intimate  friends 
included  those  who  differed  widely  from 
him  and  each  other  in  station,  politics,  and 
religion. 

When  hard  at  work  he  shut  himself 
up  at  his  chambers  or  at  his  country  house, 
Tad  worth  Court,  near  Epsom,  but  when  free 
he  was  indisposed  to  seclusion.  For  society 
he  preferred  many  to  few,  and  he  readily 
accepted  invitations  to  address  public  meet- 
ings upon  politics,  education,  or  for  charitable 
projects.  Even  after  he  became  chief  justice 
he  was  ready  to  preside  upon  public  occasions, 
and  principally  at  dinners  for  benevolent  ob- 
jects. While  he  never  failed  to  interest  his 
audience  his  style  was  sombre,  and  he  was 
more  disposed  to  dwell  upon  shortcomings 
than  to  congratulate  upon  achievements. 
The  information  and  statistics  which  he 
imparted  to  his  audience  had  usually  been 


Russell 


332 


Russell 


acquired  by  a  vigorous  cross-examination  of 
a  secretary  or  member  of  committee  which 
was  only  completed  just  before  he  rose  to 
speak. 

He  had  a  strong  view  of  his  obligation 
to  enforce  the  duty  of  honesty  and  good 
faith  in  commercial  transactions.  His  pro- 
tests from  the  bench  against  fraud  in  the 
promotion  of  companies  and  the  practice  of 
receiving  commissions  were  offered  coura- 
geously, and  his  sanguine  disposition  led  him 
to  believe  that  good  results  would  follow. 
The  secret  commissions  bill  which  he  intro- 
duced in  the  House  of  Lords  in  1900  cost  him 
infinite  labour,  the  collection  of  the  necessary 
materials  involving  him  in  a  personal  corre- 
spondence with  public  bodies  and  individuals 
all  over  the  kingdom. 

He  published  the  following  works :  '  New 
Views  of  Ireland,  or  Irish  Land :  grievances : 
remedies '  (reprinted  from  the  '  Daily  Tele- 
graph '),  London,  1880,  8vo ;  '  The  Christian 
Schools  of  England  and  recent  Legislation 
concerning  them,'  London,  1883,  8vo;  an 
article  on  Lord  Coleridge,  C.  J.,  in  the  '  North 
American  Review '  in  1894  ;  an  article  on  the 
legal  profession  in  the  'Strand  Magazine'  in 
1896 ;  '  Address  on  Legal  Education,'  Lon- 
don, 1895,  8vo ;  '  Arbitration  :  its  Origin, 
History,  and  Prospects :  an  Address  to  the 
Saratoga  Congress,  London,  1896. 

The  income  that  he  made  at  the  bar  was  . 
very  great.  His  fee-book  shows  that  from 
1862  to  1872  he  made  as  junior  on  an 
average  3,000/.  a  year.  He  took  silk  in  1872, 
and  for  the  following  ten  years  he  made  at 
the  rate  of  10,000/.  a  year.  From  1882  to 
1892  his  annual  earnings  averaged  nearly 
16,000/.,  and  from  1893,  when  he  was  again 
appointed  attorney-general,  till  he  became  a 
lord  of  appeal  in  April  1894,  he  received 
32,826/. 

The  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  was  con- 
feired  upon  him  by  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
in  1894,  by  the  Laval  University,  Canada, 
by  Edinburgh  University  in  1896,  and  by 
the  university  of  Cambridge  in  1897.  The 
best  likeness  of  him  is  the  portrait  by  Mr. 
J.  S.  Sargent,  R.A.,  now  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  family,  a  replica  of  which  it  is 
proposed  to  place  in  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery. 

[Personal  knowledge;  Times,  11  Aug.  1900; 
Burke's  Peerage,  1900  ;  G.  E.  C[okayne]'s  Com- 
plete Peerage ;  Foster's  Men  at  the  Bar ;  Lin- 
coln's Inn  Reg. ;  Law  List,  various  years.] 

J.  C.  M. 

RUSSELL,  HENRY  (1812-1900),  vo- 
calist and  song  composer,  was  born  at  Sheer- 
ness,  where  his  father  held  a  government 
appointment,  on  24  Dec.  1812.  He  made 


his  first  appearance  on  the  stage  at  the  age 
of  three,  in  connection  with  a  travelling 
theatrical  company.  At  the  age  of  six  he 
began  to  study  the  pianoforte,  but  for  a  time 
he  was  a  boy  in  a  chemist's  shop  in  Seven 
Dials.  Russell  appeared  as  a  vocalist  in 
1828  at  the  Surrey  Theatre,  under  Elliston's 
management,  at  a  weekly  salary  of  30*., 
when  he  sang  the  '  Pilgrim  of  Love '  and 
similar  popular  ditties.  In  his  teens  he  went 
to  Italy,  first  becoming  an  outdoor  student 
of  the  Bologna  conservatoire,  subsequently 
studying  under  Rossini  at  Naples,  and  meet- 
ing Balfe,  Bellini,  Donizetti,  and  other 
musical  celebrities.  Upon  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  was  for  a  short  time  chorus  master 
at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre. 

In  order  to  find  a  remunerative  field  of 
work  Russell  went  to  Canada,  where  he 
started  his  one-man  entertainments  that 
made  him  famous.  For  a  short  time  he  was 
organist  of  the  presbyterian  church,  Ro- 
chester (N.  Y.)  From  1833  to  1841  he  tra- 
velled incessantly  in  Canada  and  America, 
singing  his  songs,  '  Cheer,  boys,  cheer,' 
'  There's  a  good  time  coming,  boys,'  '  A  Life 
on  the  Ocean  Wave,'  '  O  Woodman,  spare 
that  Tree,'  and  many  others  with  extra- 
ordinary success.  In  1841  he  returned  to 
England,  and,  in  giving  his  entertainments 
in  London  and  the  provinces,  repeated  in  his 
native  country  the  triumphs  which  had  at- 
tended him  in  the  American  continent.  He 
subsequently, with  Dr. Charles  Mackay[q.v.], 
ran  an  entertainmententitled  'The  Far  West, 
or  the  Emigrant's  Progress  from  the  Old 
World  to  the  New,'  with  scenery  painted 
by  Mills.  This,  in  addition  to  being  remark- 
ably successful,  had  a  distinct  influence  upon 
emigration  to  the  far  west.  About  1865 
Russell  retired  from  public  life.  He  died 
at  18  Howley  Place,  Maida  Vale,  on  8  Dec. 
1900,  and  his  remains  are  interred  in  Kensal 
Green  cemetery. 

Russell  composed  about  eight  hundred 
songs,  of  which  not  a  few  of  the  verses  were 
written  expressly  for  him  by  his  old  friend, 
Dr.  Charles  Mackay,  other  authors  drawn 
upon  being  Longfellow,  Eliza  Cook,  Charles 
Dickens,  and  other  homely  poets.  Their 
themes  were  of  so  essentially  domestic  and 
popular  a  nature  that  they  at  once  caught 
the  fancy  of  the  public.  Not  a  little  of  the 
success,  however,  which  attended  them  was 
due  to  their  composer's  remarkable  enuncia- 
tion of  the  words  in  the  singing  of  his  songs, 
combined  with  a  dramatic  intensity  which 
thrilled  his  hearers.  This  feature  of  his 
entertainments  was  suggested  to  him  when 
listening  to  the  orations  of  Henry  Clay, 
the  great  Kentucky  orator.  '  There  is  no 


Rutherford 


333 


Rutherford 


reason  why  I  should  not  apply  his  methods 
to  my  singing  of  songs/  said  Russell :  the 
success  of  the  experiment  was  unprecedented. 
In  addition  to  the  large  number  of  de- 
tached songs  already  referred  to,  Russell 
composed  (1)  a  series  of  songs  from  Scott's 
'  Lady  of  the  Lake ;'  (2)  Scripture  melodies ; 
(3)  dramatic  scenes;  (4)  cantatas,  &c.,  with 
a  memoir,  London,  1846 ;  (5)  two  vols.  of 
copyright  songs,  1800;  (6)  'L'Amico  dei 
Cantanti '  ('  The  Singer's  Friend,  a  Treatise 
on  the  Art  of  Singing'),  1830,  dedicated  to 
Princess  (afterwards  Queen)  Victoria.  In 
1889  the  admiralty  authorised  the  use  of  j 
his  melody,  'A  Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave,'  as 
the  regimental  march  of  the  royal  marines, 
and  on  12  Oct.  1891  Sir  Augustus  Harris 
[q.  v.  Suppl.]  organised  a  Henry  Russell  night 
at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  when  the  veteran 
composer  was  present  and  made  a  speech. 
In  1895  Russell  published  a  book  of  gossipy 
reminiscences,  entitled  '  Cheer,  boys,  cheer,' 
named  after  his  most  popular  song. 

[Russell's  '  Cheer,  boys,  cheer,'  1895;  James 
D.  Brown  and  S.  S.  Stratton's  British  Musical 
Biography ;  Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ;  Musical  Times, 
January  1901,  p.  27.]  F.  G.  E. 

RUTHERFORD,  WILLIAM  (1839-  ; 
1899),  physiologist,  the  seventh  and  youngest 
son  of  Thomas  Rutherford,  a  gentleman 
farmer,  was  born  at  Ancrum  Craig  in  Rox-  ! 
burghshire  on  20  April  1839,  and  was  edu- 
cated  in  the  district  grammar  school.  He  : 
then  entered  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
where  he  graduated  M.D.  in  1863,  taking  a  <• 
gold  medal  for  his  thesis.  He  acted  as 
house-phvsician  at  the  Royal  Infirmary  to 
Daniel  Rutherford  Haldane  (1824-1887) 
[q.  v.],  and  as  house-surgeon  to  James  Spence 
[q.  v.J  For  a  year  he  was  assistant  demon- 
strator of  anatomy  at  Surgeons'  Hall  under 
(Sir)  John  Struthers  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  after  which 
he  went  abroad  to  perfect  his  knowledge  of 
experimental  physiology.  He  spent  the  winter 
of  1864-5  in  Berlin,  working  under  Pro- 
fessor Du  Bois-Reymond,  to  gain  a  special 
insight  into  electrical  physiology.  Thence 
he  passed  to  Dresden,  Prague,  Vienna,  Leip- 
zig, where  he  worked  with  Professor  Lud- 
wig,  and  Paris.  In  1865  he  returned  to 
Edinburgh,  and  was  appointed  assistant  to 
John  Hughes  Bennett  (1812-1875)  [q.  y.], 
then  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine 
in  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  Rutherford 
was  much  influenced  by  the  perfect  lucidity 
which  was  his  master's  chief  characteristic. 
But  he  added  to  it  the  labour  of  research  and 
preparation,  so  that  his  four  years'  assistant- 
ship  established  his  reputation  as  a  practical 
teacher,  and,  combined  with  his  original 


investigations,  procured  for  him  the  post  of 
professor  of  physiology  in  King's  College, 
London,  to  which  he  was  appointed  in  1869. 
He  threw  himself  with  ardour  into  the 
duties  of  the  chair.  His  lectures  were 
illustrated  by  the  most  admirable  diagrams 
and  by  the  performance  of  precise  and  delicate 
experiments,  whose  preparation  often  cost 
him  hours  of  preliminary  work.  Above  all, 
his  students  were  made  to  prepare  micro- 
scopical sections  for  themselves,  and  to  carry 
out  the  easier  manipulations  in  connection 
with  physiological  chemistry  and  experi- 
mental physiology.  In  1871  Rutherford 
filled  the  office  of  Fullerian  professor  of 
physiology  at  the  Royal  Institution  of  Lon- 
don, and  in  1874  he  returned  to  Edinburgh 
as  professor  of  physiology,  a  post  he  held 
until  his  death.  He  died  unmarried  on  21  Feb. 
1899,  and  is  buried  at  Ancrum.  A  marble 
bust,  said  to  be  an  excellent  likeness,  by  John 
Hutchinson,  R.S.A.,  stands  in  the  physio- 
logy class  room  at  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh. It  was  unveiled  by  Sir  William 
Muir,  principal  of  the  university,  on  8  July 
1899. 

The  science  of  histology  owes  much  to 
Rutherford  ;  he  was  one  of  the  first  teachers 
in  this  country  to  deviate  from  the  old 
methods  of  instruction,  and  to  introduce  the 
improvements  which  had  been  found  most 
serviceable  in  foreign  laboratories.  He 
modified  a  microtome,  invented  by  A.  B. 
Stirling,  adding  to  it  a  freezing  chamber ;  the 
apparatus  rapidly  came  into  extensive  use, 
and  proved  of  great  service  in  the  study  both 
of  histology  and  pathology.  As  a  physiolo- 
gist he  was  interested  in  the  recondite  pro- 
blems of  electro-physiology,  and  in  the  phy- 
siological action  of  drugs  on  the  secretion  of 
the  bile,  and  later  in  life  he  devoted  much 
time  to  investigate  the  structure  of  striated 
muscle  and  the  mechanism  of  the  senses. 

Rutherford  devoted  much  valuable  time, 
which  might  have  been  spent  in  original  re- 
|  search,  to  perfecting  his  lectures  on  physio- 
logy, and  to  rendering  them  in  the  highest 
degree  useful  and  acceptable  to  his  class. 
This  care  and  minute  attention  to  detail 
rendered  him  one  of  the  most  successful  as 
well  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  lecturers 
who  have  held  a  professorial  chair  in  the 
university  of  Edinburgh.  Yet  Rutherford 
was  shy,  almost  to  timidity,  and  he  was  full 
of  mannerisms  and  extremely  sensitive  to 
criticism.  He  was  a  good  musician,  with  a 
fine  baritone  voice,  and  for  som  e  time  he  acted 
as  secretary  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh 
Musical  Society. 

Rutherford's  works  are:    1.  'Notes  of  a 
Course  of  Practical  Histology  for  Medical 


Ryder 


334 


Ryle 


Students,  given  in  King's  College,  London,' 
London,  1872,  8vo.  2.  '  Introductory  Lec- 
ture to  the  Course  of  Institutes  of  Medicine 
(Physiology)  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh,' Edinburgh,  1874,  8vo.  3.  'Out- 
lines of  Practical  Histology,'  London,  1875, 
royal  8vo ;  2nd  edit,  London,  1876.  4.  '  An 
Experimental  Research  on  the  Physiological 
Actions  of  Drugs  on  the  Secretion  of  Bile,' 
Edinburgh,  1880,  8vo.  5.  '  A  Text  Book  of 
Physiology,' Edinburgh,  1880,  8vo.  He  was 
also  co-editor  of  the  '  Journal  of  Anatomy 
and  Physiology,'  Cambridge  and  London, 
1875-6,  and  of  the  '  Journal  of  Physiology,' 
London  and  Cambridge,  1878. 

[Personal  knowledge ;  British  Medical  Journal, 
1899,  i.  564;  private  information.]  D'A.  P. 

RYDER,  DUDLEY  FRANCIS 
STUART,  third  EARL  OF  HARROWBT 
(1831-1900),  second  son  and  eventual  heir 
of  Dudley  Ryder,  second  earl  of  Harrowby 
[q.  v.l,  by  Lady  Frances  Stuart, fourth  daugh- 
ter of  John,  first  marquis  of  Bute,  was  born 
at  Brighton  on  16  Jan.  1831.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  ths  university  of  Oxford, 
where  he  matriculated  from  Christ  Church  on 
31  May  1849,  graduated  B.A.  in  1853,  and 
proceeded  M.A.  in  1878.  On  leaving  the 
university,  Viscount  Sandon,  as  he  was  styled 
during  his  father's  lifetime,  made  a  tour  in 
the  East  with  Lord  Carnarvon,  visiting  Syria 
and  the  Lebanon  (see  CARNARVON'S  Recol- 
lections of  the  Druses  of  the  Lebanon,  London, 
1860,  8vo).  On  his  return  to  England  he  did 
garrison  duty  as  captain  in  the  2nd  Stafford- 
shire militia  regiment  during  the  Crimean 
war  and  Indian  mutiny.  He  entered  parlia- 
ment in  1856,  being  returned  (30  May)  for 
Lichfield  as  a  supporter  of  Lord  Palmerston, 
and  gained  experience  of  affairs  as  private 
secretary  to  Henry  Labouchere  (afterwards 
Lord  Taunton)  [q.  v.]  at  the  colonial  office. 
Defeated  at  the  general  elect  ion  of  April  1859, 
he  remained  without  a  seat  until  1868,  when 
he  was  returned  (19  Nov.)  as  third  member 
for  Liverpool,  which  constituency  he  con- 
tinued to  represent  until  his  accession  to  the 
peerage  on  the  death  of  his  father  (19  Nov. 
1882).  He  was  a  member  of  the  select  com- 
mittees on  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  (1857) 
and  the  Euphrates  Valley  (1871-2),  and  con- 
tinued throughout  life  to  devote  much  time 
and  attention  to  the  study  of  imperial  and 
colonial  questions.  It  is,  however,  by  his 
labours  in  the  cause  of  national  education  that 
he  is  most  likely  to  be  remembered.  To  W.  E. 
Forster's  measure  he  gave  from  the  first  a 
hearty  support.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
first  London  school  board,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  its  work,  both  as  chairman  of  the 


statistical  committee  and  as  a  firm  though 
moderate  supporter  of  voluntary  schools  and 
religious  instruction.  On  the  return  of  his 
party  to  power  in  1874  he  was  sworn 
(2  March)  of  the  privy  council,  and  ap- 
pointed vice-president  of  the  committee  of 
council  on  education.  In  his  official  ca- 
pacity he  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
Education  Act  of  1876  and  the  revised  codes. 
On  4  April  1878  he  was  transferred  to  the 
presidency  of  the  board  of  trade,  which  he 
retained  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  until  the 
fall  of  the  administration  (April  1880).  He 
was  lord  privy  seal  in  Lord  Salisbury's  short 
administration  (June  1885-February  1886), 
and  served  on  the  royal  commission  appointed 
on  15  Jan.  1886  to  inquire  into  the  working 
of  the  Education  Acts.  An  earnest  though 
moderate  churchman,  he  was  credited  with  a 
voice  in  the  distribution  of  ecclesiastical 
patronage  during  the  Beaconsfield  adminis- 
tration, and  in  1886  became  president  of  the 
British  and  Foregn  Bible  Society,  and  re- 
presentative for  the  diocese  of  Lichfield  in 
the  laymen's  house  of  convocation.  He  was 
elected  member  and  chairman  of  the  Stafford- 
shire county  council  in  1888.  His  health 
was  hardly  equal  to  the  strain  of  public  life, 
and  in  his  later  years  he  was  almost  a  chronic 
invalid.  He  died  at  Sandon  Hall,  Stafford- 
shire, on  26  March  1900,  leaving  no  issue  by 
his  wife,  Lady  Mary  Frances  Cecil  (married 
3  Oct.  1861),  eldest  daughter  of  Brownlow, 
second  marquis  of  Exeter.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  title  and  estate  by  his  only  brother, 
Henry  Dudley,  fourth  earl  of  Harrowby,  who 
died  at  Algiers  on  11  Dec.  1900  (Times, 
13  Dec.) 

[Foster's  Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886;  G.  E. 
C[okayne]'s  Complete  Peerage ;  Burke's  Peerage, 
1899;  Members  of  Parliament  (official  lists); 
Hansard's  Parl.  Debates.  3rd  ser.  cxciv.  to  4th 
ser.  Ixvi. ;  Parl.  Papers  (H.  C.),  1857  c.  224.  260, 
1872  c.  322 ;  Reid's  Life  of  W.  E.  Forster ;  Dale's 
Life  of  E.  W.  Dale ;  Benson's  Life  of  Arch- 
bishop Benson,  ii.  664  ;  Davidson  nnd  Benham's 
Life  of  Archbishop  Tait,  ii.  105  ;  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society's  Reports,  1886-99  ;  Men 
and  Women  of  the  Time  (1895);  Haydn's  Book 
of  Dignities,  ed.  Ockerby.]  J.  M.  R. 

RYLE,  JOHN  CHARLES  (1816-1900), 
bishop  of  Liverpool,  eldest  son  of  John  Ryle, 
private  banker,  of  Park  House,  Macclesfield, 
M.P.  for  Macclesfield  1833-7,  by  Susanna, 
daughter  of  Charles  Hurt  of  Wirksworth, 
Derbyshire,  was  born  at  Macclesfield  on 
10  May  1816.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  the  university  of  Oxford,  where  his  career 
was  unusually  distinguished.  He  was  Fell 
exhibitioner  at  Christ  Church,  from  which 
foundation  he  matriculated  on  15  May  1834. 


Salvin 


335 


Salvin 


He  was  Craven  scholar  in  1836,  graduated 
B.  A.  in  1838,  having  been  placed  in  the  first 
class  in  litera  hunaniores  in  the  preceding 
year,  and  proceeded  M.A.  in  1871.  He  was 
created  D.D.  by  diploma  on  4  May  1880. 
Ryle  left  the  university  with  the  intention 
of  standing  for  parliament  on  the  first  oppor- 
tunity, but  was  deprived  of  the  means  of 
gratifying  his  ambition  by  his  father's  bank- 
ruptcy. He  accordingly  took  holy  orders 
(1841-2)  and  a  cure  of  souls  at  Exbury, 
Hampshire.  In  1843  he  was  preferred  to 
the  rectory  of  St.  Thomas,  Winchester,  which 
he  exchanged  in  the  following  year  for  that 
of  Helmingham,  Suffolk.  The  latter  living 
he  retained  until  1861,  when  he  resigned  it 
for  the  vicarage  of  Stradbroke  in  the  same 
county.  The  restoration  of  Stradbroke  church 
was  due  to  his  initiative.  In  1869  he  was 
made  rural  dean  of  Hoxne,  and  in  1872 
honorary  canon  of  Norwich.  He  was  select 
preacher  at  Cambridge  in  1873  and  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  at  Oxford  from  1874  to 
1876,  and  in  1879  and  the  following  year. 
In  1880  he  was  designated  dean  of  Salisbury, 
and  at  once  (19  April)  advanced  to  the 
newly  created  see  of  Liverpool,  which  he 
ably  administered  until  his  death  on  10  J.une 
1900. 

He  married  thrice :  first,  on  29  Oct.  1845, 
Matilda  Charlotte  Louisa,  daughter  of  John 
Pemberton  Plumptre,  of  Fredville,  Kent ; 
secondly,  in  March  1850,  Jessy,  daughter  of 
John  Walker  of  Crawfordton,  Dumfriesshire ; 
thirdly,  on  24  Oct.  1861,  Henrietta,  daugh- 
ter of  Lieutenant-colonel  William  Legh 
Clowes  of  Broughton  Old  Hall,  Lancashire. 
He  had  issue  a  daughter  by  his  first  wife, 
and  three  sons  by  his  second  wife,  of  whom 
Herbert  is  now  bishop  of  Exeter. 

Ryle  belonged  to  the  evangelical  school, 


of  which  he  was  one  of  the  strongest  and 
not  the  least  liberal  supporters.  He  pos- 
sessed an  unusual  command  of  pure  and 
nervous  English,  and  was  a  prolific  author 
of  tracts,  of  which  some  have  been  translated 
into  foreign  languages.  His  charges,  and  not 
a  few  of  his  sermons,  are  also  in  print.  His 
most  important  works  are:  1.  'The  Bishop, 
the  Pastor,  and  the  Preacher,  in  three  Bio- 
graphical Lectures '  (on  Latimer,  Baxter,  and 
Whitefield),  Ipswich,  1854,  8vo;  reprinted, 
with  additions,  as  '  The  Priest,  the  Puritan, 
and  the  Preacher,'  New  York,  1856. 
2.  '  Hymns  for  the  Church  on  Earth' 
(selected  and  arranged),  London,  1860,  8vo  ; 
5th  edit,  (enlarged),  1882.  3.  '  Bishops  and 
Clergy  of  other  Days ;  or,  the  Lives  of  two 
Reformers  and  three  Puritans'  (Hooper, 
Latimer,  Ward,  Baxter,  and  Gurnall),  Lon- 
don, 1868,  8vo.  4. 'The  Christian  Leaders 
of  the  Last  Century;  or,  England  a  Hundred 
Years  ago,'  London,  1869,  8vo.  5. '  Lessons 
from  English  Church  History:  a  Lecture,' 
London,  1871,  8vo.  6.  '  What  do  we  owe 
to  the  Reformation?'  London,  1877,  8vo. 
7.  'Facts  and  Men.  Being  Pages  from 
English  Church  History  between  1553  and 
1683,'  London,  1882, 8vo.  8.  « Principles  for 
Churchmen :  a  Manual  of  Positive  State- 
ments on  doubtful  or  disputed  Points,'  Lon- 
don, 1884,  8vo.  9.  'The  Upper  Room. 
Being  a  Few  Truths  for  the  Times,'  Lon- 
don, 1888,  8vo. 

[Eton  School  Lists,  'election  1832; '  Foster's 
Alumni  Oxon.  1715-1886;  Oxford  Cal.  1837-8; 
Crockford's  Clerical  Direct.  1899  ;  Burke's  Peer- 
age, 1899;  Macdonell's  Life  of  Archbishop 
Magee ;  Benson's  Life  of  Archbishop  Benson ; 
Times,  11  June  1900  ;  '  Bishop  Eyle  the  Prince 
of  Tract  Writers'  (Drummond  Tract  Depot, 
Stirling).]  J.  M.  R. 


S 


SALVIN,  OSBERT  (1835-1898),  natu- 
ralist, second  son  of  Anthony  Salvin 
[q.  v.l,  was  born  at  Elmshurst,  Finchley, 
Middlesex,  on  25  Feb.  1835.  He  was  edu- 
cated under  the  Rev.  Charles  Worsley  at 
the  Manor  House,  Finchley,  and  at  West- 
minster School  (admitted  17  Jan.  1846), 
going  in  1853  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  a  scholarship  at  the  end  of  his 
first  year,  and  graduated  B.A.  as  senior 
optime  in  the  mathematical  tripos  of  1857. 
He  graduated  M.A.  in  1860,  and  was  elected 
an  honorary  fellow  of  his  college  in  1897. 
While  at  Westminster  he  and  his  elder 
brother  built  and  fitted  two  small  steamers, 


which  were  ultimately  bought  for  use  on 
some  of  the  Indian  rivers.  A  born  naturalist, 
and  especially  addicted  to  ornithology,  ento- 
mology, and  palaeontology,  Salvin  devoted 
much  of  his  leisure  time  at  Cambridge  to 
their  pursuit,  and  on  taking  his  degree  joined 
his  second  cousin  by  marriage,  Mr.  (afterwards 
Canon)  Tristram,  in  a  five  months'  natural 
history  exploration  of  Tunis  and  Eastern 
Algeria. 

In  the  autumn  of  1857  Salvin  visited 
Guatemala  with  Mr.  George  Ure  Skinner, 
the  discoverer  and  importer  of  orchids.  In 
the  middle  of  the  following  year  he  joined 
Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  Edward  Newton  in  the 


Salvin 


336 


Sedgwick 


Antilles,  but  returned  after  a  few  months  to 
Central  America,  where  he  proved  himself 
an  unsurpassed  collector.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land in  May  1860,  he  set  off  again  in  the 
autumn  of  1861,  in  company  with  his  old 
college  friend,  Mr.  F.  Ducane  Godman,  for 
Guatemala,  twice  ascending  the  Volcan  de 
Fuego  near  that  city.  This  tour  ended  in 
January  1863,  and  soon  after  his  return  home 
he  was  induced  to  undertake  the  manage- 
ment of  some  engineering  works  in  the  north 
of  England,  but  this  employment  being  dis- 
tasteful did  not  last  long. 

On  24  May  1865  he  married  Caroline, 
daughter  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Maitland  of  Lough- 
ton,  Essex,  and  in  1873,  accompanied  by  her, 
made  another  journey  to  Central  America, 
returning  by  way  of  the  United  States,  in 
order  to  inspect  the  collections  in  the  prin- 
cipal museums. 

In  1874,  on  the  foundation  of  the  Strick- 
land curatorship  of  ornithology  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,  Salvin  accepted  the 
post  and  filled  it  till  1882,  when,  having  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  property,  he  removed  to 
Hawksfold,  near  Farnhurst,  Sussex.  There 
he  died  from  an  affection  of  the  heart  on 
1  June  1898.  He  became  a  fellow  of  the 
Zoological  Society  in  1860,  of  the  Linnean 
Society  in  1864,  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1873,  frequently  serving  on  their  councils ; 
he  joined  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in 
1883,  and  was  also  a  fellow  of  the  Entomo- 
logical Society. 

Salvin's  opinion  was  widely  sought  by 
his  fellow  naturalists  on  account  of  the 
soundness  of  his  advice  and  the  breadth  of 
his  scientific  views ;  his  knowledge  in  all 
branches  of  his  favourite  science  was  ex- 
tensive, though  his  attention  was  more  par- 
ticularly directed  to  the  birds  of  tropical 
America,  on  which  he  was  an  acknowledged 
authority,  and  to  the  Lepidoptera  Rhopa- 
locera  among  insects. 

The  work  in  connection  with  which  he 
was  probably  best  known  is  the  '  Biologia 
Centrali-Americana,'  edited  conjointly  with 
Mr.  F.  D.  Godman,  the  two  friends  being 
themselves  responsible  for  the  sections '  Aves' 
(1879-98)  and  '  Lepidoptera  Rhopalocera' 
(begun  in  1879). 

Salvin  was  author  of:  1.  'Exotic  Ornitho- 
logy,' with  P.  L.  Sclater,  London,  1869,  fol. 
2.  '  Synopsis  of  the  Cracidse,'  with  P.  L. 
Sclater,  London,  1870,  8vo.  3.  '  Nomen- 
clator  Avium  Neotropicalium,'  with  P.  L. 
Sclater,  London,  1873,  4to.  4.  'On  the 
Procellariidae,'  '  On  the  Birds  collected  in 
Antarctic  America,'  and  '  On  the  Stegano- 
podes  and  Impennes,'  the  last  two  with 
P.  L.  Sclater  in  '  Reports  of  the  Scientific 


Results  of  the  Challenger  Expedition' 
('  Zoology,'  vol.  ii.  1881).  5.  '  A  Catalogue  of 
the  Collection  of  Birds  formed  by .  .  .  H.  E. 
Strickland,'  Cambridge,  1882, 8vo.  6.  '  Cata- 
logue of  the  Picarife  (Upupse  and  Trochili) 
in  the .  .  .  British  Museum,'  London,  1892, 
8vo.  7.  '  Catalogue  of  the  .  .  .  Tubinares 
in  the.  .  .British  Museum,'  London,  1896, 
8vo.  He  also  contributed  notes  (1)  '  On  some 
Venezuelan  Birds'  to  Spence's  'Land  of 
Bolivar,' vol.  ii.  1878;  (2)  'On  Collecting 
and  Preserving  Reptiles  and  Fish'  to  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society's  '  Hints  to  Tra- 
vellers,' 6th  edit,  1889,  and  7th  edit.  1893; 
descriptions  of  Lepidoptera  Rhopalocera  to 
(3)  Jameson's  '  Story  of  the  Rear  Column ' 
(1890),  and  (4)  Whymper's  'Travels  among 
the  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator'  (1891). 
He  completed  Lord  Lilford's  '  Coloured 
Figures  of  the  Birds  of  the  British  Islands,' 
7  vols.  1885-97  [see  POWTS,  THOMAS  LITTLE- 
TON, Suppl.]  He  was  one  of  the  originators 
of  the  '  Ibis,'  of  which  he  edited  series  iii. 
and  iv.  1871-82,  and  compiled  an  index  to 
series  i-iii.  (1879) ;  and  for  the  Willoughby 
Society  he  edited  'Sir  A.  Smith's  Miscel- 
laneous Ornithological  Papers,'  1880,  and 
'  Leach's  Systematic  Catalogue  of  the  Speci- 
mens of  the  indigenous  Mammalia  and  Birds 
in  the  British  Museum,'  1882.  He  was  also 
author,  or  joint  author  with  Mr.  Godman  or 
Mr.  Sclater,  of  upwards  of  120  papers  on 
ornithology  or  the  Lepidoptera  Rhopalocera 
that  appeared  in  various  scientific  journals  or 
transactions  of  learned  societies  from  1856. 
He  devised  the  simple  method,  now  com- 
monly adopted  in  museums,  of  construct- 
ing cabinets  for  natural  history  specimens 
whereby  deep  and  shallow  drawers  are  in- 
terchangeable. 

[Proc.  Eoyal  Soc.  vol.  Ixiv.  p.  xiii ;  private 
information ;  Nat.  Hist.  Mus.  Cat. ;  Royal  Soc. 
Cat.]  B.  B.  W. 

SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA,    DUKE  OF. 

[See  ALFRED  ERNEST  ALBERT,  1844-1900.] 

SEDGWICK,  AMY  (afterwards  MBS. 
PARKES,  MRS.  PEMBERTON,  and  MRS.  Goos- 
TRY)  (1830-1897),  actress,  was  born  in  Bris- 
tol in  October  1830.  After  acting  as  an 
amateur  in  London  in  1852,  it  is  said  under 
the  name  of  Mortimer,  she  appeared  at  Rich- 
mond theatre  as  Julia  in  the  '  Hunchback.' 
She  was  then  seen  at  Bristol  as  Mrs.  White 
in  the  farce  of  that  name,  and  at  Cardiff 
as  Pauline  in  the  '  Lady  of  Lyons.'  After 
playing  in  various  Yorkshire  towns  she  was 
engaged  by  Knowles  for  three  seasons  at 
Manchester,  where  she  became  a  favourite. 
Her  first  appearance  in  London  was  made  on 
5  Oct.  1857  as  Pauline  in  the '  Lady  of  Lyons' 


Sedgwick 


337 


Sedgwick 


at  the  Haymarket,  where  on  the  13th  she 
played  Constance  in  the  '  Love  Chase.'     On 
7  Nov.  she  was  the  first  Hester  Grazebrook 
in  Taylor's  'Unequal  Match,'  a  part  with 
which  she  was  ever  after  associated.  Beatrice 
in  '  Much  Ado  about  Nothing '  followed  in 
February  1858,  Julia  in  the  'Hunchback' 
on  1  March,  and  on  30  June  Lady  Teazle. 
Subsequently  she  was  seen   as  Juliana  in 
the  '  Honeymoon,'  was  on  12  March  1859 
the   original  Kate   Robertson   in  Palgrave 
Simpson's  '  The  World  and  the  Stage,'  and 
played    Rosalind,    Peg    "VVoftington,    Miss 
Dorillon  in  '  Wives  as  they  were  and  Maids 
as  they  are,'  Mrs.  Haller  in  the  '  Stranger,' 
and    Marie    de    Fontanges    in  '  Plot    and 
Passion.'     On  9  May  1860  she  was  the  first 
Una    in    Falconer's    'Family    Secret,'    on 
23  June  Miss  Vandeleur  in  '  Does  he  love 
me  ? '  by  the  same  writer,  and  Lady  Blanche 
in  Taylor's  '  Babes  in  the  Wood  '  on  10  Nov. 
In  1861  she  was  at  the  Olympic,  where  she 
was  the  first  Mrs.  Bloomly  in  H.  Wigan's 
'Charming  Woman'  on  20  June.      At  the 
Princess's  she  was  on  19  Feb.  1863  the  first 
Orelia  in  Lewis  Filmore's  '  Winning  Suit.' 
She  was   also   the  first  Phoebe  Topper  in 
'  One  Good    Turn    deserves  another,'  and 
Aurora  Ffloyd  in  Mr.   Cheltnam's  adapta- 
tion so  named.      In  1866  she  managed  the 
Haymarket  during  a  summer  season,  and  on 
2  Oct.  at  Drury  Lane  played  Lady  Macbeth 
to  the  Macbeth  of  Sullivan,  and  afterwards 
to  that  of  H.  Talbot.      At  the  Haymarket 
she  was  on  8  July  1867  the  first  Blanche 
de    Raincourt   in    Mead's    adaptation,  the 
'  Coquette.'     On  10  Oct.  1868,  as  directress 
under  H.  B.  Lacy,  she  opened  the  Maryle- 
bone,  renamed  the   Alfred,  with   'Pindee 
Singh  '  by  C.  H.  Stephenson,  in  which  she 
was  Pindee  Singh.      The  experiment  was  a 
failure.   In  Miss  Le  Thiere's  '  All  for  Money,' 
Haymarket,  12  July  1869,  she  was  the  first 
Ida  Fitzhubert.      Her  last  appearance  in 
London  was  at  the  Havmarket  as  Constance 
in  the  'Love  Chase'  (May  1877).    She  in- 
structed pupils  and  gave  dramatic  recitals, 
reading  more  than  once  before  Queen  Vic- 
toria.    Miss  Sedgwick  married  in  1858  Dr. 
W.  B.  Parkes,  who  died  in  1863.     She  was 
subsequently  known  (1876)  as   Mrs.  Pem- 
berton.      She   then   married  Mr.   Goostry. 
Her  portrait  as  Constance  was  presented  to 
the  corporation  of  Brighton,  where  she  lived 
for  some  years.     Subsequently  she  removed 
to  Hayward's  Heath,  \vhere   she   died  on 
7  Nov.  1897,  and  was  buried  on  the  llth. 
She  was  a  capable  actress,  though  she  failed 
to  reach  the  first  rank. 

[Personal    knowledge;   The   Players,    1860; 
Scott  and  Howard's  Blanchard  ;    Daily  Tele- 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


graph,  9  Nov.  1897;  Era,  13  Nov.  1897; 
Athenaeum,  13  Nov.  1897  ;  Era  Almanack, 
various  years;  Sunday  Times,  various  years; 
Pascoe's  Dramatic  List.]  J.  K. 

SEDGWICK,  ROBERT  (d.  1656),  go- 
vernor of  Jamaica,  was  the  son  of  William 
Sedgwick  of  London  (Thurloe  Papers,  v. 
155 ;  FOSTER,  Alumni  Oxon.  i.  1382),  and 
brother  of  William  Sedgwick  (1610  P-1669?) 
fa.  v.].  He  has  been  identified  with  the 
Sedgwick  who  came  over  to  New  England 
in  1635,  in  the  ship  Truelove,  aged  24, 
although  in  the  record  of  the  custom  house 
his  name  is  written  '  Jo.'  instead  of  '  Ro.' 
Sedgwick.  He  was  made  a  freeman  of  Massa- 
chusetts on  9  March  1637  (SAVAGE,  Genea- 
logical Diet,  of  the  First  Settlers  in  New 
England,  iv.  48).  Sedgwick,  who  had  some 
military  training,  and  is  said  by  Edward 
Johnson  to  have  been  '  nurst  up  in  London's 
Artillery  garden,'  was  chosen  captain  of  the 
j  Charlestown  trained  band,  and  was,  in  1638, 
one  of  the  founders  of  '  The  Military  Com- 
pany of  Massachusetts.'  His  name  is  the 
third  in  the  foundation  charter  (id. ;  RAIKES, 
Hist,  of  the  Honourable  Artillery  Company, 
i.  326).  He  was  commander  of  the  Castle 
in  Boston  Harbour  in  1641,  and  was  major- 
general  of  the  Massachusetts  forces  in  1652. 
In  1653  Sedgwick  was  in  England,  and 
Cromwell  selected  him  to  command  an  ex- 
pedition intended  to  drive  the  Dutch  from 
the  New  Netherlands,  giving  him  the  rank 
of  major  in  the  army.  He  raised,  in  spite  of 
various  obstructions,  a  few  hundred  men  in 
the  New  England  colonies,  and  was  about 
to  set  out  against  the  Dutch  (June  1654), 
when  news  of  the  peace  with  Holland  put  a 
stop  to  his  proceedings  (Thurloe  Papers,  ii. 
418).  On  this  Sedgwick  turned  his  forces 
against  the  French  in  Acadia,  captured  their 
forts  of  St.  John's  and  Port  Royal,  and  a 
settlement  at  Penobscot,  and  added  Acadia 
to  the  British  dominions  (ib.  ii.  426,  584 ; 
Cal.  State  Papers,  Colonial,  1574-1674, 
Addenda,  p.  89). 

In  the  summer  of  1655,  after  the  conquest  of 
Jamaica,  the  Protector  appointed  Sedgwick 
one  of  the  civil  commissioners  for  the  go- 
vernment of  his  new  acquisition.  The  in- 
structions describe  him  still  merely  as '  Major 
Sedgwick,'  but  it  is  evident  that  Cromwell 
relied  much  on  his  experience  of  colonial  life 
and  his  influence  in  New  England  (Thurloe, 
iv.  G34;  Cal.  State  Papers,  Colonial,  1574- 
1660,  p.  429).  In  October  1655,  when  Sedg- 
wick arrived  at  Jamaica,  he  found  the  troops 
dying  fast,  everything  in  disorder,  and  neces- 
saries of  every  kind  wanting.  '  You  must  in 
a  manner  begin  the  work  over  again '  was 
his  message  to  Cromwell;  but,  though  in- 

z 


Selvvyn 


338 


Selwyn 


\vardly  desponding  of  the  future  of  the 
colony,  he  kept  a  brave  front  to  the  public, 
and  under  his  energetic  and  judicious  ad- 
ministration things  slowly  mended  (Thurloe 
Papers,  iv.  151,  454,  600,  748).  Cromwell 
rewarded  his  zeal  by  sending  him  a  commis- 
sion as  major-general  and  commander-in- 
chief,  which  reached  Jamaica  early  in  May 
1656.  But  Sedgwick  never  took  up  the  com- 
mand, and  died  on  24  May  1656.  Accord- 
ing to  his  secretary,  the  new  responsibility 
imposed  upon  him  aggravated  his  illness  and 
brought  him  to  his  grave.  '  There  is  so  much 
expected  of  me,'  said  he, '  and  I,  conscious  of 
my  own  disabilities,  having  besides  so  un- 
toward a  people  to  deal  with,  am  able  to 
perform  so  little,  that  I  shall  never  overcome 
it ;  it  will  break  my  heart '  (ib.  v.  12,  138, 
154).  The  secretary  describes  Sedgwick  as 
being  '  generally  beloved  and  esteemed  by 
all  sorts  of  people,'  and  Carlyle  charac- 
terises him  as  '  a  very  brave,  zealous,  and 
pious  man,  whose  letters  in  Thurloe  are,  of 
all  others,  the  best  worth  reading  on  this 
subject.' 

Sedgwick  left  a  widow,  Joanna,  and  five 
children  (  Thurloe  Papers,  iv.  155, 158).  The 
Protector  granted  her  a  pension  of  100/.  per 
annum,  and  ordered  her  husband's  arrears  to 
be  paid  to  her  (Cal.  State  Papers,  Colonial, 
1574-1660,  pp.  448,  452). 

[Thurloe  State  Papers,  vols.  i-v. ;  Cal.  State 
Papers,  Colonix! ;  Palfrey's  Hist,  of  New  Eng- 
land, ii.  284, 297  ;  Carlyle's  Cromwell ;  Savage's 
Genealogical  Diet,  of  the  First  Settlers  in  New 
England.]  C.  H.  F. 

SELWYN,     JOHN      RICHARDSON 

(1844-1898),  bishop  of  Melanesia,  younger 
son  of  George  Augustus  Selwyn  (1809- 
1878)  [q.  v.],  first  bishop  of  New  Zealand, 
was  born  on  20  May  1844  at  the  WaimatS, 
in  the  Bay  of  Islands,  in  the  northern  part 
of  New  Zealand.  He  came  to  England  in 
1854,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  a  noted  oars- 
man and  not  a  very  keen  scholar,  but  gra- 
duated B.A.  with  a  third  class  in  the  classi- 
cal tripos  in  1866;  he  proceeded  M.A.  in 
1870.  In  1867  he  paid  a  visit  to  his  father 
in  New  Zealand,  intending  to  enter  the 
legal  profession  after  his  return.;  but  the 
sight  of  his  father's  labours  and  the  influence 
of  Bishop  John  Coleridge  Patteson  [q.  v.] 
inspired  him  with  the  desire  to  be  a  mis- 
sionary, and  decided  him  to  seek  ordination 
in  the  English  church.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  on  Trinity  Sunday,  1869,  by  his 
father,  who  was  then  bishop  of  Lichfield. 
His  first  curacy  was  at  Alrewns,  where  he 
remained  for  a  year  and  a  half.  He  then 


proceeded  ascurate-in-charge  to  St.  George's, 
Wolverhampton,  in  the  absence  of  the  vicar, 
who  was  involved  in  a  feud  with  his 
parishioners.  Selwyn's  tact  and  energy  re- 
sulted in  his  becoming  vicar  of  St.  George's, 
but  on  hearing  of  Bishop  Patteson's  death 
in  1871  he  decided  to  offer  himself  as  a 
missionary  to  the  Melanesian  mission.  He 
married  Miss  Clara  Innes  in  January  1872, 
and  in  February  1873  husband  and  wife 
sailed  for  Melanesia.  He  reached  his  head- 
quarters at  Norfolk  Island  in  October  1873, 
after  a  distressing  attack  of  rheumatism, 
which  was  Selwyn's  first  warning  that  his 
vigorous  frame  was  not  to  save  him  from 
severe  illness. 

Selwyn's  energy  and  natural  gift  of  leader- 
ship soon  pointed  him  out  as  the  proper  suc- 
cessor to  Bishop  Patteson.  He  was  nomi- 
nated to  the  post,  and  the  nomination  was 
confirmed  by  general  synod  in  1877.  On 
18  Feb.  1877  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Melanesia  at  Nelson.  In  December  1877 
his  wife,  who  had  rejoined  him  after  a  visit 
to  England,  died  in  childbirth,  and  in  the 
next  year  he  lost  his  father.  These  blows 
abated  none  of  his  energy,  but  they  brought 
about  an  indifference  to  personal  comfort  and 
a  recklessness  to  exposure  which  laid  the 
seeds  of  the  painful  illnesses  from  which  he 
afterwards  suffered  acutely.  In  August 
1885,  when  on  a  visit  to  England,  he  married 
his  second  wife,  Miss  Annie  Mort,  and  re- 
turned hopefully  to  his  diocese ;  but  in  1889 
his  ague  and  rheumatism  culminated  in 
abscesses  in  his  legs,  which  compelled  his 
return  to  England  in  1890.  By  operations 
cutting  the  sinews  of  his  right  leg  he  was 
permanently  crippled  and  forced  to  give  up 
all  idea  of  resuming  his  work  in  Melanesia. 
On  his  recovering  his  general  health  he  was 
asked  to  accept  the  mastership  of  Selwyn 
College,  Cambridge,  and  he  held  the  position 
till  his  death  at  Cambridge  on  12  Feb. 
1898. 

Bishop  Selwyn's  manly  endurance  of  pain 
and  discomfort,  his  tact  and  practical  ability 
in  extending  his  missionary  labours  and 
gaining  a  footing  on  dangerous  islands,  and 
the  simple  sincerity  of  his  religious  faith 
made  him  in  his  generation  a  typical  mis- 
sionary bishop,  and  the  peculiar  circumstance 
of  his  appointment  to  the  mastership  of 
Selwyn  College  brought  his  career  and  per- 
sonality home  to  Englishmen  in  an  unusually 
vivid  and  familiar  way.  His  influence  at 
Cambridge  was  largely  instrumental  in 
starting  the  'Cambridge  House 'in  London, 
and  he  recommended  practical  missionary 
effort,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  with  ex- 
ceptional success  to  the  undergraduates. 


Se"quard 


339 


Service 


He  published  '  Pastoral  Work  in  the  Colonies 
and  the  Mission  Field,'  London,  1897,  8vo. 

[F.  D.  How's  Bishop  John  Selwyn  :  a  Memoir, 
1899;  Life  of  his  father,  by  G.  H.  Curteis, 
1889  ;  Luard's  Graduati  Cantab. ;  Times,  14  Feb. 
1898.]  E.  B. 

SEQUARD,  CHARLES  EDWARD 
BROWN-  (1817-1894),  physiologist.  [See 

BKOWJf-S.EQTTARD.] 

SERVICE,  JAMES  (1823-1899),  poli- 
tician and  pioneer  colonist  of  Melbourne, 
Australia,  son  of  Robert  Service,  was  born  at 
Kihvinning,  Ayrshire,  in  November  1823. 
He  was  in  early  life  connected  with  the 
mercantile  firm  of  Thomas  Corbett  &  Co., 
Glasgow,  but  he  broke  off  the  connection 
in  August  1853,  when  he  emigrated  to  Mel- 
bourne. There  he  at  once  founded  the  com- 
mercial firm  of  James  Service  &  Co.,  with 
which  his  name  was  thenceforth  associated. 
Throughout  life  he  was  busily  engaged  as  a 
merchant  and  bank  director,  but  from  the 
first  he  took  a  leading  part  in  public  and 
municipal  affairs  in  Melbourne.  When  Sir 
William  Foster  Stawell  [q.  v.lthen  attorney- 
general,  was  made  chief  justice,  Service  was 
elected  in  his  stead  as  member  for  Mel- 
bourne in  the  legislative  assembly  in  1857. 

In  the  next  parliament  Service  was 
elected  for  Ripon  and  Hampden,  and  from 
October  1859  to  September  1860  was  mini- 
ster for  lands  in  the  Nicholson  government 
[see  NICHOLSON,  WILLIAM,  1816-1865], 
when  he  introduced  the  first  land  bill  in- 
volving the  principle  of  '  selection  before 
survey.'  This  important  measure  was  re- 
jected by  the  legislative  council,  whereupon 
Service  conferred  what  has  been  rightly 
described  as  '  an  enormous  boon  on  the 
colony,'  by  passing  what  is  popularly  called 
the  Torrens  Act  for  facilitating  the  transfer 
of  real  property  [see  TORREXS,  SIR  ROBEBT 
RICHARD]. 

In  1862  Service  visited  England,  return- 
ing to  Australia  in  March  1865,  when  he 
found  the  colony  seething  over  the  new 
protectionist  tariff  of  the  McCulloch  govern- 
ment [see  MCCULLOCH,  SIR  JAMES].  Pro- 
tection henceforth  was  the  popular  demo- 
cratic cry,  but  Service  remained  a  staunch 
free-trader.  Such  an  attitude,  despite  his 
liberal  views  on  the  land  question,  effectually 
kept  him  out  of  parliament  until  1874.  In 
that  year  he  was  returned  for  Maldon,  and 
took  office  as  treasurer  in  the  Iverford  go- 
vernment, which  lasted  but  a  short  time. 
On  29  July  1878  Service,  who  was  always  a 
strong  imperialist,  was  the  principal  speaker 
at  the  great  meeting  of  the  citizens  of  Mel- 


bourne held  in  support  of  Lord  Beacons- 
field's  action  at  the  Berlin  Congress. 

In  1880  Service  was  called  upon  to  form 
a  cabinet,  but  it  was  immediately  ousted  on 
making  an  appeal  to  the  country  in  regard 
to  the  constitutional  reform  of  both  houses 
of  the  legislature.  He  revisited  England, 
returning  in  1883  to  Victoria,  when  he  was 
elected  member  for  Castlemaine  as  the  re- 
cognised leader  of  the  conservative  or  '  con- 
stitutional '  party.  He  next  formed  a  coali- 
tion with  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  Graham 
Berry,  the  liberal  leader,  and  became  pre- 
mier of  Victoria  in  1883. 

The  Service-Berry  government  attempted 
to  deal  with  the  thorny  question  of  civil 
service  reform  by  transferring  all  appoint- 
ments into  the  hands  of  government  com- 
missioners ;  thereby  it  Avas  hoped  to  deal  a 
fatal  blow  to  political  'influence'  and  pos- 
sible ministerial  corruption.  Service  him- 
self took  up  a  strong  position  with  regard 
to  the  annexation  by  European  powers  of 
Western  Pacific  islands.  This  question  led 
to  a  desire  for  federation,  which  has  reached 
its  culmination  in  the  formation  of  the 
Australian  commonwealth  in  1900.  With 
a  view  to  procuring  the  adoption  of  the 
principles  of  federation  Service  brought 
about  in  1882  the  Sydney  conference,  and 
in  1884  carried  through  the  Victorian  par- 
liament a  bill  for  the  creation  of  a  federal 
council  of  Australasia.  This  federal  council 
first  met  at  Hobart  on  25  Jan.  1886. 

In  1885  Service  resigned  the  premiership 
of  Victoria  and  revisited  England,  where  he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  four  Victorian 
delegates  at  the  colonial  conference  of  1887 
in  Downing  Street.  Service  believed  with 
Sir  Samuel  Griffith  that  that  conference 
ought  to  be  the  precursor  of  other  similar  con- 
claves, and  argued  that  the  nebulous  feeling 
in  favour  of  imperial  federation  should  issue  in 
the  formation  of  a  superior  council,  in  which 
the  entire  empire  should  be  represented,  and 
which  should  '  have  the  supreme  control  of 
all  purely  imperial  affairs '  (MEXNELL). 

On  returning  to  Victoria,  Service  became 
a  member  of  the  upper  house — the  legisla- 
tive council — taking  his  seat  for  the  Mel- 
bourne province.  He  declined  to  act  as  one 
of  the  Victorian  representatives  of  the 
Sydney  convocation  in  1891,  and  gradually 
retired  from  active  participation  in  public 
affairs.  He  died  at  Melbourne  on  12  April 
1899.  Few  Australian  statesmen  have  so 
worthily  gained  the  popular  esteem  of  their 
fellow-colonists. 

[Mennell's  Dictionary  of  Australasian  Bio- 
graphy ;  H.  J.  Robinson's  Colonial  Chronology; 
Levey's  Victorian  Men  of  the  Time;  Times, 

V   9 

/   - 


Sewell 


340 


Sewell 


13  and  14  April  1899;  Who's  Who,  1899; 
the  leading  Australian  journals,  and  personal 
knowledge.]  A.  P.  M. 

SEWELL,  WILLIAM  (1780-1853), 
veterinarian,  third  principal  of  the  Royal 
Veterinary  College,  London,  was  born  in 
1780  of  quaker  parents  resident  in  Essex. 
He  was  apprenticed  at  an  early  age,  proba- 
bly in  1796,  to  Edward  Coleman  (1764?- 
1839),  the  second  principal  of  the  Veterinary 
College;  and  at  Coleman's  request  Sewell 
was  appointed  his  assistant  at  the  college  on 
obtaining  his  diploma  in  1799. 

Sewell  first  came  into  prominence  in  con- 
nection with  his  supposed  discovery  (in 
1803)  of  a  canal  pervading  the  'medulla 
spinalis,'  an  account  of  which  he  presented 
to  the  Royal  Society  in  a  paper  read  by  Sir 
Everard  Home  (see  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  1808). 
Though  Sewell's  opinions  on  this  point  were 
erroneous,  the  credit  has  been  claimed  for 
him  of  having  been  '  on  the  brink '  of  the 
great  discoveries  made  many  years  subse- 
quently by  Sir  Charles  Bell  ( Vet.  1831  iv. 
629,  1834  vii.  130).  In  1815  he  made  a 
tour  through  France,  visiting  the  veterinary 
establishments  at  Lyons  and  Paris ;  in  1816 
he  made  a  similar  tour  of  inspection  through 
Germany  by  way  of  Vienna,  Prague,  Berlin, 
and  Hanover.  A  report  of  this  tour  was 
laid  before  the  governors  of  the  Veterinary 
College  in  1818. 

In  the  same  year  an  extremely  important 
discovery,  or  rather  re-discovery, '  which  has 
added  years  of  comfort  and  usefulness  to  the 
existence  of  so  many  of  our  quadruped  ser- 
vants '  {Vet.  1831,  iv.  335),  that  of  neuro- 
tomy,  was  published  in  a  paper  presented  by 
Sewell  to  the  governors  of  the  Veterinary 
College.  Some  years  later,  in  1823,  a  fuller 
and  more  detailed  account  was  published  in 
the  '  Elementary  Lectures  on  the  Veterinary 
Art '  of  William  Percevall,  attributing  to 
Sewell  the  chief  credit  of  the  discovery  (see 
also  Vet.  1834  vii.  20, 1 836  ix.  367).  Sewell 
also  practised  a  new  method  of  treating  splints, 
considering  the  use  of  the  firing-iron  as  bar- 
barous and  cruel  ( Vet.  1835,  viii.  504).  He 
also  claimed  to  have  discovered  a  cure  for 
glanders,  in  the  use  of  sulphate  of  copper. 
This  was  looked  upon  with  considerable  dis- 
trust by  his  fellow  veterinarians,  and  the 
proposal  of  a  pecuniary  reward  which  was 
made  at  a  meeting  of  the  governors  of  the 
Veterinary  College  was  defeated,  largely 
owing  to  the  opposition  of  Professor  Coleman 
(  Vet.  1829,  ii.  246).  Sewell  also  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  certain  of  his  fellow  veterina- 
rians for  having  reported  some  of  his  remarks 
on  glanders  to  the  College  of  Physicians  rather 
than  to  the  veterinary  profession. 


In  1835-6  Sewell  was  president  of  the 
Veterinary  Medical  Society,  and  on  17  Feb. 
1836  a  handsome  testimonial  was  presented 
to  him  by  the  members  of  that  society  '  for 
his  efficient  services  during  a  period  of 
twenty-one  years.'  But  immediately  after 
disputes  took  place  which  led  to  the  se- 
cession of  Sewell,  Charles  Spooner  (1806- 
1871)  [q.  v.],  subsequently  his  successor, 
and  others. 

On  the  death  of  Coleman  in  1839,  Sewell 
was  appointed  to  succeed  him  as  principal 
of  the  college,  delivering  his  inaugural  lec- 
ture on  18  Nov.  1839  (  Vet.  1839,  xii.  804). 
Considerable  disapproval  was,  however, 
manifested  at  his  undertaking  to  lecture  on 
cattle  pathology,  a  subject  in  which  he  was 
not  considered  to  be  sufficiently  qualified, 
his  department  being  rather  that  of  surgery. 
In  1842,  however,  an  alteration  was  made, 
and  Professor  J.  B.  Simonds  was  appointed 
to  lecture  on  the  diseases  of  cattle,  sheep, 
and  pigs  ( Vet.  1840,  xiii.  500,  549,  550,  and 
558).  The  death  of  Professor  Coleman 
placed  Sewell  in  many  respects  at  the  head 
of  his  profession,  and  his  position  received 
further  recognition  in  1852  by  his  election 
(in  succession  to  Mr.  William  Robinson  of 
Tamworth)  .as  third  president  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  which  had 
been  incorporated  in  1844. 

In  1840,  during  the  prevalence  of  an  epi- 
demic of  what  has  been  since  named  '  foot 
and  mouth  disease,'  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England  issued  a  circular  to  its 
members  detailing  full  particulars  as  to  the 
treatment  of  the  disease  according  to  the 
method  recommended  by  Professor  Sewell. 
Sewell  was  on  this  account  attacked  by  his 
brother  veterinarians  on  the  plea  that  his 
circular  had  spoilt  their  practice  {Vet.  1841, 
xiv.  196,  664).  In  1841  SeweU  reported  to 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  on  the  epi- 
demic (Journal  R.A.S.E.  vol.  ii.  p.  cxix). 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  owing  to  his 
advanced  age  and  occasional  illness,  he  con- 
fined his  attention  in  great  part  to  the 
general  direction  of  the  college,  the  actual 
duties  of  lecturing  falling  chiefly  on  younger 
men,  Assistant  Professor  Spooner  and  Pro- 
fessor Simonds.  Sewell  died  on  8  June 
1853  at  the  age  of  seventy-two,  and  was 
buried  at  Highgate  cemetery.  He  married 
late  in  life  and  left  no  family. 

Sewell  wrote  nothing  beyond  a  few  con- 
tributions to  the  veterinary  and  medical 
periodicals,  and  a  report  (1818)  of  his  visit 
to  the  principal  veterinary  schools  of  the 
continent.  Both  his  skill  as  an  operator  and 
his  efficiency  as  a  lecturer  have  been  disputed 
(  Vet.  1834  vii.  667, 1841  xiv.  37),  but  he  ap- 


Sharp 


341 


Shaw 


pears  nevertheless  to  have  achieved  a  con- 
siderable success  in  both. 

[The  Veterinarian,  passim,  especially  obituary 
in  number  for  1  July  1853;  Professor  J.  B. 
Simonds's  Life  of  William  Sewell,  1897,  8ro(un- 
published)  ;  private  information.]  E.  C-E. 

SHARP,  ISAAC  (1806-1897),  missionary, 
elder  son  of  Isaac  Sharp  of  Brighton  by 
his  first  wife,  Mary  Likeman,  was  born  there 
on  4  July  1806.  His  father  had  joined  the 
Society  of  Friends  upon  his  marriage,  and 
at  eleven  the  son  was  sent  to  a  Friends' 
school  at  Earl's  Colne,  Essex.  A  t  twenty-four 
he  went  to  Darlington  as  private  secretary 
to  Joseph  Pease  [see  under  PEASE,  EDWARD], 
succeeding  afterwards  to  the  management  of 
the  Peases'  Middlesborough  estate.  About 
1832  he  first  began  to  preach,  and  in  1843  was 
1  recorded '  a  minister  by  Darlington  monthly 
meeting.  From  this  body  he  afterwards  re- 
ceived on  forty-five  separate  occasions  cer- 
tificates or  credentials  for  gospel  travel  at 
home  and  abroad.  He  commenced  (in  1846) 
by  visits  to  Norway,  Orkney  and  Shetland, 
Iceland,  Faroe,  Denmark,  Greenland,  and 
Labrador.  But  it  was  not  until  he  was 
past  sixty  that  he  embarked  upon  the  wider 
range  of  sustained  missionary  activity,  to 
which  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  were 
devoted. 

In  1877  he  started  for  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, being  welcomed  at  Cape  Town  by 
members  of  all  denominations,  including 
Sir  David  Tennant  and  Lady  Frere,  in  the 
absence  of  her  husband,  Sir  Henry  Bartle 
Edward  Frere  [q.v.].  then  governor  of  Cape 
Colony.  Sharp  travelled  in  a  Cape  cart  north- 
ward to  Shoshong,  visited  King  Khama,  and 
was  at  Kuruman  shortly  before  the  outbreak 
of  the  Zulu  war.  Reaching  Kimberley  in 
September  1878  he  was  invited  to  take  up  his 
quarters  at  Government  House.  After  visit- 
ingthe French  missions  in  Basutoland,  he  left 
for  Madagascar,  where  an  important  station 
had  been  founded  by  the  society  of  friends. 
He  next  proceeded  by  Sydney,  Melbourne, 
and  other  Australian  towns,  to  Stewart 
Island  and  New  Zealand,  San  Francisco,  and 
thence  to  the  States  and  Mexico.  Seeing  the 
quaker  poet,Whittier,  as  he  passed  eastward, 
Sharp  arrived  in  England,  after  seven  years' 
absence,  in  March  1884. 

In  1891,  when  in  his  eighty-fifth  year,  and 
in  spite  of  a  complaint  which  at  times  ren- 
dered him  dependent  upon  surgical  aid  and 
skilled  nursing,  his  buoyant  faith  and  spirits 
induced  him  to  set  out  on  another  long  voyage. 
In  the  face  of  much  opposition,  medical  and 
otherwise,  and  a  severe  illness  in  Paris,  he 
started  for  the  East,  and  was  able  to  carry 


out  a  long-cherished  plan  of  visiting  Con- 
stantinople, India,  Japan,  and  the  interior  of 
China. 

A  fortnight,  after  his  return  to  England  he 
set  out  on  his  eighth  visit  to  Norway.  Some 
weeks  spent  in  Syria  during  the  autumn  of 
1895  proved  to  be  his  final  evangelical  tour. 
On  nearly  the  last  day  of  1896  he  lectured 
to  a  large  audience  at  Devonshire  House, 
Bishopsgate,  upon  his  foreign  experiences  as 
a  missionary,  but  on  returning  home  took 
a  chill.  He  died  on  21  March  1897,  aged 
ninety,  at  Ettington,  Warwickshire,  and  was 
buried  on  26  March  in  the  Friends'  burial- 
ground  close  by. 

Isaac  Sharp's  short  robust  figure,  twinkling 
eyes,  and  alert  manner,  to  the  last  utterly 
belied  his  years.  Possessed  of  a  peculiarly 
musical  voice,  his  preaching,  like  himself, 
exhaled  love.  He  spoke  no  language  but 
his  own.  A  ready  fund  of  anecdote  and 
abundant  humour  endeared  him  to  the  in- 
mates of  lonely  mission  stations  and  iso- 
lated dwellings  from  the  northern  to  the 
southern  polar  circle,  no  less  than  to  all 
in  England.  An  excellent  correspondent, 
he  expressed  himself  as  readily  in  verse  as 
in  prose. 

By  his  wife  Hannah  Procter,  whom  he 
married  in  February  1839,  and  who  died 
four  years  later,  he  had  two  daughters,  one 
of  whom  married  and  settled  at  San  Jose, 
California. 

[An  Apostle  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  by 
F.  A.  Budge,  London,  1898,  2nd  edit.  1899; 
personal  acquaintance.]  C.  F.  S. 

SHAW,  JOHN  (1789-1815),  corporal 
2nd  lifeguards,  son  of  William  Shaw,  a 
farmer,  was  born  at  Wollaton,  Nottingham- 
shire, in  1789,  and  educated  at  Trowell 
Moor  school.  While  a  mere  stripling  he 
obtained  a  local  reputation  as  an  expert 
boxer  by  defeating  a  man  three  stone  heavier 
than  himself.  On  16  Oct.  1807  he  enlisted 
as  a  private  in  the  2nd  lifeguards,  and  soon 
attracted  the  notice  of  his  officers  by  the 
strength  he  displayed  in  the  regimental 
exercises.  Discovering  his  boxing  abilities 
they  made  arrangements  for  him  to  spar  at 
the  Fives  Court  in  Little  St.  Martin  Street, 
tbe  principal  London  boxing  hall.  In  con- 
sequence of  his  success  there  the  officers 
took  him  to  Jackson's  Rooms,  13  Bond 
Street,  a  fashionable  club  and  school  of  in- 
struction, where  amateurs  were  wont  to 
meet  and  box  professionals.  Shaw  was  pitted 
against  and  defeated  Captain  Barclay,  a 
gentleman  noted  for  his  punishing  powers. 
Shaw  became  a  frequenter  of  Jackson's 
Rooms,  and  his  fame  as  a  boxer  soon  spread 


Shaw 


342 


Sidgwick 


abroad.  As  a  swordsman  he  was  equally 
expert,  and  was,  in  fact,  skilled  in  the  use  of 
most  modern  weappns  of  offence  and  defence. 
He  was  now  six  feet  and  half  an  inch  in 
height,  and  so  magnificently  developed  that 
he  sat  as  a  model  to  Haydon  the  sculptor. 
One  day,  when  near  Port-man  Square,  three 
hulking  fellows  taunted  Shaw  with  being  a 
stay-at-home  soldier.  He  promptly  knocked 
them  down.  They  sprang  to  their  feet  and 
attacked  him,  but  in  a  lew  minutes  were 
compelled  to  seek  safety  in  flight.  In  1812 
Shaw  was  persuaded  to  enter  the  prize  ring, 
and  on  12  July  of  that  year  defeated  at 
Coombe-Warren  a  man  named  Burrows. 
Early  in  1815  he  issued  a  challenge  to  fight 
any  man  in  England,  and  on  15  April,  at 
Hounslow  Heath,  fought  his  second  battle 
in  the  prize  ring,  defeating  Edward  Painter 
[q.  v.]  in  twenty-eight  minutes.  He  was 
now  spoken  of  as  the  future  champion,  but 
before  Tom  Cribb  [q.  v.]  had  time  to  accept 
his  challenge  the  2nd  lifeguards  were  or- 
dered to  the  continent.  Shaw's  civilian 
admirers  immediately  offered  to  purchase  his 
discharge,  but  he  declined  to  entertain  the 
idea.  Early  in  the  morning  of  18  June,  the 
day  on  which  Waterloo  was  fought,  Corporal 
Shaw  was  sent  out  in  command  of  a  foraging 
party,  but  hurried  back  with  his  men  in  time 
to  take  part  in  the  first  charge.  A  cuirassier 
rode  straight  at  Shaw,  who  calmly  parried 
the  thrust,  and  with  one  terrific  stroke,  the 
first  blow  he  had  dealt  in  real  warfare,  cut 
through  the  Frenchman's  helmet  and  skull 
down  to  the  chin.  Shaw  then  rode  at  an 
eagle-bearer,  killed  him,  and  seized  the  eagle. 
He  relinquished  it,  however,  while  cutting 
his  way  through  the  foes  who  immediately 
surrounded  him.  Although  wounded,  he 
took  part  in  several  other  charges,  exhibiting 
on  each  occasion  his  strength  and  marvellous 
dexterity  with  the  sword.  In  the  last  charge 
but  one  made  by  the  2nd  lifeguards,  Shaw 
became  separated  from  his  comrades,  and 
was  quickly  surrounded  by  the  enemy.  He 
fought  desperately  and  killed  nine  of  his 
opponents  before  his  sword  broke.  Scorning 
surrender,  he  tore  the  helmet  from  his  head, 
and,  using  it  as  a  cestus,  dealt  some  terrific 
blows  before  he  fell  to  the  ground,  picked 
oft' by  a  cuira3s;er,  who  sat  a  little  distance 
away,  coolly  firing  his  carbine. 

After  the  battle  was  won  Shaw  struggled 
on  in  the  track  of  his  victorious  countrymen, 
and  at  night  a  wounded  lifeguardsman, 
lying  on  a  dungheap,  saw  Shaw  crawling 
towards  him.  '  Ah,  my  dear  fellow,  I'm 
done  for  ! '  Shaw  whispered  feebly,  and  lay 
down  beside  him.  At  daybreak  he  was 
found  there  dead. 


[Nottingham  Review,  30  Dec.  1859;  Elaine's 
Rural  Sports ;  Egan's  Boxiana ;  Miles's  Pu- 
gilistica  ;  Creasy's  Decisive  Battles ;  Knollys's 
Deeds  of  Daring.]  H.  C.  M. 

SIDGWICK,  HENRY  (1838-1899), 
philosopher,  born  at  Skipton,  Yorkshire,  on 
81  May  1838,  was  third  (and  second  sur- 
viving) son  of  the  Rev.  William  Sidgwick, 
head-master  of  Skipton  grammar  school,  by 
his  wife  Mary  (Crofts).  The  father  died  on 
22  May  1841.  Henry  Sidgwick  was  sent  to 
a  school  at  Blackheath  in  1849,  and  to  Rugby 
in  September  1852,  where  his  mother  took  a 
house  next  year.  Edward  White  Benson 
(afterwards  Archbishop)  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  a 
cousin  of  the  Sidgwicks,  and  then  a  master 
at  Rugby,  became  an  inmate  of  the  house- 
hold. He  had  a  great  influence  upon  Sidg- 
wick, whose  sister  he  afterwards  married. 
The  boy  was  '  bookish '  and  took  no  inte- 
rest in  football  or  cricket.  His  intellec- 
tual development  was  precocious,  and  his 
great  ambition  was  to  become  a  distinguished 
scholar  like  his  cousin.  Instead  of  standing 
for  a  scholarship  at  Balliol,  he  decided  to 
enter  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which 
Benson  was  a  fellow.  He  left  Rugby  in 
1855  as  senior  exhibitioner,  and  began  resi- 
dence at  Cambridge  in  the  October  of  that 
year.  His  career  at  college  was  brilliant. 
He  won  a  Bell  scholarship  in  1856,  the 
Craven  scholarship  in  1857,  the  C4reek  epi- 
gram in  1858,  and  was  thirty-third  wrangler, 
senior  classic,  and  first  chancellor's  medallist 
in  1859.  In  1857  he  became  a  scholar,  and 
in  1859  fellow  and  assistant-tutor,  of  his  col- 
lege. He  had  given  the  highest  promise  of 
future  distinction  in  the  field  of  classical  scho- 
larship. He  was,  however,  already  devoting 
himself  to  other  aims.  He  had  been  led  to 
philosophical  studies  during  his  undergra- 
duate career.  He  had  at  the  beginning 
of  his  second  year  joined  the  well-known 
'  Apostles  '  Society.  Its  purpose  was  to  en- 
courage the  frank  and  full  discussion  of  every 
possible  question.  Sidgwick,  though  one  of 
the  youngest  men  of  the  same  university 
standing,  showed  a  remarkable  maturity  of 
intellect,  which  enabled  him  to  take  a  leading 
position  in  the  society.  The  discussions  also 
revealed  to  him  the  natural  bent  of  his  mind. 
He  resolved  to  devote  his  life  to  the  study 
of  great  philosophical  problems.  lie  and  his 
friends  were  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  a 
reconstruction  of  religious  and  social  creeds 
in  accordance  with  scientific  methods.  He 
was,  like  his  contemporaries,  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  teaching  of  J.  S.  Mill,  then 
in  the  ascendant.  He  was  repelled,  how- 
ever, by  the  agnostic  tendencies  of  Mill's 
school,  and  could  not  find  full  satisfaction  in 


Sidgwick 


343 


Sidgwick 


its  philosophy.  He  turned  for  a  time  to  his- 
torical inquiry,  and  in  1862  passed  some 
weeks  at  Dresden  to  initiate  himself  in  the 
study  of  Arabic.  He  worked  at  Arabic  and 
Hebrew  for  some  time  with  a  view  to  a  com- 
parative study  of  Semitic  religions.  Be- 
coming convinced  that  he  could  not  give  the 
time  necessary  for  researches  which  would 
after  all  not  answer  the  fundament  al  problems, 
he  again  returned  to  purely  philosophical 
questions.  He  was  a  member  of  a  little 
society  which  used  to  meet  at  the  house  of  j 
John  Grote,  then  Knightbridge  professor,  to 
read  and  discuss  philosophical  papers.  His 
companions  were  attempting  to  improve  the 
Cambridge  course  by  a  more  liberal  en- 
couragement of  such  studies.  The  moral 
sciences  tripos,  founded  in  1851,  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  qualification  fora  degree  in  1860. 
Sidgwick  examined  in  1865  and  1866,  and 
prepared  himself  by  careful  study  for  the 
task.  In  1869  he  exchanged  his  classical 
lectureship  for  a  lectureship  in  moral  philo- 
sophy, and  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the 
foundation  of  a  philosophical  school  in  Cam- 
bridge. The  agitation  for  the  removal  of  re- 
ligious testshad  been  for  some  time  occupying 
university  reformers.  Sidgwick  had  taken 
part  in  the  movement.  He  now  became 
doubtful  as  to  his  own  position.  The  de- 
claration which  he  had  made  sincerely  at  the 
time  had  ceased  to  represent  his  belief.  He 
decided  that  he  was  bound  to  resign  the 
position  for  which  it  had  qualified  him.  He 
gave  up  his  fellowship  in  October  1869,  and 
his  action  had  a  marked  effect  in  stimulating 
the  agitation  for  the  abolition  of  tests.  The 
measure  was  finally  carried  in  1871.  His 
colleagues  showed  their  respect  for  Sidgwick 
by  permitting  him  to  retain  his  lectureship, 
and  from  this  time  till  his  death  he  con- 
tinued to  lecture  in  various  capacities.  In 
1872  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
Knightbridge  professorship  on  the  death  of 
F.  D.  Maurice.  In  1875  he  was  appointed  to 
a  '  prrelectorship  on  moral  and  political  phi- 
losophy' in  Trinity  College.  In  1883  he  re- 
signed this  post  on  being  elected  to  the 
Knightbridge  professorship,  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Professor  Birks,  Maurice's  successor. 
Sidgwick's  fitness  for  the  post  had  been  esta- 
blished by  the  publication  of  his  treatise 
upon  ethics  in  1874.  He  was  elected  to  an 
honorary  fellowship  of  his  college  in  1881, 
and  "re-elected  to  an  ordinary  fellowship  in 
1885. 

Sidgwick  had  meanwhile  taken  up  other 
duties.  He  had  felt  that  his  devotion  to 
speculative  inquiries  did  not  absolve  him  from 
the  discharge  of  practical  functions.  He  had 
been  interested  from  an  early  period  in  the 


question  of  female  education.  The  admis- 
sion of  girls  to  local  examinations  showed 
the  importance  of  providing  a  system  of 
lectures.  In  1869  Sidgwick  had  devised  and 
made  known  a  scheme  for  this  purpose.  It 
was  taken  up  warmly,  and  its  success  sug- 
gested that  a  house  should  be  provided  at 
Cambridge  for  the  students.  Sidgwick  made 
himself  responsible  for  the  rent,  and  in  1871 
invited  Miss  Ann  Jemima  Clough  [q.  v.]  to 
become  superintendent.  In  1874  a  company 
was  formed  to  place  the  scheme  on  a  solid 
foundation.  Sidgwick  subscribed  and  ener- 
getically supported  the  scheme,  which  was 
carried  out  by  the  opening  of  Newnham  Hall 
in  1876.  In  the  same  year  Sidgwick  married 
Miss  Eleanor  Mildred  Balfour,  sister  of  the 
Right  Hon.  A.  J.  Balfour.  The  Sidgwicks 
took  a  most  important  part  in  the  later  deve- 
lopment of  the  new  system.  In  1880  the 
North  Hall  was  added  to  Newnham,  and 
Mrs.  Sidgwick  became  vice-president  under 
Miss  Clough.  The  Sidgwicks  resided  in  North 
Hall  for  two  years,  when  Mrs.  Sidgwick  re- 
signed her  post.  In  1892,  upon  Miss  Clough's 
death,  Mrs.  Sidgwick  became  president  of 
the  college,  and  she  and  her  husband  resided 
there  during  the  remainder  of  Sidgwick's  life. 
Throughout  the  whole  period  Sidgwick  took 
a  most  active  part  in  the  whole  movement. 
He  successfully  advocated  the  admission  of 
women  to  university  examinations  in  1881. 
He  was  always  a  member  of  the  college 
council,  and  was  also  for  a  time  on  the  coun- 
cil of  the  women's  college  at  Girton.  Be- 
sides advising  Miss  Clough  at  every  point  of 
the  new  movement,  he  interested  himself  in 
the  details  of  management ;  he  made  himself 
beloved  by  students  and  teachers,  and  he 
contributed  most  liberally  to  the  funds  re- 
quired for  the  extension  of  the  college.  No 
one  deserves  a  larger  share  of  the  credit  for 
initiating  and  carrying  out  successfully  a 
scheme  which  has  had  so  great  an  eft'ect  upon 
the  education  of  Englishwomen. 

Sidgwick  in  later  years  had  also  to  dis- 
charge many  duties  of  academical  admini- 
stration. His  absence  from  the  governing 
body  prevented  him  from  taking  any  direct 
part  in  the  changes  made  in  his  college 
under  the  commission  of  1877.  He  had, 
however,  the  influence  due  to  the  recognition 
of  his  high  qualities  of  mind  and  character, 
both  in  his  own  college  and  in  the  university 
generally.  When  the  new  university  sta- 
tutes came  into  force  in  1882  he  was  ap- 
pointed member  of  the  general  board  of 
studies ;  he  was  for  some  time  secretary  to 
the  board,  and  remained  a  member  till  1899. 
He  was  also  on  the  council  of  the  senate 
from  1890  to  1898.  The  unanimous  testi- 


Sidgvvick 


344 


Sidgwick 


mony  of  his  colleagues  shows  that  he  took  a 
very  active  and  influential  part  in  the  de- 
bates, and  united  unfailing  courtesy  to 
singularly  keen  and  ingenious  criticism.  He 
interested  himself  especially  in  financial  mat- 
ters. The  taxation  of  the  colleges  for  uni- 
versity purposes  had  given  rise  to  difficulties 
in  consequence  of  the  decline  of  the  college 
revenues  under  agricultural  depression.  Sidg- 
wick got  up  the  facts,  devised  an  elaborate 
scheme  for  reconciling  the  conflicting  inte- 
rests, and  showed  that  he  could  have  been 
a  competent  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
His  scheme  failed  to  secure  acceptance  from 
an  appearance  of  over-subtlety.  His  anxiety 
to  do  justice  to  all  sides  led  to  some  ex- 
cess of  complication  and  refinement.  He 
is  admitted,  however,  to  have  taken  a  most 
important  part  in  changes  by  which  the  sys- 
tem of  Cambridge  education  has  been  mate- 
rially modified  and  new  studies  success- 
fully introduced.  He  showed  his  interest  in 
a  very  tangible  form  by  munificent  sub- 
scriptions, which  enabled  the  university  to 
build  a  museum  of  physiology,  and  to  start 
lectures  in  law  and  philosophy — measures 
which  must  otherwise  have  been  abandoned 
or  delayed. 

Sidgwick's  retirement  from  the  council 
was  partly  due  to  the  rejection  of  the  pro- 
posal for  granting  titular  degrees  to  women. 
He  had  never  been  in  favour  of  precisely 
assimilating  male  and  female  education ;  and 
he  had  some  hesitation  in  accepting  the  pro- 
posals made  by  the  more  advanced  party.  He 
finally  supported  them,  however,  and  in- 
curred some  unpopularity  from  conservatives, 
who  dreaded  that  they  might  be  committed 
to  further  measures.  Although  no  one  could 
doubt  Sidgwick's  absolute  sincerity,  his  ac- 
tion was  thought  to  be  dangerous.  He  did 
not  offer  himself  for  re-election  to  the  coun- 
cil. He  was  now  anxious  to  finish  his 
literary  work,  and  thought  of  retiring  from 
his  professorship  in  order  to  devote  himself 
exclusively  to  this  task. 

His  labours  had  not  been  confined  to  the 
fields  already  indicated.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  a  mendicity  society  in  Cambridge, 
and  of  its  successor,  the  Charity  Organisation 
Society.  He  had  also  from  an  early  period 
been  interested  in  'psychical  research,'  on 
the  ground  that  some  '  direct  proof  of  con- 
tinued individual  existence  '  was  important 
to  morality.  He  was  president  of  the 
society,  founded  in  1882,  for  the  first  three 
years,  and  again  from  1888  to  1893.  He  in- 
vestigated the  alleged  phenomena  with 
scrupulous  rigour,  and  always  continued  to 
attach  importance  to  the  results,  though  he 
does  not  appear  to  have  arrived  at  very  de- 


finite conclusions.  Sidgwick  was  also  a 
member  of  several  societies  founded  for  the 
purpose  of  philosophical  discussion.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Metaphysical 
Society,  which  included  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  representatives  of  opposite 
schools  of  belief ;  of  a  similar  society  in 
Cambridge ;  and  of  the  later  Synthetic  So- 
ciety, which  aims  at  facilitating  the  re- 
construction of  essential  religious  beliefs. 
He  became  at  once,  as  Canon  Gore  testifies, 
'  the  life  and  soul  of  that  society.'  Sidgwick 
was  seen  at  his  best  in  such  meetings. 
Besides  his  dialectical  ability,  he  was  de- 
lightful in  simply  social  occasions.  He  was 
admittedly  a  first-rate  talker.  A  singular 
ingenuity  and  vivacity  of  thought  and  con- 
stant play  of  humour  were  combined  with 
perfect  simplicity,  absence  of  self-assertion, 
and  ready  appreciation  of  other  men's  points 
of  view.  His  unmistakable  sweetness  of 
nature  gained  him  innumerable  friends  and 
made  him  an  invaluable  link  between  mem- 
bers of  the  various  circles  to  which  he  be- 
longed. The  same  qualities  gave  a  special 
value  to  his  lectures.  His  intellectual  posi- 
tion prevented  him  from  being  the  lawgiver 
of  a  school  or  the  head  of  a  party.  His  aim 
was  to  encourage  the  freest  possible  investi- 
gation of  first  principles,  and  he  shrank  from 
any  premature  adoption  of  dogmatic  conclu- 
sions. The  position  of  philosophical  studies 
at  Cambridge  made  his  classes  very  small. 
But  he  had  several  distinguished  pupils  who 
have  borne  most  complete  testimony  to  his 
power  of  stimulating  their  intellectual  ac- 
tivity, and  setting  an  impressive  example  of 
love  of  truth  and  of  hopefulness  not  damped 
by  provisional  scepticism. 

In  the  beginning  of  1900  Sidgwick  became 
aware  of  symptoms  of  a  dangerous  disease. 
He  accented  his  position  with  characteristic 
courage  and  simplicity,  joined  in  social 
meetings,  spoke  with  marked  brilliance  at 
the  Synthetic  Society,  and  showed  un- 
diminished  interest  in  his  various  under- 
takings. He  resigned  his  professorship,  but 
there  were  hopes  that  he  might  still  be  able, 
after  a  surgical  operation,  to  do  some  literary 
work.  The  hope,  however,  was  disappointed, 
and  he  died  at  the  house  of  his  brother-in- 
law,  Lord  llayleigh,  on  28  Aug.  1900. 

The  remarkable  quality  of  Sidgwick's  in- 
tellect is  displayed  in  all  his  writings, 
although  his  ethical  speculations  seem  to  be 
regarded  as  the  most  valuable.  The  acute- 
ness  and  subtlety  of  his  thought  have  sug- 
gested to  some  readers  that  he  was  essentially 
sceptical  or  preferred  a  balance  between  two 
opinions  to  the  acceptance  of  either.  It 
should  rather  be  said  that  he  was  of  sin- 


Sidgwick 


345 


Simpson 


gularly  cautious  temperament,  unwilling  to 
advance  without  making  sure  of  his  ground, 
and  anxious  to  adhere  to  common  sense.  He 
had  been  greatly  influenced  by  the  teaching 
of  J.  S.  Mill,  and  was  always  opposed  to 
mystical  and  transcendental  methods.  His 
'Methods  of  Ethics '( 1874)  is  intended  to 
reconcile  the  utilitarian  with  the  intuitionist 
theories,  and  to  show  that,  properly  under- 
stood, Butler  and  Kant  may  supply  a 
rational  base  for  the  morality  which,  like 
J.  S.  Mill's,  takes  the  general  happiness  for 
its  criterion.  He  holds,  however,  that  both 
are  opposed  to  the  egoistic  system,  the  irra- 
tionality of  which  cannot  be  demonstrated 
without  a  philosophical  elaboration  not  as  yet 
satisfactorily  achieved.  Whatever  the  value 
of  the  conclusion,  the  book  has  stimulated 
thought  by  its  candid  and  thorough  examina- 
tion of  most  important  ethical  problems. 
The  '  Principles  of  Political  Economy ' 
(1883)  was  a  product  of  Sidgwick's  early  in- 
terest in  social  problems.  He  again  starts 
from  the  teaching  of  J.  S.  Mill,  and  en- 
deavours by  acute  criticisms  to  get  rid  of 
the  excessive  rigidity  of  the  old  'classical' 
economy,  while  showing  that  it  embodied 
much  sound  reasoning  which  required  to  be 
taken  into  account  by  social  reformers.  Pro- 
fessor Marshall  says  that  the  discussion  of 
the  proper  functions  of  government  is  ad- 
mitted to  be  '  by  far  the  best  thing  of  the 
kind  in  any  language.'  His  power  of  deal- 
ing with  practical  questions  is  shown  by  the 
memoranda  which  he  was  invited  to  lay 
before  the  commissions  on  the  financial  re- 
lations of  England  and  Ireland,  and  upon 
local  taxation.  The  '  Elements  of  Politics ' 
(1891)  is  intended  to  supply  the  want  of 
an  adequate  treatise  upon  the  subject  by 
starting  from  the  old  lines  of  Bentham  and 
Mill.  It  seems  to  share  in  some  degree 
their  weakness  of  inadequately  recognising 
the  importance  of  historical  methods.  Sidg- 
wick seems  to  have  felt  this,  and  in  later 
years  had  given  some  lectures  upon  the 
history  of  political  institutions.  It  is  not 
known  whether  they  are  in  a  state  for  publi- 
cation. He  left  a  considerable  mass  of 
manuscript,  dealing  with  metaphysical  and 
other  topics,  of  which,  it  is  hoped,  a  con- 
siderable part  may  be  published".  Sidgwick 
contributed  many  articles  to  '  Mind,'  of 
which  he  was  for  some  time  a  principal 
supporter,  and  to  other  philosophical  journals. 
He  wrote  in  various  reviews  both  upon 
philosophical  and  literary  matters.  He  was 
an  admirable  literary  critic,  and  his  conver- 
sation often  turned  upon  that  topic.  It  is 
hoped  that  some  of  these  articles  may  be 
collected. 


A  portrait  of  Sidgwick  by  Mr.  Shannon  is 
in  the  college  hall  at  Newnham. 

A  meeting  was  held  in  Trinity  College  on 
26  Nov.  1900,  at  which  it  was  unanimously 
resolved  to  promote  a  memorial  at  Cam- 
bridge, though  the  precise  form  to  be  taken 
is  not  yet  decided. 

Sidgwick's  works  are:  1.  'The  Ethics  of 
Conformity  and  Subscription,'  1871.  2. 'The 
Methods  of  Ethics,'  1874 ;  a  second  edition 
appeared  in  1877,  and  a  third  in  1884 ; 
supplements  to  these  were  separately  pub- 
lished in  1878  and  1884,  giving  the  altera- 
tions made  in  the  previous  editions.  A  sixth 
edition  is  about  to  appear.  3.  '  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Political  Economy,'  1883 ;  2nd  edit 
1887.  4.  '  The  Scope  and  Method  ol 
Economic  Science,'  1885  (presidential  ad- 
dress to  the  economic  section  of  the  British 
Association).  5.  '  Outlines  of  the  History 
of  Ethics,'  1886  (enlarged  from  the  article 
'  Ethics '  in  the  '  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,' 
9th  edition).  6.  '  The  Elements  of 
Politics,'  1891. 

[Article  by  the  present  writer  in  Mind  for 
January  1900.  Information  was  kindly  given 
by  Mrs.  Sidgwick.  Mr.  Arthur  Sidgwick,  Dr. 
Jackson  of  Trinity  College,  Dr.  Venn  of  Caius 
College,  Professor  James  Ward,  and  Professor 
Maitland  also  gave  information ;  sec  also  notices 
by  the  master  of  Christ's  College  in  the  Cam- 
bridge Keview,  25  Oct.  1900  ;  by  Sir  F.  Pollock 
in  the  Pilot,  15  Sept.  1900  ;  by  Mr.  Masterman 
in  the  Commonwealth  for  October  1900  ;  by  the 
late  F.  W.  H.  Myers  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Society  for  Psychical  Kesearch  for  December 
1900;  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Keynes  in  the  Economic 
Journal  for  December  1900;  and  by  Professor 
Sorley  in  the  International  Journal  of  Ethics 
for  January  1901 ;  and  report  of  the  meeting  at 
Trinity  College  in  the  Cambridge  University 
Keporter,  7  Dec.  1900.  For  some  autobiogra- 
phical statements  see  the  Life  of  Archbishop 
Benson,  i.  145-51,  249-55,  and  Life  of  Tennyson, 
i.  300-4.  For  an  account  of  Sidgwick's  activity 
at  Newnham  see  Miss  Clough's  Memoir  of  Ann 
Jemima  Clough,  1897,  pp.  130, 133, 145-55, 161, 
172,  181,  189,  193,  207,  319,  334,  339.  See 
also  interesting  notices  in  the  Cambridge  Letter, 
1900  (privately  printed  for  the  Newnham  Col- 
lege Club).]  L.  S. 

SILVESTER  DE  EVERDON  (d.  1254), 
bishop  of  Carlisle.  [See  EVERDOX.] 

SIMPSON,  WILLIAM  (1823-1899), 
artist  and  war  correspondent,  was  born  in 
Glasgow  on  28  Oct.  1823.  His  father,  Wil- 
liam Simpson  (1791-1879),  a  native  of  Perth, 
was  a  marine  engineer,  and  afterwards  a  me- 
chanic inParkholmPrintfield,  near  Glasgow. 
While  quite  young  Simpson  was  sent  to  Perth 
to  live  with  his  grandmother,  and  began  his 


Simpson 


346 


Simpson 


education  in  a  writing-school  there,  where 
he  remained  for  fifteen  months.  This  was 
all  the  regular  schooling  he  ever  received, 
though  he  afterwards  became  deeply  learned 
in  the  European  and  oriental  languages.  In 
1835  Simpson  entered  an  architect's  office 
in  Glasgow,  and  there  his  taste  for  art  was 
developed,  and  two  years  afterwards  he  was 
apprenticed  to  the  firm  of  Allan  &  Ferguson, 
lithographers,  Glasgow.  David  Allan  took 
much  interest  in  his  apprentice,  and  confided 
to  him  the  task  of  sketching  many  old  build- 
ings for  Stuart's  '  Views  of  Glasgow,'  which 
was  published  in  1848  by  the  firm.  Simpson 
removed  to  London  in  1851,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  Day  &  Son,  then  the  leading  litho- 
graphers. After  the  Crimean  war  broke  out 
Simpson  was  engaged  upon  views  of  the  Baltic 
battles  for  Colnaghi  &  Son ;  and  when  that 
firm  decided  to  publish  a  large  illustrated 
work  on  the  Crimean  campaign  from  sketches 
made  on  the  spot,  Simpson  was  selected  for 
the  work  on  Day's  recommendation.  He 
started  on  short  notice,  arrived  at  Balaclava 
in  November  1854,  and  remained  with  the 
British  army  till  the  fall  of  Sebastopol. 
Simpson  was  thus  the  pioneer  war-artist, 
and  received  several  commissions  to  paint 
incidents  in  the  war  for  the  queen.  The 
'  Illustrations  of  the  War  in  the  East '  was 
published  in  two  volumes  by  Colnaghi  in 
1855-6,  and  is  still  regarded  as  a  brilliant 
example  of  lithographic  work.  Before 
Simpson  returned  from  the  Crimea  he  was 
invited  to  join  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  on  a 
tour  in  Circassia,  and  made  many  sketches 
in  that  little-known  country. 

The  Indian  mutiny  of  18o8  had  directed 
attention  to  Hindostan,  and  Day  &  Son  pro- 
jected a  large  illustrated  work  on  India,  and 
sent  Simpson  thither  to  make  sketches.  For 
three  years  he  remained  there,  visiting  both 
the  eastern  and  western  cities,  sojourning  in 
the  Himalayas,  and  even  venturing  across 
the  border  of  the  '  forbidden  land '  of  Tibet, 
where  he  had  access  to  some  of  the  Buddhist 
temples.  The  finishing  of  his  pictures  occu- 
pied four  years  after  his  return,  and  he  had 
completed  250  of  them  and  placed  them  in  the 
hands  of  Day  &  Son  when  that  firm  suddenly 
became  bankrupt,  and  all  Simpson's  work 
for  seven  years  was  reckoned  as  an  asset  of 
the  firm,  because  of  the  advances  they  had 
made  to  meet  his  current  expenses.  It  was 
after  this  catastrophe  in  1860  that  Simpson 
met  Mr.  (now  Sir  William)  Ingram,  editor 
and  proprietor  of  the  '  Illustrated  London 
News,'  and  a  lifelong  connection  began. 
Simpson  was  sent  to  Russia  to  make  sketches 
of  the  marriage  of  the  Czarewitch  (after- 
wards Alexander  III)  with  the  Princess 


Dagmar  of  Denmark  in  November  1866; 
and  he  then  accompanied  King  Edward  VII, 
when  Prince  of  Wales,  on  a  tour  to  various 
parts  of  Russia. 

Before  his  return  to  England  Simpson 
visited  Jerusalem,  where  Captain  (now  M  aj  or- 
general  Sir  Charles)  Warren  was  conducting 
excavations  for  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund  committee,  and  Simpson  made  over 
forty  sketches  of  archaeological  interest,  after- 
wards exhibited  under  the  title '  Underground 
Jerusalem.'  In  1868  Simpson  accompanied 
the  Abyssinia  expedition  under  Lord  Napier 
of  Magdala,  returning  in  time  to  sketch  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869.  His  next 
experience  was  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
of  1870,  when  he  went  to  Paris  in  July, 
travelled  to  Metz,  was  sent  back  to  Paris  a 
prisoner  as  being  a  suspected  spy,  made  his 
escape,  and  travelled  to  Sedan  in  time  to 
witness  the  surrender  of  Napoleon  III. 
Returning  to  Metz,  he  was  shut  up  in  that 
fortress  with  Marshal  Bazaine  until  the 
capitulation.  A  severe  illness  compelled 
him  to  return  to  London ;  but  in  1871  he 
was  again  in  Paris  during  the  Commune. 
Next  year  he  was  sent  to  China  to  make 
sketches  of  the  marriage  of  the  Emperor 
Tung-Chin,  and  while  there  he  wrote  a 
remarkable  series  of  letters  to  the  '  Daily 
News  '  on  Chinese  social  life.  From  China 
he  went  to  Japan,  crossed  the  Pacific  to 
San  Francisco,  traversed  California  and 
North  Carolina  during  the  rebellion  of  the 
Modoc  Indians,  visited  the  Yosemite  Valley, 
Utah,  the  Mammoth  Caves  of  Kentucky, 
and  Niagara,  bringing  back  numerous 
sketches,  afterwards  exhibited  under  the 
title  '  Round  the  World.' 

In  1875  Simpson  returned  to  the  Far 
East  as  artist,  making  sketches  for  the 
'  Illustrated  London  News '  of  the  tour  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  through  India.  He 
exhibited  over  two  hundred  water-colour 
sketches  of  Indian  scenery  after  his  return. 
His  next  journey  was  in  ]877  to  Mycense, 
Troy,  and  Ephesus,  to  make  sketches  of  the 
excavations  directed  by  Dr.  Schliemann,  and 
over  sixty  pictures  were  shown  by  him  in 
London,  besides  the  drawings  made  for  the 
'  News.'  When  Sir  Samuel  Browne  was 
engaged  in  Afghanistan  in  1878-9,  Simpson 
accompanied  him  through  the  whole  cam- 
paign, was  at  the  Khyber  Pass,  at  Fort  Ali 
Musjid,  and  at  the  signing  of  the  peace  at 
Gundamuck.  He  remained  at  home  till 
1884-5,  when  he  went  with  Sir  Peter 
Lumsden  to  Penjdeh  with  the  Afghan 
boundary  commission,  which  was  his  last 
expedition.  He  settled  at  Willesden  in 
1885,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 


Simpson 


347 


Skene 


life  in  literary  work,  and  he  died  there  on 
17  Aug.  1899. 

Simpson  occupied  a  unique  position  in 
art.  On  23  March  1874  he  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Institute  of  Painters  in 
Water  Colours,  and  became  a  full  member 
on  3  Feb.  1879.  It  was  partly  through  his 
exertions  that  it  was  elevated  by  charter  to 
the  Royal  Institute  of  Painters  in  Water 
Colours  in  1884,  and  he  continued  to 
exhibit  annually  up  till  the  year  of  his 
death.  Between  1874  and  1899  he  exhibited 
fifty-nine  pictures.  Simpson  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  Institute  of  Painters 
in  Oil  Colours  (now  the  Society  of  Oil 
Painters)  when  it  was  founded  in  1883,  but 
retired  in  1886.  His  reputation  as  an  artist 
in  black-and-white  overshadowed  his  fame 
as  a  colourist,  though  his  pictures  were 
always  characterised  by  accurate  draughts- 
manship and  quiet  natural  colour.  He 
Was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  an  honorary  associate  of  the  Royal 
Institute  of  British  Architects,  and  also  of 
the  Glasgow  Institute  of  Architects;  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society ;  one 
of  the  executive  of  the  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund ;  and  founder,  with  Samuel 
Birch  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  of  the  Society  of 
Biblical  Archaeology.  To  all  these  societies 
he  contributed  numerous  papers  on  a  vast 
variety  of  subjects,  chiefly  architectural  and 
archaeological.  Simpson  had  a  .long  and 
honourable  connection  with  freemasonry, 
which  he  often  found  useful  in  his  travels. 
He  was  initiated  in  1871,  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  Quatuor  Coronati  Lodge  in 
1886,  and  two  years  afterwards  became  wor- 
shipful master,  contributing  many  valuable 
papers  to  the  'Transactions.'  His  last  com- 
bined literary  and  artistic  work  was  a  volume 
entitled  'Glasgow  in  the  Forties,'  in  which 
he  reproduced  many  of  his  sketches  of  Glas- 
gow street  architecture,  made  about  1848,  and 
wrote  descriptive  letterpress.  The  volume 
was  published  posthumously  in  December 
1899,  with  a  biographical  sketch. 

Simpson's  principal  works  were :  1.  'Illus- 
trations of  the  War  in  the  East,'  1855-6, 
2  vols.  with  81  tinted  plates.  2.  '  Meeting 
the  Sun,  a  Journey  round  the  World,'  1873. 
3.  '  Picturesque  People,  or  Groups  from  all 
Quarters  of  the  Globe,'  1876.  4.  '  Shikar 
and  Tamasha,  a  Souvenir  of  the  Visit  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales  to  India,'  1876.  5.  'The 
Buddhist  Praying  Wheel,'  1896.  6.  'The 
Jonah  Legend,'  posthumously,  October  1899. 
.  '  Glasgow  in  the  Forties,'  posthumously, 
December  1899,  with  a  portrait  of  the 
author.  He  was  a  voluminous  contributor 
to  the  '  Proceedings '  and  '  Transactions '  of 


the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  the  Society 
of  Biblical  Archaeology,  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society,  and  the  Quatuor  Coronati  Lodge. 
'Harper's  Magazine,'  'Eraser's  Magazine,' 
and  '  Good  Words.'  A  list  of  his  principal 
papers  will  be  found  in  the  memoir  prefixed 
to  '  Glasgow  in  the  Forties '  (1899). 

[MS.  Autobiography  by  Simpson,  1893  ;  Me- 
moir by  the  present  writer,  in  Glasgow  in  the 
Forties;  People's  Friend,  May  1900;  Ars 
Quatuor  Coronatorum,  xii.  187  ;  private  infor- 
mation.] A.  H.  M. 

SKENE,  FELICIA  MARY  FRANCES 

(1821-1899),  novelist,  was  the  youngest 
daughter  of  James  Skene  [q.  v.]  of  Rubislaw 
and  his  wife,  Jane  Forbes,  daughter  of  Sir 
William  Forbes,  sixth  baronet  of  Pitsligo. 
She  was  born  on  93  May  1821  at  Aix  in 
Provence.  As  a  child  she  played  with  the 
children  of  the  exiled  king,  Charles  X,  at 
Holyrood ;  as  a  girl  she  was  the  guest  of 
Lord  Stratford  de  RedclifFe  at  the  embassy 
at  Constantinople;  and  later  was  the  friend 
of,  among  others,  Sir  John  Franklin,  Pusey, 
Landor,  and  Aytoun.  Her  father  was  a  great 
friend  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  it  is  said  that 
Miss  Skene  as  a  child  used  to  sit  on  the  great 
novelist's  knee  and  tell  him  fairy  tales.  In 
1838  the  family  moved  to  Greece  on  account 
of  Mrs.  Skene 's  health.  Skene  built  a  villa 
near  Athens,  in  which  they  lived  for  some 
time.  They  returned  to  England  in  1845, 
and  lived  first  at  Leamington  and  afterwards 
at  Oxford. 

Miss  Skene  was  a  very  accomplished 
woman  and  devoted  to  good"  works.  When, 
in  1854,  cholera  broke  out  at  Oxford,  she 
took  part,  under  Sir  Henry  Acland  [q.  v. 
Suppl.],  in  organising  a  band  of  nurses. 
Some  of  them  were  sent  afterwards  to  the 
Crimea,  and  during  the  war  Miss  Skene 
remained  in  constant  correspondence  with 
Miss  Nightingale.  She  took  much  interest 
in  rescue  work  in  Oxford,  and  was  one  of 
the  first  'lady  visitors'  appointed  by  the 
home  office  to  visit  the  prison.  Some  of  her 
experiences  were  told  in  a  series  of  articles 
in  '  Blackwood's  Magazine,'  published  in 
book  form  in  1889,  and  entitled  'Scenes 
from  a  Silent  World.' 

Her  earliest  published  work  was  '  Isles  of 
Greece,  and  other  Poems,'  which  appeared 
in  1843.  A  devotional  work,  'The  Divine 
Master,' was  published  in  1852  (llth  edit. 
1888),  memoirs  of  her  cousin  Alexander 
Penrose  Forbes  [q.  v.],  bishop  of  Brechin, 
and  Alexander  Lycurgus,  archbishop  of  the 
Cyclades,  in  1876  and  1877  respectively.  In 
1866  she  published  anonymously  a  book 
called  'Hidden  Depths.'  It  was  republished 
with  her  name  and  an  introduction  by  Mr. 


Smith 


348 


Smith 


W.  Shepherd  Allen  in  1886.  Though  to 
all  appearance  a  novel,  the  author  states 
that  it  is  not  a  work  of  fiction  in  the  ordi- 
nary acceptation  of  the  term,  as  she  herself 
•witnessed  many  of  the  scenes  described.  She 
was  a  constant  contributor  to  the  magazines, 
and  edited  the  'Churchman's  Companion,' 
1862-80.  She  died  at  34  St.  Michael  Street, 
Oxford,  on  6  Oct.  1899. 

Other  works  are :  1.  '  Wayfaring  Sketches 
among  the  Greeks  and  Turks  and  on  the 
Shores  of  the  Danube,'  1847.  2.  '  Use  and 
Abuse,  a  Tale,'  1849.  3. '  The  Tutor's  Ward,' 
2  vols.,  1851.  4.  '  St.  Albans,  or  the  Pri- 
soners of  Hope,'  1853.  5.  '  The  Ministry  of 
Consolation,'  1854.  6.  '  Penitentiaries  and 
Reformatories,'  1865.  7.  '  The  Shadows  of 
the  Holy  Week,'  1883.  8.  'A  Strange  In- 
heritance,' 3  vols.,  1886.  9.  «  The  Lesters, 
a  Novel,'  2  vols.,  1887.  10.  •  Awakened  ' 
('  Christian  World  Annual '),  1888.  11.  '  A 
Test  of  the  Truth,'  1897. 

[Times,  10  Oct.  1899;  Allibone's  Diet.  Snppl. 
ii.  1351.]  E.  L. 

SMITH,  BARBARA  LEIGH  (1827- 
1891),  foundress  of  Girton  College,  Cam- 
bridge. [See  BODICHON.] 

SMITH,  JOSEPH  (1733P-1790),  soldier, 
born  in  1732  or  1733,  was  the  son  of  an  en- 
gineer officer  in  the  East  India  Company's 
service.  In  1752  he  served  with  rank  of 
ensign  under  Clive  in  the  Carnatic,  and  on 
4  Sept.  he  discovered  a  large  body  of 
European  and  native  troops  hastening  to  re- 
lieve Chengalpat.  By  his  prompt  warning  he 
largely  assisted  in  their  defeat.  On  21  April 
1753  he  was  detached  with  forty  Europeans 
and  two  hundred  sipahis  from  Arcot  to  act 
with  the  Nabob's  forces  against  the  French. 
Being  deserted  by  the  Nabob's  troops  in  an 
action  which  took  place  between  Arcot  and 
Vellore,  he  was  made  prisoner  and  carried 
to  Vellore. 

After  his  release  he  attained  the  rank  of 
captain,  and  in  September  1754  commanded 
a  strong  detachment  stationed  at  Koiladi  to 
protect  the  coolies  who  were  repairing  the 
watercourses  there.  In  1755  he  accompanied 
the  expedition  under  Lieutenant-colonel 
Heron  to  Madura,  and  was  in  command  of 
the  rearguard  when  it  was  attacked  in  the 
pass  of  Natam.  Much  of  the  baggage  was 
lost,  but  Smith  succeeded  in  preserving  the 
guns  and  ammunition  of  the  force  from  cap- 
ture. In  May  1 757,  during  the  absence  of  Cap- 
tain Calliaud,  he  was  in  command  of  the  gar- 
rison at  Trichinopoli  while  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  by  the  French.  He  remained  in 
that  as  second  in  command  until  the  departure 


of  Calliaud  on  15  Sept.  1758,  when  he  was 
again  left  in  charge.  The  post  was  one  of 
some  responsibility  owing  to  the  number  of 
French  prisoners  confined  in  the  town,  who 
frequently  outnumbered  the  European  gar- 
rison by  more  than  five  to  one.  In  March 
1760  he  was  ordered  to  reinforce  the  troops 
under  Major  George  Monson  [q.v.]  besieging 
Karikal,  and  arrived  on  3  April  in  time  to 
assist  in  the  reduction  of  the  place.  In 
September  he  was  appointed  to  the  rank  of 
major,  and  placed  in  command  of  a  brigade 
during  the  siege  of  Pondicherry  by  Monson 
and  (Sir)  Eyre  Coote  (1726-1783)  [q.  v.] 

Smith  proceeded  to  England  on  leave 
about  1763,  returning  with  the  rank  of 
colonel  in  September  1766.  He  was  selected 
to  proceed  to  Haidarabad  to  concert  ope- 
rations against  Haidar  All  with  Nizam 
Ali.  On  the  commencement  of  hostilities 
he  warned  the  Madras  government  of  the 
bad  faith  of  the  Nizam,  but  failed  to  convince 
them  that  the  Nizam  was  secretly  concert- 
ing measures  with  Haidar  against  Madras. 
He  was  in  command  of  the  forces  intended 
to  co-operate  with  the  Nizam,  and,  assured 
of  his  treachery,  moved  towards  the  Madras 
frontier.  At  the  end  of  August  the  com- 
bined forces  of  Haidar  and  the  Nizam  burst 
into  the  province,  but  Smith  opposed  their 
advance  at  the  pass  of  Cbengama  on  3  Sept. 
He  was  worsted  and  compelled  to  retreat, 
but  defeated  the  confederates  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Trinomalai  on  26  Sept.,  when 
the  confederates  lost  four  thousand  men  and 
sixty-four  guns.  Having  thus  cleared  the 
province  of  the  enemy,  Smith  placed  his 
army  in  cantonments.  The  failure  of  the  in- 
vasion and  of  some  later  operations  induced 
the  Nizam  to  open  negotiations  with  Smith, 
and  a  treaty  was  concluded  on  23  Feb.  1768. 
His  subsequent  operations  were  hampered 
by  the  injudicious  plan  of  campaign  forced 
upon  him  by  the  Madras  council,  by  their 
neglect  of  the  commissariat,  and  by  the  in- 
competence of  one  or  two  of  the  English 
officers ;  but  it  is  probable  that  his  skill  and 
courage  saved  Madras  from  serious  disaster, 
and  even  from  conquest.  Haidar  had  the 
highest  respect  for  his  military  talents,  and, 
on  the  conclusion  of  peace  in  1769,  desired 
an  interview  with  him  and  requested  his 
portrait.  His  reputation  was  so  great  in 
Southern  India  that  on  4  Oct.  1768  a  con- 
siderable detachment  of  the  companies  under 
Colonel  Wood  was  saved  from  defeat  by 
Haidar  by  the  happy  stratagem  of  raising 
shouts  of '  Smith,'  as  if  that  commander  had 
arrived  with  reinforcements. 

Shortly  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  he 
attained  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  in 


Smith 


349 


Smith 


August  1773  be  undertook  the  siege  of  Tan- 
jore,  which  was  carried  by  assault  on  17  Sept. 
'This  was  his  last  action  of  importance,  and 
shortly  afterwards  he  retired  to  England. 
He  died  at  his  house  in  the  Circus  at  Bath 
on  1  Sept.  1790. 

[Orme's  Hist,  of  Military  Transactions  in 
Indostan,  1861 ;  Wilks's  Hist.  Sketches  of  the 
South  of  India,  Madras,  1869;  Mill's  Hist,  of 
India,  ed.  Wilson,  iii.  473-8  ;  Gent.  Mag.  1790, 
ii.  861,1  E.  I.  C. 

SMITH,  SIR  ROBERT  MURDOCH 
(1835-1900),  major-general,  archaeologist, 
and  diplomatist,  second  son  of  Hugh  Smith, 
medical  practitioner  at  Kilmarnock,  and  Jean 
Murdoch,  was  born  at  Kilmarnock  on  18  Aug. 
1835.  He  was  educated  at  Kilmarnock  aca- 
demy and  at  Glasgow  University  (where  he 
was  a  pupil  of  Lord  Kelvin),  and  in  1855  he 
was  one  of  the  first  to  obtain  by  open  com- 
petition a  commission  in  the  corps  of  royal 
engineers.  In  1856-9  he  commanded  the 
party  of  sappers  which  accompanied  the 
archaeological  expedition  under  (Sir)  Charles 
Thomas  Newton  [~q.  v.  Suppl.]  to  Asia  Minor, 
the  principal  results  of  which  were  the  dis- 
covery of  the  mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus 
and  the  acquisition — under  a  firman  of  the 
Porte — for  the  British  Museum,  of  the  mag- 
nificent sculptures  with  which  that  monu- 
"  ment  was  adorned.  It  was  Smith  who  hit 
upon  the  real  site  of  the  mausoleum,  and 
discovered  the  key  to  its  restoration,  as  ap- 
pears from  his  report  on  the  subject  to  New- 
ton and  his  drawings  of  the  restored  build- 
ing (Parl.  Papers,  1857-8,  Ix.  694-709).  The 
excavations  are  described  by  Newton  in  his 
'Discoveries  at  Halicarnassus,  Cnidus,  and 
Branchidse,'  1862. 

In  November  1860,  along  with  Lieutenant 
E.  A.  Porcher,  Smith  started  on  another 
adventurous  expedition,  at  his  own  expense 
but  under  government  sanction,  to  explore 
the  ancient  cities  of  the  Cyrenaica  in  North 
Africa.  For  a  year  the  two  officers  con- 
ducted excavations  at  and  about  Gyrene,  and 
returned  with  many  valuable  examples  of 
Greek  sculpture  and  inscriptions,  which  they 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  government, 
and  which  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  story  of  the  expedition  is  told  in  the 
'  History  of  the  recent  Discoveries  at  Cyrene ' 
(London,  1864,  fol.),  written  by  Smith,  and 
illustrated  from  drawings  by  Porcher. 

After  a  period  of  employment  on  fortifi- 
cation duties  in  the  war  office,  Smith  was 
selected  in  August  1863  for  special  service 
on  the  Persian  section  of  the  proposed  line 
of  telegraph  from  England  to  India.'  Per- 
mission to  construct  the  line  through  Persia 
had  only  been  obtained  after  much  difficulty 


and  delay,  and  the  officers  entrusted  with 
the  task  had  to  contend  not  only  with  great 
physical  difficulties,  but  with  the  hostility 
and  distrust  of  Persians  of  all  classes,  from 
the  shah  downwards.  All  these  difficulties, 
however,  were  overcome  in  time,  and  the 
line  was  successfully  completed.  Smith 
acted  first  as  superintendent  of  the  Teheran- 
Kohrud  section  of  the  line.  In  1865  he  suc- 
ceeded Major  (afterwards  Sir)  John  Bate- 
man  Champain  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  as  director  of  the 
Persian  telegraph  at  Teheran.  He  filled  this 
post  with  conspicuous  ability  and  success  for 
twenty  years.  Under  his  direction  the  work- 
ing of  the  line  reached  a  high  standard  of 
efficiency,  and  he  was  specially  successful  in 
conciliating  native  feeling.  "An  excellent 
Persian  scholar,  he  won  the  personal  esteem 
and  trust  of  the  Persian  ministers  and  princes 
with  whom  he  had  to  deal,  and  not  least  of 
the  late  shah,  Nasr-ed-Din,  who  in  1885 
presented  him  with  a  sword  of  honour. 

When  in  Persia  Smith  devoted  much 
time  and  attention  to  the  acquisition  of  the 
valuable  collection  of  Persian  objects  of  art 
now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  In 
1885  he  was  offered  and  accepted  the  direc- 
torship of  the  Science  and  Art  Museum  at 
Edinburgh,  and  returned  to  this  country. 
In  1887  he  became  director-in-chief  of  the 
Indo-European  telegraph  department  on  the 
death  of  Sir  John  Champain.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  sent  on  a  special  mission  to 
Persia  to  adjust  the  differences  that  had 
arisen  with  the  Persian  government  in  rela- 
tion to  the  occupation  of  Jashk  by  British- 
Indian  troops.  This  question  was  settled  to 
the  satisfaction  of  both  governments.  Other 
questions  were  also  discussed,  and  Smith  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  a  prolongation  to  1905 
of  the  two  existing  telegraph  conventions, 
which  would  otherwise  have  expired  in  1888 
and  1895  respectively.  On  leaving  Teheran 
he  was  presented  by  the  shah  with  a  diamond 
snuff-box,  and  on  his  return  to  England  he 
was  gazetted  K.C.M.G.  (10  Jan.  1888)  in  re- 
cognition of  his  services  in  Persia. 

Shortly  afterwards  the  office  to  which 
Smith  had  been  appointed  in  1887  was  (on 
his  own  recommendation)  abolished  as  an 
unnecessary  expense  to  the  public.  He  had 
retired  from  the  army  in  December  1887  with 
the  rank  of  major-general.  Henceforward 
his  work  lay  in  the  Edinburgh  Museum. 
Under  his  direction  it  was  greatly  enlarged, 
the  administration  was  improved,  and  many 
valuable  objects,  especially  in  the  depart- 
ment of  eastern  art,  were  added  to  its  con- 
tents. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  manu- 
factures in  Scotland  and  chairman  of  the 


Smvth 


35° 


Smyth 


committee  of  the  Scottish  National  Portrait 
Gallery. 

Among  his  minor  writings  were  the  trea- 
tise on  Persian  art,  issued  by  the  science  and 
art  department  in  1876,  a  paper  on  '  The  Stra- 
tegy of  Russia  in  Central  Asia'  (Journal  of 
the  United  Service  Institution,  xvii.  212-22), 
and  a  lecture  to  the  Society  of  Arts  on  'The 
Karun  River  as  a  Trade  Route '  (Journal  of 
the  Society  of  Arts,  xxxvii.  561-7),  for  which 
he  was  awarded  the  society's  silver  medal. 
This  paper  was  described  by  Vambery  as  'per- 
haps the  best  paper  hitherto  published  on  the 
subject.' 

In  February  1899  the  magistrates  of  his 
native  town  (Kilmarnock)  presented  him 
with  the  freedom  of  the  burgh.  Smith  died 
at  Edinburgh  on  3  July  1900,  and  was  buried 
in  the  Dean  cemetery. 

In  1869  he  married  Eleanor,  daughter  of 
Captain  John  Robinet  Baker,  R.N.  (she  died 
in  Persia  in  1883).  Of  nine  children,  seven 
died  in  Persia — three  on  three  consecutive 
days  at  Kashan — and  he  was  survived  by 
two  daughters. 

[Life  of  Major-general  Sir  Kobert  Murdoch 
Smith,  by  his  son-in-law,  W.  K.  Dickson,  Edin- 
burgh, 1901  ;  obituary  notice  in  the  Scotsman, 
5  July  1900  ;  Lord  Curzon's  Persia,  passim  ; 
Goldsmid's  Telegraph  and  Travel ;  Scottish  Geo- 
graphical Mag.  v.  5,  484-5 ;  Scotsman,  26  Oct. 
1896  ('An  Archaeological  Expedition  to  Asia 
Minor  Forty  Years  ago');  Royal  Engineers 
Journal,  September  1900  ('  Sir  R.  M.  Smith,' 
by  Major-general  Sir  Charles  Wilson)  ;  private 
information.]  G.  S-n. 

SMYTH,  CHARLES  PIAZZI  (1819- 
1900),  astronomer,  second  son  of  Admiral 
William  Henry  Smyth  [q.  v.],  was  born  at 
Xaples  on  3  Jan.  1819,  and  named  after  the 
Sicilian  astronomer,  Giuseppe  Piazzi.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Bedford  grammar 
school,  and  in  1835  entered  the  Royal  Ob- 
servatory, Cape  of  Good  Hope,  as  assistant. 
There  he  observed  the  great  comets  of  1836 
(Halley's)  and  1843,  and  co-operated  with 
Sir  Thomas  Maclear  [q.  v.]  in  the  extension 
of  Lacaille's  arc.  In  1845  he  succeeded 
Thomas  Henderson  [q.  v.]  as  astronomer- 
royal  for  Scotland,  but  found,  to  his  acute 
disappointment,  the  observatory  in  a  state 
of  dilapidation,  and  the  English  home  office 
deaf  to  petitions  for  its  renovation.  He,  how- 
ever, completed  the  reduction  of  Henderson's 
meridian  observations,  and  continued  the 
determination  of  star-places,  publishing  the 
results  in  the  '  Edinburgh  Astronomical 
Observations '  (vols.  xi.  to  xv.)  In  1852  he 
organised  time-signalling  by  the  dropping  of 
a  ball  on  the  Calton  Hill,  improved  to  a  time- 
gun  in  1861.  He  went  to  Sweden  for  the 


total  solar  eclipse  of  28  July  1851,  but  saw 
little  except  mist  from  his  post  on  the  island 
of  Bue  (Memoirs  Roy.  Astr.  Society,  xxi.  25). 
A  sum  of  500/.  having  been  placed  at  his 
disposal  by  the  admiralty  for  the  purpose  of 
experimenting  upon  telescopic  vision  on  the 
peak  of  Teneriffe,  he  repaired  thither  in  May 
1856  in  the  yacht  Titania,  lent  him  by  Robert 
Stephenson  [q.  v.]  Returning  in  October 
;  he  published  a  popular  account  of  the 
trip,  entitled  'Teneriffe,  an  Astronomical 
Experiment'  (London,  1858),  and  embodied 
the  scientific  results  in  a  paper  for  the  Royal 
Society,  of  which  he  was  elected  fellow  on 
11  June  1857  (Phil.  Trans,  cxlviii.  465),  and 
in  a  report  to  the  lords  commissioners  of 
the  admiralty.  They  were  also  fully  de- 
scribed in  the  '  Edinburgh  Astronomical  Ob- 
servations '  (vol.  xii.) 

In  1859  he  visited  the  Russian  observa- 
tories, and  gave  his  impressions  of  them  in 
,  'Three  Cities  in  Russia'  (2  vols.  London, 
1862).  Having  published,  late  in  1864,  'Our 
Inheritance  in  the  Great  Pyramid '  (5th  edit. 
1890),  he  hurried  to  Egypt  and  devoted  the 
winter  to  measuring  and  surveying  the  edi- 
fice. His  interpretation  of  its  design,  divinely 
revealed  to  its  constructor,  Melchisedec,  pre- 
luded, he  supposed,  the  commencement  of 
the  millennium  in  1882;  and  he  detected, 
among  other  mysteries  conveyed  by  its  pro- 
portions, a  cryptographic  solution  of  the 
problem  of  squaring  the  circle.  A  paper  on 
the  subject  sent  by  him  to  the  Royal  Society 
having  been  denied  a  reading,  he  resigned 
his  fellowship  on  7  Feb.  1874,  and  gave  his 
reasons  to  the  public  in  a  tract  on  '  The  Great 
Pyramid  and  the  Royal  Society'  (London, 
1874). 

Notwithstanding  these  deviations  into 
'  paradox  of  a  very  high  order '  (in  De  Mor- 
gan's phrase),  Smyth  did  admirable  work  in 
spectroscopy.  He  effectively  promoted  the 
study  of  telluric  absorption  (Monthly  Notices, 
xxxix.  38),  and  brought  the  'rain-band'  into 
use  for  weather  prediction  (Nature,  xii.  231, 
xiv.  9 ;  Journal  Scottish  Meteor.  Society,  v. 
84).  A  map  of  the  solar  spectrum  con- 
structed by  him  at  Lisbon  in  1877-8  (Edin. 
Phil.  Trans,  xxix.  285)  received  the  Mak- 
dougall-Brisbane  prize  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh ;  and  he  revised  the  work  with 
a  Rutherfurd  grating  at  Madeira  in  1880, 
and  at  Winchester  in  1884  (ib.  vol.  xxxii.) 
His  adoption  of '  end-on '  vacuum-tubes  for  the 
investigation  of  gaseous  spectra  (ib.  xxx.  93, 
xxxii.  pt.  iii. ;  Trans.  Scottish  Soc.  of  Arts, 
x.  226)  was  an  improvement  of  great  conse- 
quence. He  detected,  in  conjunction  with 
Professor  Alexander  Herschel,  the  harmonic 
character  of  the  carbonic-oxide  spectrum,  and 


Smyth 


351 


Spears 


picked  out  six  of  the  significant  triplets  in  the 
spectrum  of  oxygen.  The  '  citron-ray  '  of  the 
aurora  was  repeatedly  measured  by  him  in 
1871-2  (  Comptes  Rendus,  Ixxiv.  597),  and  he 
observed  the  spectrum  of  the  zodiacal  light 
at  Palermo  in  April  1872  (Monthly  Notices, 
xxxii.  277).  From  the  indications  of  ther- 
mometers buried  on  the  Calton  Hill  (1837- 
1870)  he  inferred  the  subjection  of  the  earth's 
temperature  to  a  cycle  identical  with  that 
of  sunspots  (Proc.  Roy.  Society,  xviii.  311). 
A  digest  by  him  of  meteorological  data  col- 
lected at  fifty-five  stations  in  Scotland  ap- 
peared in  vol.  xiii.  of  the  '  Edinburgh  Astro- 
nomical Observations'  (1871). 

Smyth  obtained  in  1870  funds  for  a  new 
equatorial,  but  the  promised  allowances  for 
the  cost  of  its  working  were  not  forthcoming. 
A  committee  appointed  by  the  home  secre- 
tary (the  Right  Hon.  Ilichard  Assheton 
Cross,  now  Viscount  Cross)  in  1876  to  inquire 
into  the  affairs  of  the  observatory  recom- 
mended ameliorations  never  carried  into 
effect ;  and  at  last,  in  1888,  Smyth  resigned 
in  disgust  the  post  he  had  held  for  forty-three 
years,  and  withdrew  to  Clova,  near  Ripon  in 
Yorkshire.  There  he  executed  a  large  solar 
spectrographic  chart,  with  a  Rowland  grat- 
ing, and  studied  cloud-forms  by  photography. 
He  died  on  21  Feb.  1900,  and  was  buried  in 
Sharow  churchyard,  Ripon.  On  24  Dec. 
1855  he  married  Jessie  Duncan  (d.  24  March 
1896).  She  was  the  constant  companion  of 
his  travels.  They  had  no  children.  He  be- 
queathed his  residuary  estate  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh  for  defraying  the  ex- 
penses of  printing  his  spectroscopic  manu- 
scripts, and  of  sending  out  occasional  expe- 
ditions for  spectroscopic  research  at  high 
mountain  stations.  His  membership  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society  dated  from  1846. 
He  was  an  honorary  LL.D.  of  the  university 
of  Edinburgh,  and  a  corresponding  member 
of  the  academies  of  Munich  and  Palermo. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  he 
wrote:  1.  'Life  and  Work  at  the  Great 
Pyramid,'  8  vols.  London,  1867.  2.  '  On  the 
Antiquity  of  Man,'  Edinburgh,  1868  (awarded 
the  Keith  prize  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh). 3.  '  Madeira  Spectroscopic,'  Edin- 
burgh, 1882.  One  hundred  entries  under  his 
name  occur  in  the  Royal  Society's  'Cata- 
logue of  Scientific  Papers.' 

[Times,  24  Feb.  1900 ;  Observatory,  xxiii. 
145,184;  Notice  by  Dr.  Copeland  in  Asfrono- 
mische  Nachrichten,  No.  3636,  and  Popular 
Astronomy,  1900,  p.  384;  Nature,  14  June 
1900;  A."  S.  Herschel  on  Smyth's  Work  in 
Speotroscopy ;  Men  of  the  Time,  14th  edit.; 
AndrS  et  Rayet's  1'Astronomie  Pratique,  ii.  12.] 

A.  M.  C. 


SNOWDON,  JOHN  (1558-1626),  priest 
and  political  adventurer.  [See  CECIL.] 

SPEARS,  ROBERT  (1825-1899),  uni- 
tarian  preacher  and  journalist,  fifth  son  by 
the  second  wife  of  John  Spears,  foreman  of 
ironworks,  was  born  at  Lemington,  parish 
of  Newburn,  Northumberland,  on  25  Sept. 
1825.  His  father  was  a  Calvinistic  presby- 
terian,  but  the  family  attended  the  parish 
church.  Brought  up  as  an  engineering  smith, 
his  love  of  reading  led  him  to  leave  this  calling 
and  set  up  a  school  in  his  native  village.  He 
joined  the  new  connexion  methodists ;  a 
debate  (1845)  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  between 
Joseph  Barker  [q.  v.]  and  William  Cooke,  D.D., 
gave  him  the  conviction  that  doctrine  must  be 
expressed  in  '  the  language  of  scripture.'  In 
1846  he  was  master  of  the  new  connexion 
school  at  Scotswood-on-Tyne,  and  was  taken 
on  trial  as  a  local  preacher.  A  lecture  at 
Blaydon,  Northumberland,  in  1848,  by 
George  Harris  (1794-1859)  [q.  v.],  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  intimacy  with  Harris,  to  whom 
Spears  owed  his  introduction  to  the  Unitarian 
body  in  1849.  Leaving  the  methodists,  he 
became  Unitarian  minister  (without  salary) 
at  Sunderland  (1852-8),  where  he  conducted 
a  very  successful  school,  and  originated  (1856) 
a  monthly  religious  magazine,  the '  Christian 
Freeman '  (still  continued).  He  removed  to 
a  pastorate  at  Stockton-on-Tees  (1858-61), 
where  he  originated  (30  Dec.  1859)  the 
'  Stockton  Gazette '  (now  the  '  North-Eastern 
Gazette'). 

In  1861  Spears  attracted  the  attention  of 
Robert  Brook  Aspland  [q.  v.],  was  invited  to 
London  by  Sir  James  Clarke  Lawrence,  bart. 
(d.  1898),  and  became  (1862)  minister  of 
Stamford  Street  chapel,  Blackfriars.  In 
1867  he  was  elected  co-secretary  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Unitarian  Association 
with  Aspland,  on  whose  death  (1869)  he 
became  general  secretary, '  put  new  life  into 
every  department,'  and  nearly  quadrupled 
its  income.  In  1874  he  left  Stamford  Street 
to  take  charge  of  a  new  congregation  at 
College  Chapel,  Stepney  Green.  His  theo- 
logical conservatism  was  the  cause  of  his 
resigning  (1876)  the  denominational  secre- 
taryship..  He  at  once  established  (20  May 
1876)  a  weekly  paper,  the  '  Christian  Life,' 
as  an  organ  of  biblical  and  missionary  uni- 
tarianism ;  in  1889  he  bought  up  the  '  Uni- 
tarian Herald,'  a  Manchester  organ  (which 
he  had  been  invited  to  manage  at  its  esta- 
blishment in  1861),  and  amalgamated  it 
with  his  paper.  In  1886,  aided  by  Matilda 
Sharpe,  younger  daughter  of  Samuel  Sharpe 
[q.  v.],  he  established  a  denominational 
school  for  girls  at  Channing  House,  High-  • 


Spears 


352 


Stansfeld 


gate  Hill,  and  in  consequence  left  Stepney 
to  found  a  Unitarian  chapel  at  Highgate. 
Among  other  new  causes  due  directly  to  his 
suggestion,  and  largely  to  his  aid,  were  those 
at  Clerkenwell,  Croydon,  Forest  Hill,  Net- 
ting Hill,  and  Peckham;  and,  outside  Lon- 
don, there  were  few  parts  of  the  country 
where  his  influence  was  not  felt  among  uni- 
tarians  as  a  stimulus  to  propagandist  work. 
Biblical  as  he  was  in  his  own  theology, 
he  was  deeply  interested  in  the  monotheistic 
movement  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj  of  India, 
and  was  in  close  contact  with  its  leaders 
from  the  visit  (1870)  to  this  country  of  the 
late  Keshub  Chunder  Sen  (who  was  his 
guest).  On  his  initiative  was  founded 
(7  June  1881)  the  '  Christian  Conference,' 
which  has  brought  together  representatives 
of  all  denominations,  from  Cardinal  Manning 
to  Dr.  Martineau.  He  had  travelled  in 
France,  Italy,  and  America,  and  kept  up  a 
correspondence  with  liberal  thinkers  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Personally  he  was  a  man 
of  singularly  winning  characteristics;  his 
massive  head  was  full  of  strong  good  sense 
and  marvellous  knowledge  of  men  and 
things ;  his  robust  energy  was  equalled  only 
by  his  generous  warmth  of  heart.  He  died 
at  his  residence,  Arundel  House,  Highgate, 
of  internal  cancer,  on  25  Feb.  1899,  and  was 
buried  at  Nunhead  cemetery  on  1  March. 
He  married,  first  (1846),  Margaret  Kirton 
(d.  1867),  by  whom  he  had  five  children,  of 
whom  the  youngest  daughter  survived  him  ; 
secondly  (1869),  Emily  Glover,  who  sur- 
vived him  with  two  sons  and  four  daugh- 
ters. 

He  published  :  1.  '  The  Unitarian  Hand- 
book,' Newcastle-on-Tyne,  1859?,  12mo ; 
2nd  edit.  1862,  12mo;  later  edits,  revised 
by  Russell  Lant  Carpenter  (d.  1892).  2. 'Re- 
cord of  Unitarian  Worthies  '  [1877],  8vo  ; 
the  prefixed  '  Historical  Sketch '  was  re- 
printed, 1895,  8vo.  He  prefaced  Belsham's 
'  Memoirs  of  Lindsey '  (3rd  edit.  1873, 8vo) ; 
compiled  from  Priestley's  works  '  The  Apo- 
stolic and  Primitive  Church  .  .  .  Unitarian  ' 
(1871,  12mo)  ;  and  wrote  the  introduction 
and  appendix  to  Stannus's  '  History  of  the 
Origin  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity '  (1882, 
8vo).  He  brought  out  popular  editions  of 
Channing's  works,  1873,  8vo ;  1884,  4to. 
His  '  Scriptural  Declaration  of  Unitarian 
Principles '  has  been  the  most  widely  circu- 
lated of  Unitarian  tracts. 

[Sketch  of  the  Life,  by  Samuel  Charlesworth, 
1899,  12mo  (reprinted  from  Christian  Life, 
4  March  1899) ;  Reminiscences  of  a  Busy  Life, 
in  Unitarian  Bible  Magazine,  December  1895- 
January  1899  ;  Christian  Life,  25  March  1899.] 

A.  G. 


STANSFELD,  SIB  JAMES  (1820- 
1898),  politician,  born  at  Moorlands,  Hali- 
fax, on  5  Oct.  1820,  was  the  only  son  of 
James  Stansfeld  (1792-1872),  originally  a 
member  of  a  firm  of  solicitors,  Stansfeld  & 
Craven,  and  subsequently  county-court  judge 
of  the  district  comprising  Halifax,  Hudders- 
field,  Dewsbury,  and  Holmfirth.  His  mother 
was  Emma,  daughter  of  James  Ralph,  mini- 
ster of  the  Northgate-End  independent 
chapel,  Halifax,  and  his  sister  married  George 
Dixon  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  Brought  up  as  a  non- 
conformist, Stansfeld  was  in  1837  sent  to 
University  College,  London,  whence  he  gra- 
duated B.A.  in  1840  and  LL.B.  in  1844. 
He  was  admitted  student  of  the  Middle 
Temple  on  31  Oct.  1840,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  on  26  Jan.  1849 ;  he  does  not  seem, 
however,  to  have  practised,  and  later  in  life 
derived  his  income  mainly  from  his  brewery 
at  Fulham. 

On  27  July  1844  Stansfeld  married  Caro- 
line, second  daughter  of  William  Henry 
Ashurst  [q.  v.],  the  well-known  radical  and 
friend  of  Mazzini,  and  in  1847  Stansfeld  was 
himself  introduced  to  the  Italian  patriot, 
with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship. 
Stansfeld  sympathised  with  the  chartist 
movement,  though  on  one  occasion  Feargus 
O'Connor  [q.  v.]  denounced  him  as  '  a  capi- 
talist wolf  in  sheep's  clothing.'  He  also  took 
an  active  part  in  propagating  radical  opinions 
in  the  north  of  England,  frequently  spoke  at 
meetings  of  the  Northern  Reform  Union,  and 
was  one  of  the  promoters  of  the  association 
for  the  repeal  of  taxes  on  knowledge. 

On  29  April  1859  Stansfeld  was  returned 
to  parliament  for  his  native  town,  Halifax, 
which  he  continued  to  represent  for  more 
than  thirty-six  years.  In  the  House  of 
Commons  he  generally  acted  with  the  ex- 
treme liberals  led  by  Bright  and  Forster, 
and  in  June  1862  he  moved  a  resolution, 
which  was  defeated  by  367  to  65  votes,  in 
favour  of  reducing  national  expenditure. 
His  efforts  were,  however,  mainly  devoted  to 
the  furtherance  of  Italian  unity,  and  he  pub- 
lished several  speeches  and  lectures  delivered 
in  that  cause.  When  Garibaldi  visited  Eng- 
land in  1862  he  chose  Stansfeld  as  his  ad- 
viser, and  subsequently  referred  to  him  as  a 
'  type  of  English  courage,  loyalty,  and  con- 
sistency, the  friend  of  Italy  in  her  evil  days, 
the  champion  of  the  weak  and  of  the 
oppressed  abroad.'  In  February  1863  Stans- 
feld moved  a  resolution  in  the  House  of 
Commons  of  sympathy  with  the  Poles,  which 
was  supported  by  Lord  Robert  Cecil  (now 
Marquis  of  Salisbury),  and  in  the  following 
April  Palmerston  appointed  Stansfeld  a 
junior  lord  of  the  admiralty. 


Stansfeld 


353 


Stansfeld 


Stansfeld's  tenure  of  this  post  was  cut 
short  by  a  remarkable  incident.  During  the 
trial  of  Greco,  early  in  1864,  for  conspiring 
against  Napoleon  III,  the  procureur-impSrial 
of  France  declared  that  Stansfeld  had  in 
1855  been  appointed  '  banker  to  the  Tibaldi 
conspirators '  who  sought  the  emperor's  life, 
and  that  Mr.  Flowers  or  M.  Fiori  (one  of 
Mazzini'spseudonyms)  corresponded  with  the 
would-be  assassins  from  Stansfeld's  house, 
35  Thurloe  Square.  On  17  March  1864  the 
question  was  raised  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  Disraeli  charged  Stansfeld  with 
being  '  in  correspondence  with  the  assassins 
of  Europe.'  Stansfeld  denied  having  ever 
been  either  treasurer  or  banker  to  the  Tibaldi 
conspirators,  though  he  admitted  that  he 
allowed  his  name  to  be  inscribed  on  bank- 
notes, which  he  understood  were  to  be  de- 
voted to  the  Italian  cause  ;  he  did  not  deny 
that  letters  had  been  addressed  to  M.  Fiori 
at  his  house,  though  he  was  unaware  of  it  at 
the  time,  but  repudiated  the  idea  of  Mazzini's 
complicity  in  the  conspiracy.  He  was  de- 
fended by  Bright  and  Forster,  and  Palmer- 
ston  declared  his  explanation  to  be  quite 
satisfactory ;  the  vote  of  censure  was,  how- 
ever, lost  by  only  ten  votes,  and  as  it  was 
evident  that  renewed  attacks  on  him  were  to 
be  made,  Stansfeld  sent  in  his  resignation, 
which  Palmerston,  after  some  hesitation,  ac- 
cepted early  in  April.  Henry  Crabb  Robin- 
son [q.  v.],  a  friend  of  Stansfeld,  thought  he 
gained  in  public  estimation  by  his  conduct 
(Diary,  1872,  ii.  383).  On  11  July  1865  he 
was  re-elected  for  Halifax  without  opposi- 
tion, and  in  February  1866,  when  Lord  John 
Russell  had  succeeded  Palmerston  as  prime 
minister,  Stansfeld  became  under-secretary 
of  state  for  India  in  succession  to  the  pre- 
sent Marquis  of  Dufferin  and  Ava.  Four 
months  later,  however,  the  government  was 
defeated,  and  the  tories  took  office  under 
Lord  Derby. 

In  Gladstone's  first  administration  (1868- 
1874)  Stansfeld  was  successively  made  third 
lord  of  the  treasury  (December  1868),  privy 
councillor  (February  1869),  financial  secre- 
tary to  the  treasury  (November  1869),  pre- 
sident of  the  poor-law  board  (March  1871), 
and  first  president  of  the  local  government 
board  in  August  following.  Here  Stansfeld 
did  his  best  administrative  work,  and  he  re- 
tained this  post  until  the  fall  of  Gladstone's 
government  in  January  1874. 

Stansfeld  now  obscured  his  political  pro- 
spects by  devoting  himself  heart  and  soul  to 
the  movement  for  the  repeal  of  the  con- 
tagious diseases  acts.  In  1879  he  was  put 
on  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
to  consider  the  subject;  and  when  in  1882 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


the  committee  reported  in  favour  of  the 
maintenance  of  the  acts,  Stansfeld  issued  a 
minority  report  condemning  them.  He  also 
attacked  the  conduct  of  (Sir)  George  Os- 
borne  Morgan  [q.  v.  Suppl.J  as  chairman  of 
the  committee,  and  Lord  Kimberley  for  de- 
fending the  system  as  enforced  at  Hong 
Kong.  Stansfeld  himself  was  not  a  member 
of  Gladstone's  second  administration,  and  he 
had  in  1880  declined  the  office  of  chairman 
of  committees  of  the  House  of  Commons,  on 
the  ground  that  he  had  already  held  cabinet 
rank.  On  16  March  1886,  however,  the 
cause  which  Stansfeld  had  championed 
triumphed,  and  the  contagious  diseases  acts 
were  repealed  without  a  division.  On  3  April 
Stansfeld  succeeded  Mr.  Chamberlain  as  presi- 
dent of  the  local  government  board.  Regard- 
ing Ireland  as  an  oppressed  nationality,  he 
had  little  difficulty  in  adopting  home  rule,  of 
which  he  remained  a  staunch  advocate  to 
the  end  of  his  life. 

Stansfeld  retired  from  the  local  govern- 
ment board  on  Gladstone's  defeat  in  July 
1886.  During  the  session  of  1888  he  moved 
various  amendments  to  Mr.  Ritchie's  local 
government  bill,  and  in  May  1892  he  carried 
the  second  reading  of  a  registration  bill,  the 
further  progress  of  which  was  stopped  by  the 
dissolution  at  the  end  of  June.  Stansfeld 
was  not  included  in  Gladstone's  last  ad- 
ministration, and  he  refused  the  offer  of  a 
peerage.  Before  Lord  Rosebery  left  office  in 
June  1895  he  made  Stansfeld  G.C.B.  Stans- 
feld retired  from  the  representation  of  Hali- 
fax in  that  month,  and  on  15  Oct.  following 
was  presented  with  a  testimonial  from  the 
women  of  England  for  his  services  to  mo- 
rality and  female  suffrage.  He  died  at  his  re- 
sidence, Castle  Hill,  Rotherfield,  Sussex,  on 
17  Feb.  1898,  and  was  buried  at  Rotherfield 
on  the  22nd.  On  the  18th  the  Italian  cham- 
ber unanimously  passed  a  vote  of  sympathy, 
out  of  respect  for  his  efforts  in  the  cause  of 
Italian  unity.  A  portrait  of  Stansfeld  was 
painted  in  1870 ;  a  sketch  from  it  is  given 
in  Stansfeld's  '  History  of  the  Stansfelds ' 
and  in  the  '  Daily  Chronicle '  (18  Feb.  1898). 

Stansfeld's  first  wife  died  in  1885,  leaving 
one  son,  Mr.  Joseph  James  Stansfeld  (b. 
1852),  barrister-at-law ;  and  on  22  June 
1887  Stansfeld  married  his  second  wife, 
Frances,  widow  of  Henry  Augustus  Severn 
of  Sydney ;  by  her,  who  survived  him, 
Stansfeld  had  no  issue. 

[Stansfeld's  pamphlets  in  Brit.  Mus.  Libr.  ; 
John  Stansfeld's  History  of  the  Family  of  Stans- 
feld, Leeds,  1885  ;  Mazzini's  Life  and  Writings, 
1864-70,  6  vols. ;  Crabb  Eobinson's  Diary,  ed. 
1872;  Matthew  Arnold's  Letters,  i.  .222;  Mrs. 
Josephine  Butler's  Recollections  of  George  Butler, 

A  A 


Steevens 


354 


Steevens 


passim;  Hansard's  Parl.  Debates;  Official  Ret. 
Members  of  Parl. ;  Annual  Register,  passim ; 
Lucy's  Diary  of  Two  Parliaments  ;  Foster's  Men 
at  the  Bar;  Men  of  the  Time,  ed.  1895;  Times, 
18  and  23 Feb.  1898;  DailyChron.  18  and  19  Feb. 
1898 ;  Daily  News,  18  Feb.  1898  ;  Burko's  Peer- 
age, 1895.]  A.  F.  P. 

STEEVENS,  GEORGE  WARRING- 
TON  (1869-1900),  journalist,  son  of  James 
Steevens,  was  born  at  Sydenham  on  10  Dec. 
1869.  He  was  educated  at  the  City  of 
London  school,  where  he  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  in  classics.  He  was  captain 
of  the  school  in  1887-8,  and  was  elected  in 
1888  scholar  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  At 
Balliol  he  fully  maintained  his  reputation  as 
a  classical  scholar.  He  was  placed  in  the 
first  class  both  in  classical  moderations  and 
in  the  final  classical  school,  and  during  the 
same  period  obtained  the  highest  honours  at 
each  of  the  three  examinations  held  in  con- 
nection with  the  B.A.  degree  at  the  uni- 
versity of  London.  He  graduated  B.A.  at 
both  Oxford  and  London  in  1892.  In  1893 
he  was  elected  fellow  of  Pembroke  College, 
Oxford.  Although  shy  and  retiring  in 
general  society,  Steevens  developed  in  his 
undergraduate  days,  both  as  a  talker  and 
as  a  writer  in  undergraduate  periodicals, 
a  wayward  brilliance  and  amusing  tendency 
to  paradox. 

Meanwhile  at  Cambridge,  where  he  had 
many  school  friends,  he  made  the  acquain- 
tance of  Mr.  Oscar  Browning,  fellow  of  King's 
College,  whose  liberal  opinions  attracted  him. 
In  the  early  autumn  of  1892  he  helped 
Mr.  Browning  in  his  candidature  for  the 
representation  in  parliament  of  East  Wor- 
cestershire, and  cleverly  edited  an  electio- 
neering paper  in  the  constituency  in  theliberal 
interest.  At  the  same  period  he  made  his 
first  appearance  in  the  London  press  with  an 
original  paper  on '  The  other  View  of  Barnum,' 
which  appeared  in  '  The  Speaker.'  At  the 
beginning  of  Lent  term,  1893,  some  friends 
at  Cambridge  who  since  the  preceding  May 
had  conducted  a  weekly  periodical  called 
'  The  Cambridge  Observer,'  invited  Steevens 
to  edit  it.  He  edited  the  last  seven  num- 
bers, and  these  evinced  unmistakable  talents 
for  vivid  journalism  of  literary  quality.  At 
the  same  time  he  began  a  connection  with 
the  '  National  Observer,'  a  brilliant  weekly 
London  paper,  of  which  Mr.  W.  E.  Henley 
was  editor.  Mr.  Henley  formed  a  high 
opinion  of  Steevens's  abilities  and  perso- 
nality, and  a  friendship  sprang  up  between 
them  which  lasted  till  Steevens's  death. 

In  the  early  summer  of  1893  Steevens  went 
to  London  and  definitely  adopted  the  calling 
of  a  journalist.  He  joined  the  staff  of  the 


'  Pall  Mall  Gazette,'  of  which  Mr.  W.  W. 
Astor  had  just  become  proprietor,  and  Mr. 
Henry  Gust  editor.  Steevens  proved  a  first- 
rate  contributor  of  literary  and  descriptive 
articles,  which,  if  not  always  convincing, 
rarely  lacked  the  saving  graces  of  originality 
and  independence.  While  writing  in  the  'Pall 
Mall  Gazette'  he  became  a  frequent  contri- 
butor of  essays  tc  the  '  New  Review,'  of 
which  his  friend  Mr.  Henley  had  become 
editor  in  1894,  and  to  '  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine.' In  his  contributions  to  these  maga- 
zines Steevens's  literary  power  was  seen  to 
the  best  advantage.  In  1895  he  published 
a  volume  of  realistic  '  Monologues  of  the 
Dead,'  port  ions  of  which  had  already  appeared 
in  periodicals ;  the  speakers  are  classical 
heroes  and  heroines  who  express  themselves 
with  too  studied  a  crudeness  and  careless- 
ness of  language  *  win  complete  success. 
A  second  volume  next  year  on '  Naval  Policy ' 
(1896),  which  had  also  been  contributed 
serially  to  periodicals,  illustrated  the  growth 
of  Steevens's  political  interests,  and  the 
decay  of  his  youthful  sympathies  with 
current  liberalism. 

When  in  1895  Mr.  Gust,  the  editor  of 
the  'Pall  Mall  Gazette,'  resigned  his  position, 
Steevens  left  the  office  with  him.  In  1896 
he  joined  the  staff  of  the  '  Daily  Mail,'  a  new 
London  daily  paper,  founded  by  Mr.  Alfred 
Harmsworth,  who  acted  as  editor.  After 
he  had  written  in  London  many  miscel- 
laneous descriptive  articles,  Mr.  Harmsworth 
gave  Steevens  his  first  commission  to  serve 
as  a  special  correspondent  abroad.  He  was 
ordered  to  the  United  States  to  report  for  the 
'  Daily  Mail '  the  progress  of  the  presiden- 
tial election,  which  Mr.  W.  J.  Bryan  vainly 
contested  against  Mr.  William  McKinley. 
Steevens  expanded  his  articles  into  a  spirited 
account  of  America,  which  was  published  in 
1897  under  the  title  of  'The  Land  of  the 
Dollar.'  This  proved  the  best  of  a  long 
series  of  similar  volumes.  In  the  same  year 
Steevens  had  his  first  experience  as  a  war 
correspondent.  Joining  the  Turkish  army 
under  Edhem  Pasha  he  described  the  Graeco- 
Turkish  war  in  Thessaly,  and  his  articles 
were  republished  under  the  title  of  '  AVith 
the  Conquering  Turk.'  In  the  summer  he 
went  to  Germany,  and  sent  home  some 
sketches  of  German  life,  which  were  repub- 
lished, with  other  sketches  of  London  and 
Paris  from  the  '  Daily  Mail,'  in  'Glimpses  of 
Three  Nations '  (posthumously  issued).  At 
the  end  of  1897  he  visited  Egypt,  and  the 
result  was  the  volume  called  'Egypt  in 
1898.'  In  1898  he  returned  to  Egypt  to 
join  as  war  correspondent  the  army  -which 
was  sent  out  under  General  (afterwards  Lord) 


Steevens 


355 


Stephens 


Kitchener  to  destroy  the  power  of  the  khalifa 
in  the  Soudan.    His  vivid  descriptions  of  this 
expedition  were  collected  after  their  appear- 
ance in  the  '  Daily  Mail '  into  what  proved 
his  most  popular  book,  '  With  Kitchener  to 
Khartum.'   In  the  winter  of  1898-9  Steevens  j 
went  out  to  India  in  the  track  of  Lord  ' 
Curzon,  the   newly  appointed  viceroy,  and  ' 
his  record  of  the  journey  ultimately  took  the  ! 
form  of  the  volume  called  '  In  India.'     Re- 
turning from    India  in   1899,  he  went  to 
Rennes  to  report  the  second  trial  of  Captain 
Alfred  Dreyfus,   and  these    articles,   after 
serving  their  purpose  in  the  '  Daily  Mail,'  ; 
were  reissued   in    the  book  entitled  '  The  \ 
Tragedy  of  Dreyfus.' 

On  the  conclusion  of  the  Dreyfus  trial  ; 
in  September  1899  Steevens  was  ordered  by 
his  editor  to  South  Africa,  where  the  pending 
negotiations  between  the  Transvaal  govern- 
ment and  the  British  government  rendered 
war  probable.  On  the  actual  outbreak  of 
hostilities  in  October  he  joined  the  army 
which  under  Sir  George  White  undertook 
the  defence  of  Natal.  Within  three  weeks 
of  the  opening  of  active  operations,  on  1  Nov., 
that  force  was  besieged  in  Ladysmith.  The 
siege  of  Ladysmith  cost  Steevens  his  life. 
On  13  Dec.  he  sickened  of  enteric  fever,  and 
when  he  appeared  to  be  on  the  road  to  con- 
valescence he  died  at  five  in  the  afternoon 
on  15  Jan.  1900.  He  was  buried  in  Lady- 
smith  cemetery  at  midnight  of  the  same 
day.  The  town  was  relieved  on  28  Feb. 

The  articles  Steevens  had  sent  home  from 
South  Africa  were  issued  posthumously 
in  a  volume  called  '  From  Cape  Town  to 
Ladysmith,'  with  a  '  last  chapter '  by  Mr. 
Vernon  Blackburn.  A  '  Memorial  edition ' 
of  Steevens's  collected  works  is  in  course 
of  publication,  under  the  editorship  of  his 
friends  Mr.  G.  S.  Street  and  Mr.  Blackburn. 
The  first  volume,  'Things  Seen'  (1900), 
brings  together  Steevens's  scattered  contri- 
butions to  magazines  and  newspapers,  and 
contains  an  appreciative  memoir  of  the 
author  by  his  friend  Mr.  W.  E.  Henley. 
The  second  volume  was  called  '  Glimpses 
of  Three  Nations  '  (1901). 

Steevens's  portrait  was  painted  by  the 
Hon.  John  Collier  in  1898 ;  a  replica  was 
presented  by  Steevens's  schoolfellows  to  the 
City  of  London  school,  where  it  was  un- 
veiled on  23  Oct.  1900.  A  reproduction  in 
photogravure  of  Mr.  Collier's  portrait  is  pre- 
fixed to  the  '  Memorial  edition'  of  Steevens's 
works. 

In  1894  he  married  Mrs.  Rogerson,  who 
was  many  vears  his  senior;  she  survived 

1    * 

him. 

As  a  man  Steevens  was  distinguished  by 


admirable  courage  and  resolution.  It  was 
his  endeavour  in  journalism  to  present  in 
words  with  all  possible  vividness,  frankness, 
and  terseness  what  he  saw,  thought,  and  felt. 
The  success  he  often  achieved,  especially 
in  the  miscellaneous  articles  which  were 
collected  after  his  death  in  the  volume  called 
'  Things  Seen,'  was  sufficient  to  prove  that 
his  capacities  were  in  harmony  with  his 
aims.  But  only  a  small  fraction  of  his  work 
does  genuine  justice  to  his  powers.  The 
hurried  conditions  under  which  he  ordinarily 
wrote  lent  an  aspect  of  crudity  to  many  of 
his  books  and  articles,  and  often  gave  the 
reader  the  uncomfortable  impression  of  a 
vain  straining  after  effect.  His  premature 
death  prevented  the  fulfilment  of  his  high 
literary  promise. 

[The  appreciative  Memoir  by  Mr.  W.  E. 
Henley  prefixed  to  Things  Seen,  1900 ;  The  Last 
Chapter  by  Mr.  Vernon  Blackburn  in  From  Cape 
Town  to  Ladysmith,  1900;  Memoir  by  Mr. 
B.  L.  Abrahams  in  City  of  London  School  Mag. 
for  March  1900,  with  early  portrait  from  photo- 
graph.] S.  L. 

STEPHENS  or  STEVENS,  THOMAS 
(1549  P-1619),  Jesuit  missionary  and  author, 
born  about  1549,  is  described  (FoLEY,  lie- 
cords  S.J.  vii.  1453)  as  a  native  of  '  Bul- 
stan '  in  the  diocese  of  Salisbury ;  he  may 
therefore  be  identified  with  the  Thomas 
Stevens,  native  of  Bourton,  Dorset,  who  was 
elected  scholar  of  Winchester  in  1564,  his 
age  being  given  as  thirteen  (KiRBT,  Win- 
chester Scholars,  p.  139).  According  to 
Hakluyt  he  was  for  a  time  at  New  College, 
Oxford,  but  his  name  is  not  to  be  found  in 
the  registers.  He  found  a  friend  and  patron 
in  one  Thomas  Pound,  and  the  two  formed  a 
resolution  to  proceed  to  Rome  and  enter  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  Pound  was,  however, 
arrested  on  the  eve  of  his  departure,  and  re- 
mained in  prison  for  thirty  years.  Stephens 
went  to  Rome  alone,  and  at  St.  Andrew's 
College  there  he  was  admitted  to  the  Society 
of  Jesus  on  20  Oct.  1575,  his  age  being  given 
as  twenty-six.  At  the  Roman  College  he 
studied  philosophy  under  Garnett  and  theo- 
logy under  Parsons.  On  4  Nov.  1578  he  drew 
up  an  account  of  his  friend  Pound,  and  a 
petition  from  him  to  be  admitted,  in  spite  of 
his  absence,  to  the  Society  of  Jesus ;  Ste- 
phens's  account  is  extant  among  the  archives 
at  Brussels  and  at  Stonyhurst  (Collectio 
Cardwelli,  i.  16;  FOLEY,  iii.  580-4). 

Meanwhile  a  perusal  of  the  life  and  works 
of  St.  Francis  Xavier  had  animated  Stephens 
with  the  desire  to  become  a  missionary  in 
the  East  Indies.  He  sailed  from  Lisbon  in 
1579,  and,  on  arriving  at  the  Portuguese 


Stevenson 


356 


Stevenson 


settlement  at  Goa,  he  wrote  to  his  father 
an  account  of  the  journey,  which  is  printed 
in  Hakluyt's  'Principal!  Navigations,'  in 
Purchas's  '  Pilgrimes/  and  in  John  Hamil- 
ton Moore's  '  New  and  Complete  Collection 
of  Voyages  and  Travels'  [1780],  i.  337-8. 
He  laboured  as  a  Jesuit  missionary  at  Goa 
for  forty  years;  on  10  Feb.  1587-8  he  was 
made  spiritual  coadjutor,  for  five  years  he 
was  rector  of  Salsette  College,  and  for  a 
time  he  was  minister  of  the  domus  profes- 
sorum  at  Goa.  He  was  the  first  to  make  a 
scientific  study  of  Canarese,  the  vernacular 
Malabar  tongue,  and  he  also  learnt  Hindo- 
stani,  in  both  of  which  tongues  he  published 
manuals  of  piety  and  grammars.  He  is  said 
to  have  protected  Englishmen  at  Goa,  but 
his  recommendation  of  Sir  Robert  Shirley 
[q.  v.]  to  another  Jesuit  was  held  to  throw 
suspicion  on  Shirley  (Cal.  State  Papers, 
East  Indies,  1515-1616,  no.  574).  Stephens 
died  at  Goa  in  1619,  aged  70. 

Three  of  his  books,  all  published  after  his 
death,  are  extant  in  the  National  Library  at 
Lisbon  :  1 .  '  Doctrina  Christa  em  Lingua 
Bramana-Canarin,'  em  Rachol,  1622,  8vo. 
2.  'Arte  da  Lingua  Canarin,'  em  Rachol, 
1640,  8vo  ;  a  copy  of  this  appears  to  be  also 
extant  at  Goa,  where  it  was  reprinted  in 
1857,  8vo.  3.  '  Discorso  sobre  a  Vinda  de 
Jesus  Christo,'  Goa,  1626, 1649,  and  1654. 

[Authorities  cited ;  Cal.  State  Papers,  East 
Indies,  1515-1616,  nos.  239,  574;  Voyage  of 
Fra^ois  Pyrard,  vol.  ii.  pp.  xix,  269-70, 
Travels  of  Pietro  della  Valle,  i.  162  sqq.,  and 
Voyage  of  Linschoten  to  the  East  Indies  (these 
three  in  Hakluyt  Soc.  Publ.);  Jose  da  Fonseca's 
City  of  Goa,  Bombay,  1878,  pp.  256  sqq.; 
Henry  More's  Hist.  Prov.  Angl. ;  Kibadeneira's, 
1  Southwell's,  and  De  BackePs  Bibl.  Jesuit.  ; 
Oliver's  Collections  ;  Foley's  Records,  iii.  573- 
589,  vii.  738,  1453 ;  Archive  Universal,  Lisbon, 
January  1861;  Indian  Antiquary,  vii.  117; 
Monier- Williams  in  Contemporary  Eev.  April 
1878.]  A.  F.  P. 

STEVENSON, ROBERT  ALAN  MOW- 
BRAY  (1847-1900),  painter  and  art  critic, 
was  the  only  son  of  the  Scottish  engineer, 
Alan  Stevenson  [q.  v.],  and  of  Margaret 
Jones,  his  wife.  He  was  born  at  Edin- 
burgh on  28  March  1847,  and  educated  at 
Windermere  and  at  Sidney  Sussex  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  no  honours,  but 
graduated  B.A.  in  1871  and  M.A.  in  1882. 
He  excelled  as  a  gymnast  and  light-weight 
athlete ;  his  favourite  outdoor  exercise  was 
canoeing.  His  tastes  in  life  were  Bohemian, 
and  the  family  profession  did  not  attract 
him ;  but  he  was  deeply  interested  in  all  the 
fine  arts,  especially  the  theory  and  practice. 
From  boyhood  he  was  on  terms  of  affec- 


tionate intimacy  with  his  first  cousin,  Ro- 
bert Louis  Stevenson  [q.  v.],  his  junior  by 
three  and  a  half  years,  who  on  the  critical 
side  of  his  mind  owed  much  in  youth  to  the 
stimulating  company  and  influence  of  his 
cousin  '  Bob.'  For  a  year  or  two  after  taking 
his  degree  Stevenson  continued  to  live  with 
his  widowed  mother  and  sisters  at  Edin- 
burgh, studying  painting  at  the  School  of 
Art  in  that  city.     In  1873  he  went  to  con- 
tinue his  studies  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- 
Arts,  Antwerp ;  then  in  Paris  under  Carolus 
Duran,  and  afterwards  for  several  years  at 
Barbizon  and  Grez.     In  1876  he  took  with 
R.   L.   Stevenson  the    canoe    trip  on  the 
Sambre,  Meuse,  and  Somme,  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  'Inland  Voyage.'     His  work 
in  landscape  painting,  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy  and  elsewhere,  was  interesting  and 
competent ;    but    his     incapacity  for  self- 
assertion  and  lack  of  commercial  instinct 
would  probably  have  hampered  his  career  as 
an  artist,  even  had  his  executive  powers  been 
greater  than  they  were.     Theory  was   his 
element,  and  about  1881  (in  which  year  he 
married  Louisa,  daughter  of  Theodore  Pyr- 
land,  esq.)  his  friends,  foremost  among  them 
Mr.  W.  E.  Henley,  began  to  urge  that  he 
should  turn   his  powers   of  exposition  to 
practical   account.     In   1882   he  taught  a 
painting-class   of  undergraduates  at  Cam- 
bridge, in  connection  with  the  work  of  Mr. 
Sidney  Col  v  in  as   Slade  professor.     From 
1883  to  1889  he  contributed  much  to  the 
'  Saturday  Review '  as  a  critic  both  of  paint- 
ing and  music.     In  1889  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  fine  arts  at  University  College, 
Liverpool,  and,  resigning  that  office  in  1893, 
became  for  six  years  the  regular  art  critic  of 
the  'Pall  Mall  Gazette.'  He  was  also  a  con- 
tributor to  the  'Magazine  of  Art'  and  to  the 
'  Portfolio '  monographs.     In  the  autumn  of 
1899  his  constitution  showed  signs  of  break- 
ing up,  and  he  died  in  his  house  at  Chiswick 
on  18  April  1900. 

None  of  Stevenson's  newspaper  criticisms 
have  yet  been  reprinted.  His  books  pub- 
lished in  his  lifetime  are :  '  Engraving,'  a 
translation  from  'La  Gravure'  ofVicomte 
H.  Delaborde,  1886;  'The  Devils  of  Notre 
Dame '  (text  to  accompany  illustrations  by 
Joseph  Pennell),  1894  ;  '  Peter  Paul  Rubens ' 
(reprinted,  with  additions,  from  '  Portfolio ' 
monographs),  1898;  'The  Art  of  Velasquez,' 
1895;  '  Velasquez '  (the  same  text  revised  and 
expanded  in  Williamson's  series  of  'Great 
Masters'),  1899.  An  essay  on  Raeburn,  ac- 
companying a  volume  of  reproductions  from 
that  master's  works,  was  published  posthu- 
mously (1900). 

Stevenson  was  the  leader  of  a  new  school 


Stewart 


357 


Stewart 


of  art  criticism  in  England.  The  aims  and 
methods  of  'impressionism'  found  in  him 
a  champion  of  rare  brilliancy.  At  the  same 
time,  in  dealing  with  the  works  of  the 
living,  he  was  scrupulously  kind  and  fair 
towards  other  tendencies  with  which  he  was 
less  in  sympathy.  His  '  Velasquez '  deserves 
to  be  a  classic.  Probably  in  no  other  book, 
English  or  foreign,  is  the  psychology  of 
artistic  vision  expounded  with  so  much  lu- 
cidity and  resource,  or  the  nature  of  the  purely 
pictorial,  as  distinguished  from  the  literary 
and  historical,  appeal  of  the  painter's  art  set 
forth  in  such  cogent  and  attractive  words. 
Yet  Stevenson  had  learned  to  write  with 
difficulty ;  his  instinctive  genius  was  for  talk. 
In  that  his  illuminating  insight,  fantasy, 
humour,  and  gift  of  expression  played  freely, 
not  only  over  his  special  subjects,  but  over 
the  whole,  field  of  life  and  conduct  as  well 
as  art  and  letters.  R.  A.  M.  Stevenson 
figures  in  the  writings  of  his  cousin,  R.  L.  S., 
as  'the  Arethusa'  of  the  'Inland  Voyage,' 
and  ' Spring-heel'd  Jack'  of  the  essay  'Talk 
and  Talkers ; '  while  his  character  suggested 
certain  traits  in  the  hero  of  'Prince  Otto.' 
In  1900  Professor  Walter  Raleigh  dedicated 
his  volume  on  Milton  '  To  R.  A.  M.  Steven- 
son, whose  radiant  and  soaring  intelligence 
enlightened  and  guided  me  during  the  years 
of  our  lost  companionship.' 

[Personal  knowledge  and  private  information ; 
obituary  notices  in  the  press.]  S.  C. 

STEWART,  SIB  DONALD  MARTIN 

(1824-1900),  first  baronet,  field-marshal, 
governor  of  Chelsea  Hospital,  son  of  Robert 
Stewart  of  Forres  and  his  wife,  a  daughter 
of  the  Rev.  Donald  Martin,  minister  of  Aber- 
nethy  in  Strathspey,  N.B.,  was  born  at 
Mount  Pleasant,  near  Forres,  in  1824. 
Educated  at  schools  at  Findhom,  Dufftown, 
and  Elgin,  'and  at  Aberdeen  University, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  in  classics, 
he  entered  the  East  India  Company's  mili- 
tary service  as  ensign  in  the  9th  Bengal 
native  infantry  on  12  Oct.  1840.  His  fur- 
ther commissions  were  dated :  lieutenant 
5  March  1841,  captain  1  June  1854,  brevet 
major  19  Jan.  1858,  brevet  lieutenant-colonel 
20  July  1858,  major  (Bengal  staff  corps) 
18  Feb.  1861,  brevet  colonel  20  July  1863, 
lieutenant-colonel  (Bengal  staff  corps)  12  Oct. 
1866,  major-general  24  Dec.  1868,  lieute- 
nant-general 1  Oct.  1877,  general  1  July 
1881,  and  field-marshal  26  May  1894. 

He  served  in  the  expeditions  against  the 
tribes  on  the  Afghan  frontier — the  Moh- 
mands  in  1854  and  the  Aka-Khel  and  Basi- 
Khel  in  1855 — was  mentioned  in  despatches 
and  received  the  medal  with  clasp.  In  1857 


he  was  quartered  at  Aligarh,  where  his  regi- 
ment, the  9th  Bengal  native  infantry,  mu- 
tinied on  20  May.  He  then  took  command 
of  a  small  body  of  volunteers  sent  from  Agra 
to  aid  in  restoring  order,  and  eventually  went 
to  Agra,  whence  he  was  sent  by  John  Rus- 
sell Colvin  [q.  v.]  on  the  perilous  duty  of 
carrying  despatches  to  Delhi,  for  which  he 
had  volunteered.  He  started  on  18  June  on 
his  famous  ride,  which  forms  '  one  of  the 
romantic  episodes  of  that  heroic  year.'  On 
reaching  Delhi  he  was  appointed  deputy- 
assistant  adjutant-general  to  the  Delhi  field 
force,  and  served  with  distinction  to  the 
end  of  the  siege  and  in  the  capture  of  the 
city.  He  was  then  appointed  assistant 
adjutant-general  to  the  Bengal  army  and 
took  part  in  the  siege  and  capture  of  Luck- 
now  and  in  the  campaign  in  Rohilkhand. 
For  his  services  in  the  Indian  mutiny  he  was 
twice  mentioned  in  despatches  (London 
Gazette,  15  Dec.  1857  and  28  July  1858) 
and  received  the  medal  with  two  clasps,  and 
brevet  majority  and  lieutenant-colonelcy. 

Stewart  continued  in  the  appointment  of 
assistant  adjutant-general  of  the  Bengal 
army  until  1862,  when  he  was  made  deputy 
adjutant-general  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  reorganisation  of  the  Indian  army. 
In  1867  and  1868  he  commanded  the  Bengal 
brigade  in  the  expedition  to  Abyssinia  under 
Sir  Robert  Napier  (afterwards  Lord  Napier 
of  Magdala  [q.  v.])  with  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general. He  showed  considerable  ability 
in  organising  the  force  and  in  making  trans- 
port arrangements.  He  commanded  at 
Senafe  throughout  the  campaign,  was  men- 
tioned in  despatches  (ib.  30  June  1868),  re- 
ceived the  medal,  and  was  made  a  companion 
of  the  Bath.  On  his  return  to  India  he  was 
appointed  to  the  frontier  divisional  com- 
mand of  Peshawar  with  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general. In  July  1869  he  was  sent  by 
Lord  Mayo  to  the  Andaman  Islands  to  re- 
organise the  convict  settlement  there,  a 
charge  which  afforded  ample  scope  for  his 
abilities,  and  which  the  governor-general 
hoped  would  result  in  the  Andaman,  Nico- 
bar,  and  dependencies  becoming  self-sup- 
porting. He  was  made  sole  commandant 
with  autocratic  powers.  The  results  were 
so  encouraging  that  Lord  Mayo  visited  the 
settlements  on  his  return  from  Burma  in 
1872,  when  he  was  assassinated  by  a  con- 
vict. The  investigation  which  ensued 
showed  that  Stewart  had  taken  every  rea- 
sonable precaution  to  safeguard  the  go- 
vernor-general during  his  visit ;  nevertheless, 
Stewart  felt  the  shock  of  the  tragedy  so 
severely  that  he  was  obliged  to  go  to  Europe 
on  sick  leave. 


Stewart 


358 


Stewart 


On  his  return  to  India  in  1875  he  was 
present  at  the  camp  of  exercise  at  Delhi  in 
honour  of  the  visit  of  King  Edward  VII, 
then  prince  of  Wales,  and  in  April  1876  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Lahore 
division.     In  the  Afghan  war  of  1878-80  he 
was  selected  to  command  the  Quetta  army 
in  October  1878,  marched  through  the  Bolan 
and  Khojak  passes,  dispersed  tlie  enemy  in 
a   cavalry    action    at    Saif-ud-din,   entered 
Kandahar,  and  also  occupied  Kalat-i-Ghilzai 
and  Girishk  in  January  1879.     During  the 
fifteen  months  he  remained  at  Kandahar  the 
surrounding  districts  became  fairly  settled 
and  quiet.     For  his  services  he  received  the 
thanks  of  parliament  and  was  made  a  K.C.B. 
On  30  March  1880  he  set  out  on  his  cele- 
brated march  to  Kabul  through  a  country 
deserted  and  without  resources,  defeated  the 
Afghans  at  Ahmed  Khel  on  19  April  and  at 
Urzu  on  23  April,  and  reached  Kabul  on 
2  May,  taking  over  the  command  from  Sir 
Frederick  (now  Earl)  Roberts.     His  com- 
bined force  was  now  styled  the  Northern 
Afghanistan  field  force.     Having  seen  the 
new  amir,  Abdur  Rahman,  formally  recog- 
nised, Stewart  was  preparing  to  leave  the 
country  when  intelligence  reached  him  at  the 
end  of  July  of  the  disaster  at   Maiwand, 
and  he  sent  Sir  Frederick  Roberts  with  a 
picked  force  of  ten  thousand  men  to  march 
to  Kandahar  to  retrieve   the    position    of 
affairs.     He  himself  returned   to   India  in 
August  with  the  rest  of  the  troops  by  the 
Khaibar  route.     For  his  services  he  received 
the  medal  with  clasp,  the  thanks  of  parlia- 
ment, the  grand  cross  of  the  Bath,  and  was 
created  a  baronet.     He  was  appointed  mili- 
tary  member    of  the  viceroy's  council  on 
18  Oct.  1880,  but,  on  7  April  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  succeeded  Sir  Frederick  Haines  as 
commander-in-chief  in  India,  and  occupied 
the  post  until  the  end  of  1885,  when  he  re- 
turned  home.     He  accepted  a  seat  on  the 
council  of  India  on   16  Dec.  1885,  which 
he  held  until  his   death.     He  was  made  a 
companion  of  the  Indian  Empire  on  24  May 
1881,  decorated  with  the  grand  cross  of  the 
star  of  India  on  7  Dec.  1885,  and  appointed 
governor  of  Chelsea   Hospital  on  9  March 
1895.     In   1889  he  received  the   honorary 
degree  of  D.C.L.  from  Oxford,  and  of  LL.D. 
from  Aberdeen  University.   He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  royal  commission  on  Indian  civil 
and    military    expenditure.      He    died    at 
Algiers  on  26  March  1900.     To  simplicity 
of  manner  and  extreme  modesty  he  added 
the  power  of  plain   speaking  without  giv- 
ing offence.      He  was  a   keen  genealogist 
and   an  enthusiastic  fisherman,  and  visited 
Canada  frequently  for  salmon-fishing  in  the 


waters  of  his  old  schoolfellow,  Lord  Mount 
Stephen. 

He  married,  in  1847,  Marina,  daughter  of 
Commander  Thomas  Dymock  Dabine,  R.N., 
and  niece  of  General  Carpenter,  who  sur- 
vived him  with  two  sons  and  three  daugh- 
ters of  the  marriage.  The  eldest  son,  Nor- 
man Robert,  the  present  baronet,  born  on 

27  Sept.  1851,  colonel  in  the  Indian  staff" 
corps,  served  with   distinction    under    his 
father ;  the  second,  Donald  William,  became 
British  resident  at  Kumasi  and  was  made 
C.M.G.  in  1896. 

[India  Office  Kecords ;  Despatches;  Army 
Lists ;  Burke's  Peerage  &c. ;  Times,  27  March 
1900 ;  Lord  Eoberts's  Forty-one  Years  in  India ; 
Kaye's  Sepoy  War ;  Malleson's  Indian  Mutiny  ; 
Holland  and  Hozier's  Expedition  to  Abyssinia  ; 
Anglo-Afghan  War,  1879-80,  official  account; 
Forbes's  Afghan  Wars  ;  Ashe's  Kandahar  Cam- 
paign ;  Le  Mesurier's  Kandahar  in  1879; 
Shadbolt's  Afghan  Campaigns  of  1878-80;  Men 
and  Women  of  the  Time.]  E.  H.  V. 

STEWART,  PATRICK  (1832-1865), 
major  royal  (late  Bengal)  engineers  and 
temporary  lieutenant-colonel,  second  son  of 
James  Stewart  (d.  19  Sept.  1877)  of  Cairns- 
more,  Kirkcudbrightshire,  and  of  his  wife 
Elizabeth  (d.  18  April  1872),  only  daughter 
of  Dr.  Gilbert  Macleod,  East  India  Com- 
pany's service,  was  born  at  Cairnsmore  on 

28  Jan.  1832.    He  was  educated  at  Sunder- 
land  by   Dr.   Cowan    and   at   Perry  Hill, 
Sydenham,  and  entered  the  military  college 
of  the  East  India  Company  at  Addiscombe 
in  August  1848.     He  obtained  a  commission 
as  second  lieutenant  in  the  Bengal  engineers 
on  14    June   1850,  having  passed  out  of 
Addiscombe  at  the  head  of  his  term  and 
carried  off"  the  Pollock  medal.     His  further 
commissions  were  dated :  lieutenant  1  Aug. 
1854,  second  captain  27  Aug.  1858,  brevet 
major  28  Aug.  1858. 

After  the  usual  course  of  professional  in- 
struction at  Chatham  Stewart  arrived  at 
Calcutta  on  13  Oct.  1852.  In  May  1853  he 
was  appointed  acting  superintendent  of  elec- 
tric telegraphs  during  the  absence  of  Dr. 
(afterwards  Sir  William  Brooke)  O'Shaugh- 
nessy  [q.  v.]  in  Europe.  The  establishment 
of  electric  telegraphs  in  India  had  just  com- 
menced, and  Stewart's  work  was  the  construc- 
tion of  lines  from  Calcutta  to  Lahore  and  from 
Agra  to  Indore,  some  seventeen  hundred  miles 
in  length.  The  energy  and  rapidity  with  which 
he  carried  it  on  won  great  praise.  In  November 
1853  he  took  up  the  duty  of  aide-de-camp  to 
the  lieutenant-governor  of  the  North- West 
Provinces.  An  ardent  sportsman,  he  had 
ample  opportunities  of  hunting,  and  expe- 
rienced many  accidents.  Lady  Canning  ob- 


359 


Stewart 


serves  on  the  occasion  of  one  of  his  frequent 
visits  to  Calcutta :  '  We  have  had  Lady  Sel- 
kirk's friend  of  the  electric  telegraph  here — 
Lieutenant  P.  Stewart.  He  has  been  mauled 
by  a  tiger,  hugged  by  a  bear,  kicked  off  by 
wild  asses,  and  lately  had  the  cholera.' 

From  January  1854  to  July  1856  Stewart 
was  employed  in  the  Punjab  on  public  works. 
He  then  again  officiated  as  head  of  the  tele- 
graph department,  and  was  in  Ceylon  on 
telegraph  business  when  the  mutiny  caused 
him  to  hasten  back  to  Calcutta.  Calling  at 
Madras  on  9  June  1857,  he  found  that  most 
important  messages  for  the  governor-gene- 
ral had  arrived  there  from  the  Punjab  and 
North-West  Provinces,  the  line  having  been 
cut  at  Cawnpore.  These  he  took  with  him 
by  sea  to  Calcutta,  and  on  his  own  respon- 
sibility ordered  the  immediate  commence- 
ment of  a  coast  telegraph  line  from  Madras 
to  Calcutta. 

From  Calcutta  he  went  on  18  June  to 
Benares  and  Allahabad,  and  lent  invaluable 
assistance  to  Colonel  John  Neill  [q.v.]  With 
two  hundred  Sikhs  and  some  irregular  cavalry 
he  crossed  the  Ganges  and  destroyed  a  rebel 
stronghold  on  25  June,  inspected  the  tele- 
graph line  accompanying  Major  Renaud's 
force,  and  returned  to  Calcutta  on  9  July  to 
hurry  on  the  new  coast  line.  A  few  weeks 
later  he  was  again  at  Benares  constructing, 
with  the  assistance  of  Lieutenant  Limond, 
R.E.,  and  many  thousand  native  workmen, 
a  fortified  position  at  the  Raighat,  which  he 
had  himself  suggested  to  Lord  Canning. 
In  six  weeks'  time  a  position  was  fortified 
capable  of  holding  five  thousand  men  if 
necessary,  but  easily  defended  by  five  hun- 
dred. Guns  and  stores  were  thrown  into  it, 
and  Benares  was  made  secure.  This  im- 
portant work  done,  he  was  back  in  Calcutta 
in  the  middle  of  September  on  telegraph 
duty. 

Stewart  accompanied  Windham's  force  in 
October  for  more  than  three  hundred  miles, 
and  went  on  in  advance  to  arrange  for  trans- 
port  [see  WINDHAJI,  SIR   CHARLES  ASH]. 
On  2  Nov.  he  was  with  Sir  Colin  Campbell 
at   Allahabad.      He  was   attached  to   the 
headquarters  staff  during  the  relief  of  Luck- 
now,  and  was  mentioned  in  despatches  as 
having   '  made   himself  particularly   useful  | 
throughout.'     He  accompanied  Sir  Colin  to  ! 
Cawnpore,  and   took  part  in  the  battle  of  ! 
6  Dec.  1857  and  in  the  pursuit  of  the  Gwalior  , 
contingent.     On  the  8th  he  returned  to  Cal-  ! 
cutta  on  urgent  telegraph  duties,  and  gave  ! 
the  governor-general  a  detailed  account  of 
the  relief  of  Lucknow.   Lord  Canning  wrote 
to  Campbell : '  I  never  spent  two  hours  of 
greater  interest.  ...  I  did  not  understand 


until  I  saw  Stewart  the  full  force  of  your 
expression  that  the  garrison  had  been  with- 
drawn in  the  face  of  the  enemy.' 

On  18  Jan.  1858  O'Shaughnessy,  who  had 
returned  to  India,  recorded  '  the  admiration 
and  gratitude'  with  which  he  regarded 
Stewart's  services  during  his  absence — '  hig 
indefatigable  exertions,  almost  incessant 
movements,  and  the  gallant  and  scientific 
performance  of  his  duties  under  every  diffi- 
culty'— and  recommended  him  for  some  sub- 
stantial reward.  In  spite  of  bad  health 
Stewart  accompanied  Canning  to  Allahabad 
at  the  end  of  January.  He  was  then  deputy 
superintendent  of  telegraphs,  but  was  at- 
tached to  the  staff  of  the  commander-in- 
chief  in  India  and  given  charge  of  the 
'  Times  '  correspondent,  Dr.  (now  Sir)  W.  H. 
Russell,  who  tells  us  Stewart's  duty  in  a 
nutshell.  It  was  to  put  the  end  of  the 
telegraph  wire  into  Sir  Colin's  hand  wherever 
he  went.  No  sooner  were  headquarters 
established  at  any  spot  than  the  post  and 
the  wire  were  established  also.  It  was  the 
first  time  that  the  telegraph  had  been  made 
to  keep  pace  with  the  advance  of  an  army  in 
the  field,  and  Stewart  had  many  a  narrow 
escape  from  the  enemy's  horse.  He  was 
honourably  mentioned  in  the  governor-gene- 
ral's order  of  5  April  1858  for  his  services  at 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Lucknow  in  the 
previous  month.  He  received  the  mutiny 
medal  with  clasp  and  a  brevet  majority.  Ill- 
health  compelled  him  to  return  home.  In 
1859  he  was  employed  in  various  scientific 
inquiries  in  connection  with  telegraph  cables. 
He  married  in  1860,  and  returned  to  India 
at  the  end  of  the  year.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  employed  on  a  commission  to 
ascertain  the  cause  of  the  great  mortality 
from  cholera,  and.  visited  many  parts  of  the 
country.  The  report  of  the  commission  was 
rendered  in  January  18G2. 

In  February  1862  he  was  sent  to  Persia 
in  connection  with  the  construction  of  a 
proposed  telegraph  through  that  country. 
In  June  sickness  compelled  him  to  leave 
Teheran,  and  he  went  home  through  Russia. 
In  England  he  was  entrusted  with  the  com- 
pletion of  the  arrangements  for  the  Persian 
Gulf  cable.  In  November  1863  he  went  to 
Bombay  as  director-general  of  the  govern- 
ment Indo-European  telegraph,  laid  the 
cable  from  Gwadar  to  Fao,  returned  to 
Bombay,  and  in  August  1864  went  to  Con- 
stantinople and  made  successful  arrange- 
ments with  the  Turkish  government.  I-  or 
these  services  he  was  made  a  C.B.  The 
details  of  his  labours  are  set  forth  in  Sir 
Frederick Goldsmid's  'Telegraph  and  Travel, 
1874,  which  also  contains  a  memoir  of  his 


Stewart 


360 


Stewart 


life  and  an  engraving  of  his  portrait  by 
C.  H.  Jeens,  from  a  photograph.  He  died 
at  Misseri's  Hotel,  Constantinople,  on  16  Jan. 
1865,  and  was  buried  the  following  day  at 
the  Scutari  cemetery,  where  a  monument 
has  been  raised  to  his  memory.  A  memorial 
stained-glass  window  has  been  placed  in  the 
telegraph  library  at  Karachi  and  another  in 
the  church  at  Minnigaff,  near  Newton. 

Stewart  married  in  August  1860  Jane 
(rf.  28  Dec.  1895),  daughter  of  Colonel 
McDonall  of  Logan,  Wigtownshire.  There 
was  no  issue  of  the  marriage. 

[India  Office  Records;  Royal  Engineer  Re- 
cords ;  Despatches ;  Goldsmid's  Telegraph  and 
Travel;  Levant  Herald,  18  Jan.  1865;  Sir 
H.  W.  Russell's  Diary  in  India,  1857-8; 
Times,  26  and  27  Jan.  1865;  Augustus 
Hare's  Story  of  Two  Noble  Lives;  Kaye's 
History  of  the  Sepoy  War;  Malleson's  History 
of  the  Indian  Mutiny  ;  Shadwell's  Life  of  Lord 
Clyde ;  Vibart's  Addiscombe,  its  Heroes  and 
Men  of  Note ;  private  sources.]  R.  H.  V. 

STEWART,  SIR  THOMAS  GRAIN- 
GER (1837-1900),  professor  of  the  practice 
of  physic  at  Edinburgh,  son  of  Alexander 
Stewart,  decorator  in  Edinburgh,  and  Agnes, 
daughter  of  Hugh  Grainger  of  Gogar  Green, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh  on  23  Sept.  1837. 
He  was  educated  at  the  high  school  of  Edin- 
burgh and  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
where  he  graduated  M.D.  in  1858.  While 
an  undergraduate  he  was  elected  one  of  the 
presidents  of  the  Royal  Medical  Society,  the 
highest  honour  that  can  be  conferred  on  an 
Edinburgh  medical  student  or  young  gra- 
duate by  his  compeers.  After  graduation  he 
studied  medicine  in  the  universities  and  hos- 
pitals of  Berlin,  Prague,  and  Vienna  under, 
among  others,  Yirchow,  Schonlein,  Traube, 
Mayer,  and  Oppolzer.  On  his  return  to 
Edinburgh  he  became  house  physician  under 
Professors  John  Hughes  Bennett  [q.v.]  and 
Thomas  Laycock  [q.  v.]  in  the  old  infirmary. 
In  1861  he  lectured  on  materia  medica  and 
dietetics.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  patholo- 
gist to  the  infirmary,  and  lecturer  on  pathology 
at  Surgeons'  Hall,  as  well  as  a  physician  to 
the  sick  children's  hospital.  In  1866  he  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh.  During  these  early  years  Stew- 
art worked  incessantly,  made  observations 
of  real  and  permanent  value  on  the  symptoms 
and  pathology  of  waxy  kidney,  and  wrote 
papers  on  various  kidney  conditions,  on  dila- 
tation of  the  bronchi,  on  acute  atrophy  of 
the  liver,  and  on  other  subjects.  In  1869  he 
also  published  'A  Practical  Treatise  on 
Bright's  Disease  of  the  Kidneys,'  which  has 
passed  through  two  editions  in  England  and 
two  in  America.  Unsuccessful  in  his  appli- 


cation for  the  chair  of  pathology  in  1869 — 
obtained  by  Professor  William  Rutherford 
Sanders  [q.v.] — he  resigned  his  appointments 
to  fill  the  posts  of  junior  ordinary  physician 
in  the  infirmary  and  lecturer  on  clinical  medi- 
cine. His  clear  and  painstaking  method  of 
lecturing,  and  the  kindly  interest  he  took  in 
their  work,  soon  led  to  a  large  increase  in  the 
number  of  his  students.  In  1873  he  began 
to  lecture  on  the  practice  of  physic  in  the 
extramural  school,  and  at  once  became  the 
most  popular  teacher  on  medicine  outside  the 
university  walls,  introducing  many  practical 
improvements  in  the  methods  of  instruction. 
In  1876  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
teaching  and  consultation  work.  In  the 
same  year,  on  the  death  of  Professor  Lay- 
cock,  his  success  in  the  arena  of  extramural 
competition  had  been  so  marked  that  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  practice  of  physic 
in  Edinburgh  University — '  the  blue  ribbon 
of  medicine ' — becoming  also  one  of  the  pro- 
fessors of  clinical  medicine,  with  wards  in  the 
royal  infirmary,  of  which  he  was  afterwards 
for  many  years  senior  physician.  As  pro- 
fessor, Stewart  at  once  showed  himself  to  be 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  lecturers  in  the  uni- 
versity. In  consultation  work  he  had  one  of 
the  largest  practices  in  Scotland,  and  on 
many  occasions  he  was  called  to  cases 
abroad. 

In  1878  Stewart  was  president  of  the 
section  of  medicine  at  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Medical  Association  at  Bath,  and  at 
the  International  Medical  Congress  in  Lon- 
don in  1881  he  introduced  the  discussion  in 
the  department  of  medicine  on  'The  Morbid 
Histology  of  the  different  Forms  of  Bright's 
Disease.'  In  1882,  on  the  death  of  Sir 
Robert  Christison  [q.v.],  he  was  appointed 
physician-in-ordinary  to  Queen  Victoria  in 
Scotland.  In  1887  he  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  M.D.  from  the  Royal  University  of 
Ireland,  was  elected  an  honorary  fellow  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  Ireland, 
and  also  obtained  the  honorary  degree  of  M.D. 
of  the  university  of  Dublin.  In  1892  he  was 
elected  an  honorary  fellow  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  of 
Edinburgh  (of  which  he  was  a  fellow)  from 
1889  to  1891,  and  for  two  years  was  also  pre- 
sident of  the  Edinburgh  Medico-Chirurgical 
Society.  In  1894  he  was  knighted,  and  later  in 
the  year  he  addressed  the  British  Medical 
Association  at  Bristol  on '  Influenza.'  In  1897 
he  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Aber- 
deen University,  and  in  1898  he  acted  as  pre- 
sident of  the  British  Medical  Association  at 
Edinburgh.  In  1899  he  went  as  representa- 
tive of  Edinburgh  University  to  the  Berlin 


Stewart 


361 


Stokes 


congress  on  tuberculosis,  of  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  vice-presidents,  and  at 
which  the  veteran  Virchow  introduced  him 
as  '  mein  beriihmtester  Schiiler.'  He  died  at 
Edinburgh  on  3  Feb.  1900,  and  was  buried  in 
the  Dean  cemetery. 

Sir  Thomas  married  (1),  in  1863,  Jose- 
phine Dubois,  daughter  of  Charles  Anderson 
of  Riverhead,  Jamaica  (she  died  1864) ;  and 
(2),  in  1866,  Jessy  Dingwall  Fordyce,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Rev.  Robert  Macdonald,  D.D., 
who,  with  four  sons  and  four  daughters,  sur- 
vived him. 

As  a  clinical  teacher  Stewart  was  clear  and 
systematic,  and  conducted  his  class  by  means 
of  question  and  answer,  while  the  students 
in  rotation  listened  to  abnormal  sounds  in  the 
patient's  chest  or  otherwise  examined  him. 
As  a  lecturer  he  was  equally  lucid  and  pre- 
cise, with  a  marvellous  faculty  of  going 
straight  to  the  main  point  in  each  case,  so 
that  his  doctrine  was  easily  followed  and 
understood  even  by  the  junior  student.  He 
was  a  man  of  wide  and  general  culture,  and 
devoted  much  of  his  spare  and  holiday  time 
to  the  study  of  Scottish  history  and  archaeo- 
logy. His  greatest  effort  in  pure  literature 
was  '  The  Good  Regent :  a  Chronicle  Play ' 
— a  drama  on  the  subject  of  the  Regent 
Moray,  published  in  1898.  He  had  pre- 
viously contributed  fugitive  verses  and  trans- 
lations to  different  periodicals.  He  was  an 
excellent  vocalist  and  raconteur,  was  en- 
dowed with  a  fine  presence,  and  had  a  gift 
of  ready  and  graceful  speech.  He  took  a 
foremost  part  in  founding  and  organising  the 
Medical  Students'  Association,  and  was  pre- 
sident for  two  terms  of  the  Medical  Missionary 
Society,  in  which  he  was  keenly  interested. 
His  views  on  diseases  of  the  kidneys  have 
generally  been  accepted  by  the  medical  pro- 
fession at  home  and  abroad,  and  his  work  on 
this  subject  is  a  very  able  and  consistent  at- 
tempt to  set  in  a  clear  light  the  involved  and 
difficult  questions  connected  with  the  patho- 
logy of  Bright's  disease.  Stewart  was  also 
one  of  the  first  in  this  country  to  draw  atten- 
tion to  the  deep  reflexes  in  neuritis,  and  under 
the  title  of  '  Paralysis  of  the  Hands  and  Feet 
from  Disease  of  the  Nerves '  he  described  the 
condition  now  known  as  '  multiple  neuritis.' 
Long  before  the  reign  of  cerebral  surgery  had 
set  in,  he  induced  Professor  (afterwards  Lord) 
Lister  to  perform  operations  on  the  brain  for 
traumatic  epilepsy.  His  lectures  were  largely  ! 
quoted  on  the  continent,  and  several  of  them 
were  translated  into  French,  German,  and 
Russian.  That  on'  Albuminuria  '  was  at  the 
date  of  his  death  used  as  a  text-book  in  seve- 
ral of  the  German  universities. 

In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  and  a 


large  number  of  papers  and  lectures,  chiefly  on 
the  nervous  system,  the  lungs,  and  the  liver, 
as  well  as  the  Harveian  oration,  '  Notes  on 
Scottish   Medicine   in   the  Days  of  Queen 
Mary,'  reprinted  in  '  Blackwood's  Magazine  ' 
cliii.    885-902    (June   1893),    Sir  Thomas 
wrote  :  1.  '  On  the  Position  and  Prospects  of 
Therapeutics,'  Edinburgh,  1868, 8vo.  2.  « An 
i  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Diseases  of 
j  the  Nervous  System,'  Edinburgh,  1884, 8vo. 
i  3.  '  Clinical    Lectures  on  Important  Sym- 
I  ptoms:  on  Giddiness,'  Edinburgh,  1884,  8vo 
(republished  in  1898  with  emendations  and 
j  additions,  and  title, '  Lectures  on  Giddiness 
I  and  on  Hysteria  in  the  Male').     4.  '  Clinical 
Lectures  . . .  Fasciculus  II.,  on  Albuminuria,' 
i  Edinburgh,  1888, 8vo.  5. Chapters  on 'Spastic 
j  Paraplegia," Friedreich's  A taxia,' and  'Here- 
ditary  Cerebellar  Ataxia,'   in  vol.   vii.  of 
Allbutt's  'System  of  Medicine,'  1899,  and 
several    articles    on   Bright's   disease    and 
other    subjects  to  Quain's  '  Dictionary  of 
Medicine '  (new  ed.  1894). 

[Lancet,  1 0  Feb.  1 900,  pp.  4 1 2-5  (with  portrait); 
British  Medical  Journal,  10  Feb.  1900,  pp.  355- 
359  (with  portrait) ;  Edinburgh  Medical  Journal, 
March  1900,  pp.  307-8  ;  Student  (Edinburgh), 
xiv.  265-71  (new  ser.)  (with  portrait);  Men  of 
the  Time ;  Scotsman,  5  Feb.  1900;  private  in- 
formation.] Gr.  S-H. 

STOKES,  GEORGE  THOMAS  (1843- 
1898),  Irish  ecclesiastical  historian,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  John  Stokes  of  Athlone  by 
Margaret  Forster  his  wife,  and  was  born  in 
that  town  on  28  Dec.  1843.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Galway  grammar  school,  Queen's 
College,  Galway,  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1864. 
He  subsequently  proceeded  M.A.  1871,  B.D. 
1881,  andD.D.  1886.  In  1866  Stokes  was 
ordained  for  the  curacy  of  Dunkerriu  in  the 
diocese  of  Killaloe  in  the  then  established 
church  of  Ireland,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  appointed  to  the  curacy  of  St.  Patrick's, 
Newry.  In  1868  he  was  nominated  first  vicar 
of  the  newly  constituted  charge  of  All  Saints, 
Xewtown  Park,  co.  Dublin,  which  he  held 
till  his  death.  In  1893  he  was  elected  by  the 
chapter  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Dublin,  to 
the  prebend  and  canonry  of  St.  Andrew. 

Stokes  early  exhibited  a  taste  for  historical 
and  antiquarian  research,  and  from  the  first 
exhibited  in  its  pursuit  not  merely  an  acute- 
ness  which  was  much  beyond  the  ordinary, 
but  a  capacity  for  presenting  the  results  of 
his  investigations  in  a  picturesque  and 
striking  form.  From  the  date  of  his  appoint- 
ment to  All  Saints  his  leisure  was  devoted 
to  these  interests,  which,  however,  were  in 
his  case  almost  invariably  subordinated  to 
the  illumination  of  the  ecclesiastical  history 


Stokes 


362 


Stokes 


of  his  own  country.  His  gifts  in  this  latter 
direction  led  to  his  selection  by  Dr.  Reichel 
as  his  deputy  in  the  chair  of  ecclesiastical 
history  in  the  university  of  Dublin ;  and  in 
1883,  on  the  termination  of  his  principal's 
period  of  office,  Stokes  was  appointed  his 
successor.  The  appointment  was  brilliantly 
justified,  and  it  soon  appeared  that  in  select- 
ing a  professor  the  university  had  produced 
an  historian.  The  fruit  of  his  labours  was 
quickly  manifest  in  his '  Ireland  and  the  Celtic 
Church/  published  in  1886,  which  achieved 
an  immediate  success.  This  was  followed  in 
1888  by  his  '  Ireland  and  the  Anglo-Norman 
Church,'  in  which  the  history  of  Irish  Chris- 
tianity was  traced  through  a  further  stage. 

Stokes  intended  to  continue  the  history 
of  the  Irish  church  down  to  modern  times, 
but  his  scheme  was  interrupted  by  the  labori- 
ous task  of  producing  for  the  '  Expositor's 
Bible '  his  '  Commentary  on  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles '  (1891).  This  work,  which  ranks 
among  the  most  valuable  contributions  to 
the  series  in  which  it  appeared,  displays  in 
a  marked  manner  Stokes's  literary  talent. 
He  succeeded  in  interesting  lay  people  in 
the  historical  criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  in  conveying  to  them  the  latest 
results  of  such  criticism  in  a  popular  form. 

From  1880  onwards  Stokes's  indefatigable 
industry  had  enabled  him  to  add  largely,  and 
in  many  directions,  to  the  more  important 
productions  of  his  pen  above  enumerated. 
In  1887  he  published,  as  the  second  volume 
of  a '  Sketch  of  Universal  History,'  a '  Sketch 
of  Mediaeval  History.'  In  1891  he  published 
an  edition  of  Bishop  Pococke's  '  Tour  in  Ire- 
land '  [see  POCOCKE,  RICHARD].  He  was  an 
occasional  contributor  on  subjects  connected 
with  theology  and  ecclesiastical  history  to 
the  '  Contemporary  Review.'  Among  his 
many  articles  in  this  periodical,  that  on 
'Alexander  Knox  and  the  Oxford  Move- 
ment'is  perhaps  the  most  important  (Au- 
gust 1887) ;  and  he  produced  numerous 
papers  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries in  Ireland,  and  the  Royal  Irish  Aca- 
demy. In  1887  he  was  appointed  librarian 
of  St.  Patrick's  Library,  in  Dublin,  a  position 
peculiarly  congenial  to  his  tastes.  In  spite 
of  these  varied  labours  he  never  neglected 
his  clerical  duties.  Inl89ohewas  temporarily 
disabled  by  a  partial  stroke  of  paralysis,  from 
the  effects  of  which  he  never  fully  recovered. 
In  1896  he  delivered  a  series  of  lectures  en- 
titled '  How  to  write  a  Parochial  History,' 
in  which  he  strove  to  imbue  his  divinity 
students  with  something  of  his  own  en- 
thusiasm for  antiquarian  learning ;  and  in 
the  following  year  he  commenced  an  instruc- 
tive course  of  lectures  on  'Great  Irish  Church- 


men of  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Cen- 
turies,' which  he  did  not  live  to  complete ; 
they  were  edited,  under  the  title  'Some 
Worthies  of  the  Irish  Church'  (London, 
1900),  after  his  death  by  the  Rev.  H.  J. 
Lawlor,  who  succeeded  to  his  professorial 
chair.  On  24  March  1898  Stokes  succumbed, 
after  a  brief  struggle,  to  an  attack  of  pneu- 
monia. He  was  buried  at  Dean's  Grange, 
co.  Dublin.  Stokes  was  twice  married  : 
first,  to  Fanny,  daughter  of  Thomas  Pusey 
of  Surbiton,  Surrey,  and  secondly  to  Kathe- 
rine,  daughter  of  Henry  J.  Dudgeon  of  the 
Priory,  Stillorgan,  co.  Dublin. 

In  addition  to  his  works  above  enumerated 
Stokes  published  :  '  The  Work  of  the  Laity 
of  the  Church  of  Ireland,'  1869 ;  various 
articles  in  Smith's  '  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Biography,'  1880-7 ;  and,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Rev.  C.  H.  Wright,  a  translation 
of  'The  Writings  of  St.  Patrick'  (Dublin, 
1887,  8vo). 

It  is  upon  Stokes's  two  volumes  on  the 
early  history  of  the  church  in  Ireland  that 
his  fame  must  mainly  rest.  He  had  a  pecu- 
liar talent  for  finding  out  the  interesting 
things  in  history ;  and,  while  his  knowledge 
of  his  subject  was  as  minute  as  it  was  wide, 
he  knew  how  to  discard  the  unessential. 

[Preface  to  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Antiquaries  of  Ireland,  pp.  v-viii ;  Athenaeum, 
2  April  1898  ;  private  information.]  C.  L.  F. 

STOKES,  MARGARET  M'NAIR  (1832- 
1900),  Irish  archaeologist,  eldest  daughter 
of  "William  Stokes,  M.D.  [q.  v.],  and  Mary, 
daughter  of  John  Black  of  Glasgow,  was 
born  at  York  Street,  Dublin,  in  March  1832. 
Sir  William  Stokes  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  was  her 
brother.  At  her  father's  house  she  was 
thrown  in  early  girlhood  into  daily  intimacy 
with  James  Henthorn  Todd  [q.  v.],  George 
Petrie  [q.  v.],  William  Reeves  (1815-1892) 
[q.  v.],  Sir  Samuel  Ferguson  [q.  v.],  Edwin 
R.  W.  Quin,  third  earl  of  Dunraven  [q.  v.], 
and  others  of  her  father's  antiquarian  friends, 
from  whom  she  early  derived  the  taste  for 
archaeological  investigation  which  became 
the  absorbing  passion  of  her  later  years.  Her 
aptitude  in  this  direction  was  stimulated 
also  by  the  careful  training  of  her  father, 
from  whom  she  received  precisely  such  a 
training  as  might  best  fit  her  for  the  work 
she  was  afterwards  to  accomplish.  But 
while  her  taste  for  research  was  thus  pre- 
cociously developed,  it  was  not  until  she  had 
passed  middle  age  that  her  real  services  to 
Celtic  art  and  archaeology  were  rendered, 
her  early  life  being  fully  occupied  with  home 
duties.  Thus  it  was  not  until  death  had 
removed  those  to  whom  she  ministered  that 


363 


Stokes 


she  found  leisure  to  'commence  author; ' 
and,  as  she  was  wont  to  say  of  herself  in  her 
last  years,  she  '  only  came  out  at  fifty.' 

Miss  Stokes's  first  important  work  was 
undertaken  with  no  thought  of  publication, 
and  was  indeed  the  chance  outcome  of  her 
friendship  and  admiration  for  Sir  Samuel 
Ferguson.  It  took  the  form  of  illustrations 
and  illuminations  of  Ferguson's  poem,  '  The 
Cromlech  on  Howth,'  the  text  of  which  she 
adorned  with  admirably  illuminated  initial 
letters  after  the  examples  in  the  book  of 
Kells.  Her  reproductions  were  so  generally 
admired  that  it  was  arranged  to  publish  an 
illustrated  edition  of  the  poem,  which  ac- 
cordingly appeared  in  1861.  Sir  Frederic 
Burton  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  referring  to  this  book 
shortly  after  its  publication,  wrote  of  Miss 
Stokes's  share  in  the  volume :  '  The  initial 
letters  are  exquisite,  and  form  in  them- 
selves quite  a  manual  of  Scoto-Celtic  orna- 
mentation.' The  capacity  and  knowledge  of 
Celtic  art  shown  in  this  work  led  to  Miss 
Stokes  undertaking  the  editorship  of  the 
Earl  of  Dunraven's  monumental  volumes 
entitled  '  Xotes  on  Irish  Architecture '  [see 
QUIN,  EDWIN  RICHARD  WINDHAM  WYND- 
HAM-,  third  EARL  OF  DUNRAVEN].  She  had 
previously  visited  the  Isles  of  Aran  and 
other  remote  parts  of  Ireland  still  rich  in 
archaeological  remains,  in  company  with  her 
father,  Petrie,  and  Lord  Dunraven.  Dun- 
raven,  dying  before  he  could  complete  his 
projected  work,  left  a  substantial  bequest  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  publication  of  his 
'  Notes  '  by  Miss  Stokes.  To  these  volumes, 
which  appeared  in  successive  years  (1875-7), 
the  editor  contributed  many  drawings  and 
illustrations. 

The  next  few  years  were  fruitful  in  edi- 
torial labours  less  elaborate,  but  scarcely  less 
valuable.  Among  other  productions  may 
be  enumerated  '  Christian  Inscriptions  in  the 
Irish  Language,  chiefly  collected  and  drawn 
by  G.  Petrie,'  1871-8,  and  an  English  edi- 
tion of  Didron's  '  Christian  Iconography  ' 
(2  vols.  1886).  She  also  published  'Early 
Christian  Architecture  in  Ireland,'  1878;  and 
'  Art  Readings  for  1880,'  being  lectures  to 
ladies  at  Alexandra  College.  In  1886  she 
wrote  for  the  South  Kensington  series  of 
handbooks  the  volume  on  '  Early  Christian 
Art  in  Ireland.'  In  the  latter  year  she  con- 
tributed to  '  Blackwood's  Magazine '  a  notice 
of  her  lifelong  friend,  Sir  Samuel  Ferguson. 
By  this  time  Miss  Stokes's  position  and  re- 
putation in  her  special  field  of  learning  was 
assured ;  and  while  her  name  and  work 
thenceforward  became  known  among  a 
wider  public,  the  sphere  of  her  investiga- 
tions became  enlarged.  In  1892  she  pub- 


lished '  Six  Months  in  the  Apennines :  a 
Pilgrimage  in  search  of  Vestiges  of  the 
Irish  Saints  in  Italy,'  in  which  she  has 
traced  the  wandering  footsteps  of  the  early 
Irish  missionaries,  and  has  illustrated  with 
pen  and  pencil  the  localities  associated  with 
S.  Columbanus.  In  1895  she  followed  this 
up  with  'Three  Months  in  the  Forests  ot 
France,'  a  work  devoted  to  the  same  topics. 
In  the  same  year  was  published  her  '  Notes 
on  the  Cross  of  Cong,'  with  elaborate  repro- 
ductions of  that  remarkable  relic.  On  all 
these  works  Miss  Stokes  laboured  with  ex- 
traordinary enthusiasm  and  scholarly  zeal. 
No  trouble  was  too  great  for  her ;  and,  though 
well  advanced  in  life,  she  journeyed  long  dis- 
t  ances,  and  went  thro  ugh  severe  physical  exer- 
tion  to  secure  success  inher  photographic  and 
other  reproductions  of  the  ancient  ecclesias- 
tical monuments  of  Ireland,by  means  of  which 
she  sought  to  elucidate  the  growth  of  Celtic 
art.  The  markedsuccess  of  hermethods  led  to 
her  undertaking  the  large  task  of  illustrating 
'  The  High  Crosses  of  Ireland.'  On  this 
work  she  was  busily  engaged  when  the  brief 
illness  which  terminated  her  life  overtook 
her.  An  instalment  of  it,  on  the  'High 
Crosses  of  Castledermot  and  Darrow,'  was 
published  in  1898  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Academy,  a  body  of  which  Miss 
Stokes  had  been  elected  an  honorary  member 
in  1876.  A  further  instalment,  embracing 
all  that  she  lived  to  complete,  will  shortly 
be  published  by  the  Academy.  Miss  Stokes 
was  also  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Ireland. 

Miss  Stokes  died  at  her  residence,  Carrig 
Breac,  Howth,  co.  Dublin,  on  20  Sept,  1900. 

[Notices  in  the  Dublin  Daily  Express,  22  Sept. 
1900 ;  Athenseum,  29  Sept.  1900 ;  Life  and 
Letters  of  Sir  Samuel  Ferguson  ;  private  infor- 
mation ;  Journal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries of  Ireland,  vol.  xxx.  p.  vii.]  C.  L.  F. 

STOKES,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1839-1900), 
surgeon,  was  second  sonof  Dr.  William  Stokes 
(1804-1878)  [q.  v.]  and  Mary,  second  daugh- 
ter of  John  Black  of  Glasgow.  Margaret 
Stokes  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  was  his  sister.  He  was 
born  at  50  York  Street,  Dublin,  on  10  March 
1839,  and  was  educated  at  the  royal  school, 
Armagh,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1859,  and  M.B., 
M.D.,  and  M.Ch.  in  1863,  with  a  thesis  on 
'The  Diseases  and  Injuries  of  the  Knee- 
joint.'  Stokes  received  his  professional  train- 
'ing  at  Dublin,  in  the  school  of  physic  at 
Trinity  College,  in  the  Carmichael  school, 
and  at  the  Meath  and  Richmond  hospitals. 
He  was  awarded  the  gold  medal  of  the 
Pathological  Society  of  Dublin  in  1861,  be- 


Stokes 


364 


coming  its  president  in  1881.  lie  was  ad-  Early  in  1900  Stokes  left  Ireland  for 
mitted  a  licentiate  of  the  Royal  College  of  South  Africa,  to  assume  the  office  of  con- 
Surgeons  of  Ireland  in  1862,  and  a  fellow  ot  j  suiting  surgeon  to  the  British  military  forces 
this  body  in  1874.  After  he  had  received  which  were  then  engaged  in  Natal  in  fighting 
in  Dublin  he  spent  against  the  Boers.  While  still  actively  oc- 


his  medical  qualifications  in  Dublin  he  spent 
two  years  m  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  and 
Prague,  where  his  father's  reputation  pro- 
cured him  the  personal  friendship  of  the 
most  renowned  teachers  in  those  cities. 

In  1864  Stokes  settled  in  practice  in  Clare 
Street,  Dublin,  where  he  remained  until 
1878,  when  he  moved  to  his  father's  house, 
6  Merrion  Square  North.  In  1864  he  was 
elected  surgeon  to  the  Meath  Hospital,  in 
succession  to  Josiah  Smyly.  This  post  he 
resigned  in  1868,  upon  his  appointment  as 
surgeon  to  the  House  of  Industry  Hospitals 
(which  included  the  Richmond  Hospital) ; 
there  he  performed  the  greater  part  of  the 
operative  work,  which  justly  placed  him  at 
the  head  of  the  surgical  profession  in  Ire- 
land. He  was  for  some  time  lecturer  on 
surgery  in  the  Carmichael  school  of  medi- 
cine, and  on  24  Dec.  1872  he  was  elected 
professor  of  surgery  at  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  Ireland.  Here  he  served  the 
office  of  president  in  1886-7,  when  he  gave 
a  magnificent  banquet  in  the  hall  of  the 
college  to  celebrate  the  jubilee  of  Queen 
Victoria.  In  1882  Stokes  delivered  the  ad- 
dress on  surgery  at  the  jubilee  meeting  of 
the  British  Medical  Association  held  at 
Worcester,  its  birthplace.  The  address  con- 
firmed the  opinion  that  had  long  been  held 
as  to  the  greatness  of  his  oratorical  powers. 
In  1886  he  was  knighted  by  the  Earl  of 
Aberdeen,  then  lord-lieutenant  of  IrelariM. 
In  1888  he  returned  to  the  Meath  Hospital 
as  surgeon,  resigning  a  similar  position  at 
the  Richmond  Hospital,  and  in  1892  he  was 
appointed  surgeon-in-ordinary  to  Queen  Vic- 
toria in  Ireland. 

Stokes  was  a  governor  of  the  Westmore- 
land Lock  Hospital,  a  consulting  surgeon  to 
the  National  Children's  Hospital,  a  member  of 
the  council  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
of  Ireland,  and  he  was  for  a  number  of  years 
one  of  the  representatives  of  the  college  on 
the  conjoint  committee  which  managed  the 
examinations  conducted  by  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  the  College  of  Surgeons  in 
Dublin.  He  took  much  interest  in  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  for  many 
years  occupied  a  seat  on  the  surgical  council 
of  the  society,  in  addition  to  the  position 
he  held  as  secretary  for  foreign  correspond- 
ence. Stokes  also  acted  at  various  times  as 
an  examiner  in  surgery  at  the  university  of 
Oxford,  at  the  Queen's  University  in  Ireland, 
and  at  the  Royal  Colleges  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  in  Dublin. 


cupied  with  the  duties  of  that  responsible 
office  he  fell  ill  and  died  of  pleurisy  on  18  Aug. 
1900,  in  the  base  hospital  at  Pietermaritz- 
burg.  He  was  buried  two  days  afterwards 
in  the  military  cemetery  at  Fort  Napier, 
Natal. 

He  married,  in  1869,  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  the  Rev.  John  Lewis  Moore,  D.D.,  senior 
fellow  and  vice-provost  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  by  whom  he  had  one  son,  now  a 
lieutenant  in  the  royal  engineers,  and  two 
daughters. 

Stokes,  like  many  other  members  of  his 
distinguished  family,  was  a  man  of  the 
utmost  versatility.  A  good  surgeon  and  a 
first-rate  teacher,  he  was  also  an  orator  and 
a  master  of  English  composition.  He  was 
besides  a  cultivated  musician,  possessed  of 
a  fine  tenor  voice,  which  was  often  heard 
in  private  society  at  Dublin.  As  a  surgeon 
he  was  both  brilliant  and  successful,  and  his 
name  is  associated  with  a  particular  method 
of  amputation  at  the  knee,  which  has  the 
merit  of  leaving  untouched  the  insertion  of 
the  great  quadriceps  muscle. 

Stokes  published  a  life  of  his  father,  Dr. 
William  Stokes,  in  the  '  Masters  of  Medi- 
cine '  series,  London,  1898.  His  other  writ- 
ings are  scattered  in  the  various  medical 
periodicals. 

[Sir  Charles  Cameron's  History  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  Ireland ;  private  infor- 
mation.] D'A.  P. 

STRACHEY,  SIR  HENRY,  first  ba- 
ronet (1736-1810),  politician,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh on  23  May  1736,  was  the  eldest 
surviving  son  of  Henry  Strachey  (1706- 
1765)  of  Sutton  Court  in  Somerset,  by  his 
first  wife  Helen,  daughter  of  Robert  Clerk 
of  Listonfield,  Midlothian,  and  Edinburgh, 
physician. 

His  grandfather,  JOHN  STRACHEY  (1671- 
1743),  geologist,  was  the  only  son  of  John 
Strachey  (d.  4  Feb.  1674),  the  friend  of 
Locke  (cf.  Fox  BOURNE,  Life  of  John  Locke, 
1876).  He  was  the  author  of  '  Observa- 
tions on  the  different  Strata  of  Earths  and 
Minerals'  (London,  1727,  8vo),  which,  ac- 
cording to  Sir  Charles  Lyell  [q.  v.j,  was  the 
first  treatise  in  which  the  theory  of  stratifi- 
cation was  suggested.  He  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  on  5  Nov.  1719, 
and  died  on  11  June  1743.  He  was  twice 
married — first  to  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
William  Elletson;  and  secondly  to  Chris- 


Struthers 


Struthers 


tiana,  daughter  of  Richard  Staveley.  He 
had  issue  by  both  marriages. 

His  grandson  Henry,  on  the  recommen- 
dation of  George  Grenville  [q.  v.],  was 
appointed  private  secretary  to  Lord  Olive 
during  his  last  visit  to  India  in  1764.  Olive 
afterwards  spoke  of  his  abilities  in  the 
highest  terms  in  the  House  of  Commons  on 
30  March  1772.  On  5  Dec.  1768  he  was 
returned  to  parliament  for  Pontefract,  and 
on  10  Oct.  1774  for  Bishop's  Castle  in 
Shropshire,  one  of  Olive's  boroughs.  This 
seat  he  vacated  in  1778  on  being  appointed 
clerk  of  deliveries  of  ordnance,  and  was 
returned  on  1  Oct.  for  Saltash.  In  1780  he 
accepted  the  Chiltern  Hundreds,  and  on 
26  June  was  again  returned  for  Bishop's 
Castle  in  place  of  Alexander  AVedderburn 
(afterwards  first  Earl  of  Rosslyn)  [q.  v.] 
This  seat  he  retained  until  1802,  when  he 
was  returned  on  7  July  for  the  Sussex 
borough  of  East  Grinstead,  which  he  repre- 
sented until  his  retirement  in  1807. 

In  1774  Strachey  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  commission  for  restoring  peace  to 
America,  and  from  October  1780  to  April 
1782  he  was  principal  storekeeper  of  the 
ordnance.  From  29  March  to  15  July  1782 
he  was  joint  secretary  of  the  treasury.  In 
the  same  year  he  became  joint  under-secre- 
tary  of  state  for  the  home  department,  and 
in  the  negotiations  for  peace  with  the 
American  colonies  at  Paris  in  1783  he  as- 
sisted the  king's  commissioners  (see  HODGINS, 
British  and  American  Diplomacy  affectiny 
Canada,  1900).  In  that  year  he  was  again 
storekeeper  of  the  ordnance  from  12  April 
to  December,  and  in  1794  master  of  the 
king's  household.  In  1801  he  was  created 
a  baronet.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries.  He  died  in  London  on 
1  Jan.  1810  in  Hill  Street,  Berkeley  Square. 
On  23  May  1770  he  married  Jane,  only 
daughter  of  John  Kelsall  of  Greenwich,  and 
widow  of  Thomas  Latham,  captain  in  the 
royal  navy.  She  died  on  12  Feb.  1824, 
leaving  three  sons  and  a  daughter.  The 
second  son,  Edward  (1774-1832),  and  his 
wife  Julia  (d.  20  Nov.  1847),  youngest 
daughter  of  Major-general  William  Kirk- 
patrick  [q.  v.],  were  friends  of  Thomas  Carlyle 
(FROUDE,  Life  of  Carlyle ;  CARLYLE,  Remi- 
niscences, ed.  Froude). 

[Gent.  Mag.  1810,  i.  93  ;  Official  Ret.  Memb. 
of  Parl. ;  Burke's  Peerage  ;  Sir  A.  J.  Arbuth- 
not's  Lord  Clive,  1900  (Builders  of  Greater 
Britain).]  E.  I.  C. 

STRUTHERS,  SIR  JOHN  (1823-1899), 
anatomist,  second  son  of  Alexander  Stru- 
thers, was  born  at  Brucefield,  Dunfermline, 


on  21  Feb.  1823,  and  was  educated  privately. 
He  studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh,  where 
he  was  admitted  successively  a  licentiate 
and  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons and  a  doctor  of  medicine  of  the  uni- 
versity in  1845.  On  22  Oct.  1847  he  was 
licensed  by  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
to  teach  anatomy  in  the  extramural  school, 
which  he  did  so  successfully  that  he  was 
invited  to  supply  the  place  of  Professor 
John  Goodsir  (1814-1867)  [q.  v.]  during  his 
illness  in  the  winter  of  1853-4. 

In  1854  Struthers  was  appointed  one  of  the 
assistant  surgeons  to  the  Royal  Infirmary, 
and  a  few  years  later  he  became  full  sur- 
geon, an  office  he  resigned  in  1863,  when  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  at 
Aberdeen.  The  university  of  Aberdeen 
had  begun  a  new  existence  on  15  Sept.  1860 
by  the  fusion  of  the  two  old  universities,  and 
by  the  new  scheme  law  and  medicine  were 
taught  in  Marischal  College.  The  accom- 
modation, however,  was  meagre,  and  the 
students  were  few,  when  Struthers  entered 
on  his  duties ;  but  when  he  left  the  university 
in  1889  the  number  of  students  had  more 
than  doubled,  and  there  was  a  museum  of 
anatomy  which  was  almost  unequalled,  while 

i  the  Royal  Infirmary  had  been  greatly  en- 
larged, and  was  famous  throughout  the 
United  Kingdom  for  the  excellence  of  its 
clinical  teaching.  In  1881  Struthers  esta- 
blished a  medal  and  a  prize  for  anatomy 

I  in  the  university  of  Aberdeen,  and  in  1889 
he  resigned  his  post  and  returned  to  Edin- 
burgh. 

In  Edinburgh  he  became  chairman  of  the 
board  of  directors  of  Leith  Hospital,  and 
worked  hard  to  secure  its  extension  to  a 
hundred  beds  to  satisfy  the  academic  teach- 
ing requirements.  He  was  also  elected  a 
manager  of  the  Edinburgh  Royal  Infirmary, 
where  he  was  particularly  interested  in  the 
improvement  and  extension  of  the  operating 
theatres. 

Struthers  was  a  member  and  president  of 
the  Royal  Physical  Society,  and  a  member  of 
the  board  of  management  of  the  Royal  Dis- 
pensary, Edinburgh.  In  1885  the  university 
of  Glasgow  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary 
degree  of  LL.D.  He  was  president  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Edinburgh 
from  1895  to  1897,  and  he  thenproved  a  great 
benefactor  to  the  museum.  He  remained  a 
vice-president  and  an  examiner  of  the  col- 
lege until  his  death.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  General  Medical  Council  for  the  united 
universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen 
from  1883-6,  and  for  the  university  of  Aber- 
deen alone  from  1886-91.  He  served  in  this 

[  body  as  chairman  of  the  education  com- 


Stuart 


366 


Stuart 


mittee,  and  in  this  capacity  drew  up  a  report 
which  led  to  important  changes  in  the  medi- 
cal curriculum.  He  was  knighted  in  1898. 

He  died  on  24  Feb.  1899,  and  is  buried  in 
the  Warriston  cemetery,  Edinburgh.  In 
1892,  after  his  retirement  from  the  chair 
of  anatomy  in  Aberdeen,  he  was  presented 
by  a  number  of  old  pupils  and  friends  with 
his  portrait  painted  by  Sir  George  Reid, 
P.R.S.A.  A  replica  hangs  in  the  new  pic- 
ture gallery  of  the  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen. He  married,  on  5  Aug.  1857,  Chris- 
tina, a  daughter  of  James  Alexander,  sur- 
geon, of  Wooler,  Northumberland,  by  whom 
he  had  five  sons  and  four  daughters. 

Struthers  was  a  skilled  anatomist,  and 
one  of  the  earliest  advocates  in  Scotland  of 
the  Darwinian  hypothesis  of  natural  selec- 
tion. He  was  by  nature  a  reformer  and  an 
organiser,  and  to  his  exertions  the  university 
of  Aberdeen  owes  in  great  measure  the  suc- 
cess of  her  medical  school. 

Struthers  wrote  a  large  number  of  papers 
on  human  and  comparative  anatomy.  In  a 
pamphlet  entitled  '  References  to  Papers  in 
Anatomy,'  published  in  1889,  he  gives  a  list 
of  seventy  papers  which  he  had  written  up 
to  that  date,  and  he  subsequently  added 
several  more.  The  most  valuable  part  of 
his  scientific  work  is  a  series  of  papers  on  the 
anatomy  of  various  cetaceans.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  book  of '  Anatomical  and  Physiolo- 
gical Observations,'  part  i.  1854,  part  ii. 
1863 ;  and  an  '  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Edin- 
burgh Anatomical  School,'  1867,  8vo. 

[Personal  knowledge ;  British  Medical  Jour- 
nal, 1899,  i.  561 ;  private  information.] 

D'A.  P. 

STUART,  JOHN  PATRICK  CRICH- 
TON-,  third  MAEQTJISOF  BTJTB  (1847-1900), 
was  born  at  Mount  Stuart,  Isle  of  Bute,  on 
12  Sept.  1847,  and  had  the  courtesy  title  of 
Earl  of  Windsor  till  his  father's  death  in 
the  following  year.  He  was  the  only  child 
of  John,  second  marquis,  K.T.,  by  his 
(second)  wife,  Sophia  Frederica  Christina, 
daughter  of  Francis,  first  marquis  of  Hast- 
ings, and  his  wife  Flora,  who  in  her  own  right 
was  Countess  of  Loudoun.  John  Stuart, 
third  earl  of  Bute  [q.  v.],  prime  minister,  was 
his  great-great-grandfather.  The  prime  mini- 
ster's eldest  son  was  created  marquis  of  Bute 
in  1796,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  marquis- 
ate  by  his  grandson,  the  father  of  the  sub- 
ject of  the  present  memoir.  The  second 
marquis,  who,  in  right  of  his  mother,  Eliza- 
beth Penelope,  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Patrick  Crichton,  earl  of  Dumfries,  was  also 
Earl  of  Dumfries,  died  on  18  March  1848. 
The  boy's  mother,  with  whom  he  as  a  child 


travelled  much  abroad,  died  on  28  Dec.  1859, 
and  on  25  May  1861  the  court  of  session,  in 
obedience  to  an  order  from  the  House  of 
Lords  in  its  judicial  capacity,  authorised  the 
removal  of  the  boy  into  England  in  the 
hands  of  a  guardian  appointed  by  the  Eng- 
lish court  of  chancery  (Session  Cases,  2nd 
ser.  (Dunlop),  xxiii.  902).  The  lord-chan- 
cellor (Campbell)  recorded  in  his  judgment 
that  the  boy  gave  promise  of  considerable  in- 
tellectual capacity.  In  January  1 862  the  mar- 
quis entered  Harrow,  where  in  1863  he  gained 
the  head-master's  prize  for  English  verse,  and 
in  the  following  year  the  head-master's  fifth- 
form  prize  for  Latin  verse  (Harrow  Calen- 
dars). In  1865  he  entered  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  he  left  a  reputation  for  wide 
reading,  active  intellect,  and  vast  power  of 
memory. 

The  marquis  had  been  brought  up  by  his 
mother  as  a  presbyterian  of  the  church  of 
Scotland.  But  at  an  early  age  his  attention 
was  directed  to  the  institutions  of  medise- 
valism,  and  at  Oxford  he  devoted  much  time 
and  thought  to  the  study  of  the  ancient 
faiths  and  forms  of  eastern  and  western 
Christendom,  of  Judaism,  Islamism,  and 
Buddhism.  On  8  Dec.  1868,  a  few  months 
after  attaining  his  majority,  he  was  received 
into  the  church  of  Rome,  at  the  chapel  of  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Southwark,  by  Mon- 
signor  Capel.  To  the  church  of  his  choice 
he  was  always  deeply  devoted.  His  change 
of  religion  created  a  profound  sensation, 
especially  in  Scotland.  The  incident  doubt- 
less suggested  the  plot  of  Lord  Beaconsfield's 
novel,  'Lothair,'  which  was  published  in 
1870,  although  the  novel  has  no  relation 
with  the  facts  of  Bute's  career.  Beacons- 
field  made  Bute's  acquaintance  afterwards, 
and  they  remained  on  friendly  terms  until 
Beaconsfield's  death. 

Bute  engaged  in  an  exceptional  number 
of  pursuits.  Besides  taking  the  general 
superintendence  of  his  vast  property,  he 
was  a  scholar  and  restorer  of  ancient  build- 
ings, a  liturgiologist,  a  linguist,  and  a  tra- 
veller, but  the  dominant  character  of  his 
mind,  to  which  his  actions  were  referable, 
was  his  devotional  temperament  and  his 
reverence  for  ancient  institutions. 

On  coming  of  age  Bute  became  the  owner 
of  estates,  not  only  in  Scotland  but  in  Wales 
— at  Cardiff  and  its  neighbourhood. 

Cardiff,  as  one  of  the  principal  ports  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  largest  coal- 
exporting  port  in  the  world,  practically 
owes  its  existence  to  the  foresight  and  ex- 
penditure of  the  marquis's  father.  The  Bute 
docks,  which  his  father  began,  he  carried  to 
completion  with  the  same  courage  and  in- 


Stuart 


367 


Stuart 


telligence  ;  they  now  cover  over  160  acres, 
and  cost  about  4,000,000/.  The  population 
of  the  city,  which  in  1801  was  two  thou- 
sand, is  now  over  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand.  lie  likewise  sought  to  revive  the 
cultivation  of  grapes  in  Wales  in  order  to 
reintroduce  the  industry  of  native  wine- 
making  into  the  country.  In  1877  he 
planted  vineyards  on  his  Welsh  estates  at 
Castel  Coch  and  Swanbridge.  They  pro- 
duce both  red  and  white  wines,  and  much 
care  has  been  bestowed  on  developing  the 
manufacture. 

In  1890  he  accepted  the  offer  of  the  office 
of  mayor  of  Cardiff,  being  the  first  to  restore  j 
the  ancient  association  of  peers  with  civic 
office.  After  fulfilling  the  duties  of  the 
post  for  the  ordinary  term,  he  presented  to 
the  corporation  on  his  retirement  an  artistic 
chain  of  office,  for  the  perpetual  use  of  his 
successors.  He  was  also  president  of  Uni- 
versity College,  Cardiff.  He  was  interested 
in  Welsh  literature  and  history,  on  which 
he  gave  an  address  at  the  Eisteddfod  of 
1892,  and  restored  his  Welsh  residences, 
Cardiff  Castle  and  Castel  Coch,  besides  re- 
covering, through  his  explorations,  the  re- 
mains of  the  Greyfriars'  and  Blackfriars' 
houses  at  Cardiff,  the  outlines  of  which  he 
marked  out  by  low  walls,  flooring  the  inte- 
riors with  tiles. 

Though  the  House  of  Lords,  sitting  as  a 
judicial  body,  had  assumed  him  in  boyhood 
to  be  English,  he  piqued  himself  on  being 
a  Scot.  '  I  well  remember,'  he  writes  in  his 
diary, '  reading  Grant's  "  Memorials  of  Edin- 
burgh Castle"  as  a  child,  and  its  first  raising 
in  me  a  strong  nationalist  feeling.'  This 
feeling  strengthened  until  in  later  years 
(although  in  other  matters  he  identified 
himself  with  the  conservative  party)  he 
advocated  Scottish  home  rule  by  a  single 
chamber  somewhat  similar  in  its  constitu- 
tion and  relations  to  the  crown  to  the  old 
Scots  parliament  before  the  union.  These 
views  he  expounded  in  an  essay  called '  Par- 
liament in  Scotland,'  which  first  appeared 
in  the  '  Scottish  Review  '  in  1889  (published 
separately  1889, 1892,  and  1893).  He  made 
a  long  and  extensive  study  of  Scottish  his- 
tory and  institutions,  but  such  small  parts 
of  the  results  of  his  researches  as  he  printed 
he  issued  in  the  form  of  detached  magazine 
articles,  contributions  to  the  '  Transactions ' 
of  learned  societies,  lectures,  or  pamphlets. 
They  included  a  lecture  on  the  '  Early  Days 
of  Wallace  '  (Paisley,  1876),  and  on  ''David, 
duke  of  Rothesay'  (Edinburgh,  1894),  seve- 
ral articles  on  the  coronations  of  Scottish 
kings  in  the  'Scottish  Review'  (1887-8), 
and  '  An  Itinerary  of  King  Robert  I,'  an 


article  in  the  '  Scottish  Antiquary '  (1899), 

which  was  intended  to  form  part  of  a  series 
of  diaries  of  the  movements  of  all  the  Scot- 
tish  kings.     His  longest  contribution    to 
Scottish  history,  published  during  his  life, 
was  the  large  quarto  volume  on  heraldry,  in 
the  preparation  of  which  he  was  aided  by 
Mr.  J.   R.  X.  Macphail  and   Mr.   H.  W. 
Lonsdale,  viz., '  The  Arms  of  the  Royal  and 
Parliamentary  Burghs '  (Edinburgh,  1897). 
Anxious  to  retain  or  restore,  as  far  as  was 
practicable,  the  ancient  order  of  things  in 
Scotland,  he  deeply  interested  himself  in 
the  Scottish  universities  and  was  a  munifi- 
cent benefactor  of  St.  Andrews,  the  most 
ancient  of  them,  and  of  Glasgow.   He  was  an 
active  member  of  the  Scottish  Universities 
Commission  in  1889,  and  was  elected  rector 
of  St.  Andrews  in  1892,  holding  the  office 
until   1898  through  two  successive  terms. 
He  presented  to  St.  Andrews  a  medical  hall, 
a  chair  of  anatomy,  a  hall  for  the  students' 
union,  &c.,  and  to  Glasgow,  the  next  in  order 
of  age,  a  university  ('Bute')  hall.     His  ad- 
dress  (23  Nov.  1893)  to   the   students  of 
St.  Andrews  on  his  first  election  as  rector 
of  that  university  (which  was  published  at 
Paisley  in  1893,  and  reissued  in  'Rectorial 
Addresses,'  ed.  Knight,  in  1894),  contained, 
according  to  Lord   Rosebery,   'one  of  the 
strangest,  most  pathetic,  and  most  striking 
passages  of  eloquence  with  which  I  am  ac- 
quainted in  any  modern  deliverance '  (E.4.RL 
OF  ROSEBEKY,  Address  to  Scottish  Hist.  Soc. 
17   Nov.  1900;   Scotsman,  19  Nov.  1900). 
He  received  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D. 
from  the  university  of  Glasgow  in  1879,  of 
Edinburgh  in  1882,  and  of  St.  Andrews  in 
1893.     At  the  same  time  he  took  part  in  the 
municipal  life  of  Scotland.     Like  five  of  his 

;  ancestors,  he  became  provost  of  Rothesay 
from  1896  to  1899,  and  embellished  the 
council  chamber  there  with  portraits  and 

j  stained-glass  windows,  and  to  that  borough 
as  well  as  to  St.  Andrews  and  Falkland, 
with  which  he  had  a  like  territorial  connec- 
tion, he  presented  gold  chains  of  office  for 
the  provost.  In  1891  the  freedom  of  the 
city  of  Glasgow  was  conferred  on  him,  and 
he  was  lord-lieutenant  of  the  county  of  Bute 
from  1892.  When  the  British  Archaeologi- 
cal Association  met  at  Glasgow  in  1888  he 
filled  the  presidential  chair  and  delivered  the 

|  inaugural  address  '  On  Scottish  History.' 
The  following  are  the  principal  edifices 
which  he  repaired  or  had  in  course  of  re- 
storation at  his  death :  the  royal  castles  of 
Rothesay  and  Falkland,  of  both  of  which 
he  was  hereditary  keeper ;  the  Old  Place  at 
Mochrum,  Crichton  Peel  at  Sanquhar,  the 
priories  of  St.  Andrews  and  Pluscarden,  the 


Stuart 


368 


Greyfriars  at  Elgin,  St.  Blanes  Chapel  in 
the  Isle  of  Bute.  The  present  palatial  house 
at  Mount  Stuart,  Buteshire,  designed  in  a 
Florentine  style,  under  his  supervision,  by 
Dr.  R.  R.  Anderson,  stands  on  the  site  ol 
the  former  house  of  the  same  name,  which 
was  burnt  down  on  3  Dec.  1877. 

Bute  travelled  widely,  frequently  visiting 
the  Holy  Land  and  Italy.  He  systemati- 
cally studied  the  languages  of  the  countries 
in  which  he  stayed,  both  ancient  and  modern. 
Hebrew,  Coptic,  and  Arabic  greatly  at- 
tracted him.  He  published  in  1882  'The 
Coptic  Morning  Service  translated  into 
English,  with  the  original  Coptic  of  the  parts 
said  aloud,'  and  in  1891  'The  Ancient 
Language  of  the  Natives  of  Teneriffe,'  which 
he  first  gave  as  an  address  at  Cardiff. 

But  his  most  absorbing  literary  occupa- 
tion dealt  with  the  liturgy  of  the  Roman 
catholic  church.  Within  two  years  of  his 
conversion  to  the  Roman  church  he  began 
the  work  with  which  his  name  will  be  chiefly 
identified — the  English  translation  of  the 
'  Breviary,'  which,  after  the  most  assiduous 
labour,  he  completed  in  some  nine  years.  It 
was  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1879  in  two 
volumes  octavo.  In  the  preface  he  an- 
nounced his  aim  to  have  been  '  to  reflect  the 
ideas  of  the  Latin  in  the  best  English  mirror 
he  could  command.'  '  In  cases  where  the 
Latin  of  passages  from  the  Bible  is  obscure 
.  .  .  the  original  [in  whatever  language, 
Hebrew,  Chaldee,  or  Greek]  has  been  re- 
ferred to  when  possible,  in  order  to  find  out 
what  the  Latin  is  probably  intended  to 
mean.'  Where  it  was  possible  to  adopt  the 
classical  English  of  the  '  authorised  version,' 
he  did  so.  The  Latin  hymns  of  the  '  Bre- 
viary' appear  in  the  form  of  metrical  para- 
phrases by  Drs.  Neale,  Newman,  Littledale, 
Caswall,  &c.,  and  two— not  the  least  beauti- 
ful of  them — by  Bute  himself.  He  added 
to  his  translation  a  considerable  number  of 
critical  and  historical  notes.  From  a  lite- 
rary point  of  view  the  English  'Breviary' 
is  an  excellent  and  lasting  monument  to  its 
author.  It  was  soon  out  of  print,  and  much 
of  its  author's  time  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  was  occupied  in  preparing  a  new  edition 
of  it,  which  will  soon  appear. 

In  1875  Bute  began  to  issue  translations 
of  the  orders  of  service  for  the  greater  church 
festivals.  Several  of  these  he  lived  to  com- 
plete, with  other  translations  of  a  similar 
kind,  such  as  'Form  of  Prayers'  in  English 
for  the  use  of  catholics  who  are  unable  to 
attend  mass  (1896,  new  ed.  1900),  and  the 
services  for  Christmas  Day  (Glasgow,  1875), 
Palm  Sunday  and  Whitsuntide  (both  Lon- 
don, 1898).  He  is  said  to  have  taken  a  large 


part  in  the  preparation  of  a  projected  '  Pro- 
prium  Sanctorum'  for  Scotland,  which  is 
under  the  consideration  of  the  congregation 
of  sacred  rites  at  Rome,  the  office  for  St. 
Columba  being  mainly,  if  not  wholly,  from 
his  own  pen.  '  The  Altus  of  St.  Columba,' 
with  a  prose  paraphrase  and  notes,  he  pub- 
lished at  Edinburgh  in  1882  (sm.  4to).  On 
all  matters  relating  to  liturgy,  ritual,  reli- 
gious symbolism,  church  architecture,  church 
antiquities,  church  history,  and  the  canon 
law,  he  was  an  expert  scholar,  and  was  con- 
stantly a  referee.  Works  on  these  subjects 
were  frequently  issued  at  his  expense,  and 
among  the  chief  examples  of  this  form  of  his 
munificence  are :  '  Registrum  Monasterii  S. 
Marie  de  Cambuskenneth,  A.D.  1147-1535.' 
Edited  by  Sir  William  Fraser,  K.C.B.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1872,  4to ;  presented  to  the  Grampian 
Club ;  '  Acta  Sanctorum  Hibernise  ex  Codice 
Salmanticensi  nunc  primum  integre  edita 
opera  Caroli  de  Smedt  et  Josephi  de  Backer 
e  Soc.  Jesu  hagiographorum  Bollandiano- 
rum,'  Edinburgh,  1888,  4to  ;  'The  Charters 
of  the  Friars  Preachers  of  Ayr,'  4to  ;  pre- 
sented by  him  to  the  Ayr  and  Wigton 
Archaeological  Society  ;  '  Ordinale  Conven- 
tus  Vallis  Caulium  :  the  Rule  of  the  Monas- 
tic Order  of  Val-des-Choux  in  Burgundy,'  by 
W.  de  Gray  Birch,  LL.D.,  London,  1900, 
8vo.  There  were  also  in  preparation  at  Lord 
Bute's  death  Gough's  '  Itinerary  of  Ed- 
ward I '  (published  in  1901),  a  work  on  the 
'  Order  of  Knights  Templars,'  and  another  on 
the  '  Forms  of  the  Blessing  of  the  Waters,' 
by  Dr.  Wallis  Budge. 

Bute's  practical  interest  in  books  and 
bibliography  brought  him  into  relations 
with  the  Library  Association,  of  which  he 
was  long  an  active  member.  Another  topic 
that  attracted  his  versatile  mind  was  the 
investigation  of  psychic  phenomena  and  evi- 
dence of  second  sight.  In  1897  mysterious 
noises  which  were  said  to  be  heard  in  Bal- 
lechin  House  in  Perthshire  led  to  an  elabo- 
rate controversy  in  the  '  Times '  newspaper, 
and  he  and  Miss  Ada  Goodrich-Freer,  who 
bad  inquired  into  the  matter,  issued  together 
a  volume  entitled  'The  Alleged  Haunting 

of  B House  '  (London,  1899,  8vo ;  2nd 

dit.  1900).  In  later  life  he  purchased  the 
'  Scottish  Review,'  a  quarterly  publication, 
and  the  extraordinary  variety  of  his  interests 
may  be  well  gauged  by  the  topics  of  his  own 
contributions.  They  include,  besides  those 
already  specified  in  this  article,  'Ancient 
Celtic  Latin  Hymns '  (1 883), ' The  New  Light 
on  St.  Patrick'  (1884),  'Patmos'  (1885), 
Some  Christian  Monuments  of  Athens' 
'1885),  'The  Scottish  Peerage'  (1886), 
The  Bayreuth  Festival'  (1886),  'Amalfi 


Stuart 


369 


Sullivan 


— the  Last  Resting  Place  of  St.  Andrew' 
(1888),  '  The  Trial  and  the  Fate  of  Giordano 
Bruno'  (1888),  'St.  Brendan's  Fabulous 
Voyage '(1893),  as -well  as  translations  from 
the  Greek  of  Demetrius  Bikelas's  writings 
on  the  '  Greek  Question,'  and  translations  of 
some  novels  of  Tourgenieff.  '  The  Prophecies 
•of  St.  Malachi'  appeared  in  the  '  Dublin  Re- 
view '  (1885).  To  Chambers's  '  Encyclo- 
paedia' he  contributed  the  articles  'Bre- 
viary' and  'Liturgy ; '  the  latter  article  was 
abridged.  At  his  death  he  was  engaged 
with  Mr.  J.  II.  Stevenson  and  Mr.  H.  W. 
Lonsdale  in  preparing  a  work  on '  The  Arms 
of  the  Baronial  and  Police  Burghs  of  Scot- 
land,' the  early  publication  of  which  is  ex- 
pected. 

Bute's  abilities — his  deliberation,  astute- 
ness, courage,  his  knowledge  and  vast  wealth 
— fitted  him  for  a  public  career.  But,  al- 
though an  admirable  talker,  he  was  of  a  re- 
tiring disposition,  took  no  active  part  in 
politics,  and  preferred  the  life  of  a  student. 
He  was  not  a  ready  platform  speaker, 
although  his  addresses  were,  like  his 
writings,  characterised  by  careful  prepara- 
tion and  an  admirably  concise,  eloquent, 
and  simple  style.  Bute  was  liberal  in  his 
private  charities  as  well  as  in  his  public 
benefactions.  His  diaries  show  that  much 
•of  his  time  was  often  spent  in  discussing 
with  his  secretary  applications  for  assist- 
ance. He  was  created  a  knight  of  the  Thistle 
in  1895,  and  was  also  a  knight  Grand  Cross 
•of  the  orders  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and  St. 
Gregory. 

Bute  was  seized  in  August  1899  with  an 
apoplectic  attack.  He  in  great  measure  re- 
covered. But  on  8  Oct.  1900,  while  at 
Dumfries  House,  he  experienced  another 
seizure,  to  which  next  day  he  succumbed 
without  rallying.  His  body  was  laid  in  the 
•chapel  by  the  shore  at  Mount  Stuart,  and, 
in  obedience  to  the  instructions  he  had  left, 
his  heart  was  conveyed  to  Jerusalem  and 
buried  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  in  presence  of 
his  family  on  13  Nov.  following. 

In  stature  Bute  was  fully  six  feet.  He  was 
proportionately  broad,  with  square  shoulders, 
handsome,  with  distinguished  bearing,  dark 
brown  hair  and  beard,  blue  grey  eyes,  and 
high-bridged  nose.  The  principal  portraits 
of  him  are,  first,  a  full-length,  at  the  age  of 
twelve  or  so,  by  his  mother's  side  (painted  by 
J.  R.  Swinton)  at  Mount  Stuart ;  secondly,  a 
full-length,  in  Cardiff  town  council  chamber 
(by  Mr.  Hubert  Herkomer,  R.A.,  1892); 
thirdly,  large  head  size  in  lord  rector's  robes 
in  Students'  Union  Buildings,  St.  Andrews 
(by  E.  T.  Haynes,  1895)  ;  fourthly,  another 
Lead  size  in  provost's  robes  in  Rothesay 

VOL.  III. — STTP. 


town  council  chamber  (by  the  same  artist, 
1898). 

In  1872  he  married  the  Hon.  Guendolen 
Mary  Anne,  eldest  daughter  of  Edward,  first 
lord  Howard  of  Glossop,  and  niece  of  Henry 
Granville,  fourteenth  duke  of  Norfolk.  He 
left  issue,  first,  John,  born  1881,  who  during 
his  father's  life  bore  the  title  of  Earl  of 
Dumfries,  and  is  now  the  fourth  marquis; 
secondly,  Ninian  Edward,  born  in  1883; 
thirdly,  Colum  Edmund,  born  in  1886 ;  and, 
fourthly,  Lady  Margaret. 

[Asketch  [by  Rev.  Dr.  Metcalfe  of  Paisley,  edi- 
tor of  the  Scottish  Review]  in  Glasgow  Herald, 
10  Oct.  1900;  'An  Appreciation,'  Glasgow- 
Herald,  11  Oct.  1900 ;  Athenaeum,  13  Oct.  1900 ; 
Tablet,  13  and  20  Oct.  1900;  Times,  11  Oct. 
1900;  Letter  by  Mgr.  Capel,  10  Nov.  1900  in 
San  Francisco  Examiner,  per  Rothesay  Express, 
19  Dec.  1900  ;  Complete  Peerage,  by  G.  E.  C[o- 
kayne] ;  private  information  and  personal  know- 
ledge.] J.  H.  S. 

SULLIVAN,  SIR  ARTHUR  SEYMOUR 
(1842-1900),  composer,  younger  son  of  Tho- 
mas Sullivan,  was  born  at  8  Bolwell  Terrace 
(now  Street),  Lambeth  Walk,  London,  on 
13  May  1842.  His  father,  an  excellent  mu- 
sician, played  the  violin  in  the  orchestra  of 
the  Surrey  Theatre,  and  afterwards  became 
bandmaster  at  the  Royal  Military  College, 
Sandhurst  (1845-56) ;  subsequentlv — until 
his  death,  22  Sept.  1866,  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
one — he  held  a  professorship  at  the  Royal 
Military  School  of  Music,  Kneller  Hall,  from 
its  institution  in  1857.  Thomas  Sullivan's 
elder  son,  Frederick  (1837-1877),  distin- 
guished himself  as  an  actor.  The  mother 
of  the  two  boys,  Mary  Clementina,  daughter 
of  James  Coghlan,  came  of  an  old  Italian 
family  named  Righi. 

Arthur  Sullivan  was  cradled  in  music. 
At  Sandhurst  he  obtained  a  practical  know- 
ledge of  all  the  instruments  in  his  father's 
band — 'not  a  mere  passing  acquaintance,  but 
a  lifelong  and  intimate  friendship.'  He  was 
sent  to  a  boarding-school  kept  by  W.  G. 
Plees,  at  20  Albert  Terrace,  Paddington.  On 
12  April  1854,  aged  nearly  twelve,  Sullivan 
was  admitted  one  of  the  children  of  the 
Chapel  Royal,  St.  James's,  and  two  days  later 
he  was  entrusted  with  the  singing  of  a  solo 
at  one  of  the  services.  '  His  voice  was  very 
sweet,'  records  Thomas  Helmore  [q.  v.l,  the 
master  of  the  children,  '  and  his  stvle  of 
singing  far  more  sympathetic  than  that  of 
most  boys.'  The  children  were  boarded  at 
6  Cheyne  Walk,  Chelsea,  with  Helmore,  who 
not  only  laid  the  foundations  of  Sullivan's 
musical  education  on  a  solid  basis,  but  re- 
mained his  attached  friend  till  death.  Dur- 
ing his  choristership  Sullivan  composed  in 

B  B 


Sullivan 


370 


Sullivan 


1855  &  setting  of  'Sing  unto  the  Lord  and 
praise  His  name.'  This  'full  anthem'  was 
sung  in  the  Chapel  Royal  when  the  dean 
(Bishop  Blomfield  of  London),  to  show  his 
appreciation  of  the  youthful  effort,  rewarded 
the  boy  composer  with  half  a  sovereign. 
His  first  published  composition,  a  sacred 
song,  'O  Jsrael,'  was  issued  by  Novello  &  Co. 
in  November  of  the  same  year  (1855). 

In  June  1856  Sullivan  was  the  youngest 
of  seventeen  candidates  who  entered  for  the 
recently  founded  Mendelssohn  scholarship 
to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  Mendelssohn 
in  England.  The  result  was  a  tie  between 
Sullivan  and  Joseph  Barnby  [q.  v.  Suppl.], 
the  youngest  and  oldest  competitors.  In  a 
final  trial,  however,  Sullivan  became  the 
victor.  He  entered,  under  the  terms  of  the 
scholarship,  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music 
as  a  student,  though  he  did  not  leave  the 
choir  of  the  Chapel  Royal  until  22  June 
1857.  His  teachers  at  the  Royal  Academy 
were  Sterndale  Bennett  [q.  v.J  and  Arthur 
O'Leary  for  pianoforte,  and  John  Goss  [q.v.l 
for  composition.  During  his  student  period 
at  Tenterden  Street  a  setting  by  him  of  'It 
was  a  Lover  and  his  Lass,'  for  duet  and 
chorus,  was  performed  at  the  academy  con- 
cert of  14  July  1857,  and  an  overture  on 
13  July  1858.  The  latter  work  was  praised 
by  the  -Musical  World'  of  17  July  1858 
(the  leading  musical  journal  of  the  day)  for 
its  cleverness,  '  and  an  independent  way  of 
thinking,  which,  in  one  so  young  as  the 
Mendelssohn  scholar,  looks  well.'  Outside 
his  academy  studies  he  took  an  active  part 
in  composing  music  for,  and,  clad  in  the  aca-  j 
demy  uniform,  in  conducting  the  orchestra  I 
of,  the  Pimlico  Dramatic  Society,  an  amateur 
organisation  which  had  the  advantage  of 
his  brother  Fred's  assistance  in  the  capacity  j 
of  stage  manager  and  director-in-chief. 

In  the  autumn  of  1858  Sullivan  was  sent 
by  the  Mendelssohn  scholarship  committee 
to  the  Conservatorium,  Leipzig.  He  studied 
there  under  Moritz  Hauptmann  (counter-  j 
point),  Julius  Rietz   (composition),  Ignatz 
Moscheles  and    Louis   Plaidy  (pianoforte),  ! 
and  Ferdinand   David  (orchestral  playing  I 
and  conducting).     At  Leipzig  his  publicly 
performed   compositions   included  a  string  ! 
quartett ;  an  overture,  '  The  Feast  of  Roses,' 
suggested  by  Thomas  Moore's  '  LallaRookh' 
(26  May  1890) ;  and  the  music  to  Shake- 
speare's  'Tempest' — the   last-named  being 
his  exit  opus  from  the  Conservatorium. 

Sullivan  returned  to  England  in  April 
1861,  when  he  immediately  had  to  set  about 
earning  his  own  living.  He  took  a  course 
of  lessons  on  the  organ  from  George  Cooper 
[q.  v.]  in  order  to  qualify  himself  for  an 


organist  appointment.  In  the  summer  of 
1861  he  became  organist  and  choirmaster 
of  St.  Michael's  church,  Chester  Square,  the 
adult  members  of  his  choir  being  composed 
of  policemen  !  The  turning-point  of  his  life 
as  a  composer  was  reached  by  the  perform- 
ance of  his  wonderfully  beautiful '  Tempest ' 
music,  played  under  the  conductorship  of 
Mr.  August  Manns  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
Saturday  concert  of  5  April  1862.  Among 
the  audience  on  that  occasion  was  Charles 
Dickens,  who  said  to  the  composer :  '  I  don't 
profess  to  be  a  musical  critic,  but  I  do  know 
that  I  have  listened  to  a  very  remarkable 
work.'  The  professional  critics  fully  en- 
dorsed the  opinion  of  the  great  novelist,  and 
Sullivan  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  suddenly 
found  himself  famous.  The  'Tempest 'music, 
which  was  repeated  at  the  concert  on  the 
following  Saturday,  must  be  placed  among 
his  best  work.  In  melodic  charm,  dainty 
orchestration,  and  poetic  fancy,  Sullivan 
never  surpassed  this  spontaneous  composi- 
tion of  his  youth.  The  arrival  of  the  prin- 
cess of  Wales  (Queen  Alexandra)  in  London 
in  March  1863  prompted  a  song,  *  Bride  from 
the  North,'  and  a  processional  march.  Sulli- 
van's success  as  a  song  composer  may  be  said 
to  date  from  his  five  Shakespearean  songs, 
produced  at  this  time,  of  which  '  Orpheus 
with  his  lute '  stands  out  pre-eminently  as  a 
composition  of  sterling  merit.  The  post  of 
organist  at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera,  Covent 
Garden  Theatre,  which  he  held  for  a  time 
under  Costa's  conductorship,  resulted  in  the 
composition  of  the  ballet  of '  L'lle  enchantee,' 
produced  at  Covent  Garden  on  16  May  1864. 
In  the  same  year  he  made  his  first  appear- 
ance as  a  composer  at  one  of  the  great  musi- 
cal festivals  by  the  production  of  his  cantata 
'  Kenilworth  ''(libretto  by  H.  F.  Chorley)  at 
Birmingham,  8  Sept.  1864.  'Kenilworth' 
contains  a  duet,  '  How  sweet  the  moonlight 
sleeps,'  which  is  '  far  too  good  to  be  for- 
gotten.' He  lost  much  time  over  an  opera 
(libretto  also  by  Chorley)  entitled'  The  Sap- 
phire Necklace,'  of  which  only  the  overture 
came  to  maturity,  and  which  has  been  fre- 
quently performed  in  the  concert-room.  From 
1865  to  1869  Sullivan  held  his  first  appoint- 
ment as  a  chef  tforchestre  in  the  conductor- 
ship  of  the  Civil  Service  Musical  Society. 

The  year  1866  was  an  important  one  in  his 
career.  He  was  offered  by  Sterndale  Bennett, 
the  principal,  a  professorship  of  composition 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  He  also 
became  professor  of  '  pianoforte  and  ballad 
singing '  at  the  Crystal  Palace  School  of  Art. 
His  only  symphony  (in  E)  was  produced  at 
the  Crystal  Palace  on  10  March  1866.  On 
1 1  July  he  gave  a  concert  at  St.  James's  Hall, 


Sullivan 


371 


Sullivan 


made  additionally  notable  by  the  co-opera- 
tion of  Jenny  Lind  and  the  veteran  Ignatz 
Moscheles.  The  sudden  death  of  his  father, 
on  22  Sept.  1866,  furnished  the  promptings 
for  the  cdmposition  of  his  '  In  Memoriam ' 
overture,  written  for  the  Norwich  musical 
festival,  and  first  performed  there  30  Oct. 
1866.  A  concert  for  violoncello  and  orches- 
tra was  performed  (the  solo  part  played  by 
Signor  Piatti)  at  the  Crystal  Palace  concert 
of  24  Nov. 

The  chief  event  of  this  eventful  year  (1866) 
was  the  beginning  of  Sullivan's  comic  opera 
career.  His  first  venture  in  this  extraordi- 
narily successful  field  of  artistic  creativeness 
was  '  Cox  and  Box :  a  new  Triumviretta,1 
an  adaptation  by  Mr.  F.  C.  Burnand  of  the 
well-known  farce  by  Maddison  Morton  [q.v.], 
'  Box  and  Cox,'  made  still  more  comic  by  Mr. 
Burnand's  interpellations,  and  set  by  Sulli- 
van '  with  a  brightness  and  a  drollery  which 
at  once  placed  him  in  the  highest  rank  as  a 
comic  composer.'  This  amusing  piece  was 
privately  performed  at  the  residences  of  Mr. 
Burnand  and  Mr.  Arthur  J.  Lewis  (the  latter 
on  27  April  1867),  and  in  public  at  the 
Adelphi  Theatre  on  11  May  1867,  at  a  benefit 
performance  organised  by  thestaffof '  Punch' 
for  their  late  colleague,  C.  H.  Bennett.  '  Con- 
trabandista'  (libretto  also  by  Mr.  Burnand) 
followed  in  December.  Then  came  a  pause 
till  the  production  of  '  Thespis,  or  the 
Gods  grown  old ;  an  operatic  extravaganza,' 
libretto  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Gilbert  (Gaiety 
Theatre,  26  Dec.  1871).  This  work  was  im- 
portant in  that  it  furnished  the  first  fruits 
of  that  remarkable  Gilbert  and  Sullivan  col- 
laboration which  for  nearly  thirty  years  was 
extraordinarily  prolific  in  results,  and  in  fact 
inaugurated  a  new  era  in  comic  opera  in  this 
country.  Its  landmarks,  so -to  speak,  may  be 
indicated  by '  Trial  by  Jury '  (1875),  'H.M.S. 
Pinafore  '  (1878),  and  '  The  Mikado  '  (1885), 
the  most  popular  of  the  series.  In  '  Trial 
by  Jury '  the  composer's  brother  Frederick 
distinguished  himself  in  the  part  of  the 
Judge,  and  this  comicality,  by  introducing 
the  late  Richard  D'Oyly  Carte  as  manager, 
initiated  what  may  be  called  the  Savoy 
Triumvirate — Gilbert,  Sullivan,  Carte.  On 
10  Oct.  1881  the  Savoy  Theatre,  built  by 
D'Oyly  Carte  specially  for  the  Gilbert  and 
Sullivan  operas,  was  opened.  A  complete 
list  of  these  works,  with  places  and  dates  of 
their  production,  will  be  found  at  the  end  of 
this  article. 

To  return  to  the  more  serious  side  of 
Sullivan's  career,  an  overture,  'Marmion,' 
was  commissioned  by  the  Philharmonic 
Society  and  first  performed  at  their  concert 
of  3  June  1867.  In  the  same  month  he  be- 


came the  first  organist  and  choirmaster  of 
St.  Peter's  church,  Cranley  Gardens,  Ken- 
sington (consecrated  29  June  1867).  This 
post  he  held  for  a  short  time  concurrently 
with  that  of  St.  Michael's,  Chester  Square  ; 
but  early  in  1872  he  entirely  relinquished 
his  ecclesiastical  offices.  These  appoint- 
ments, however,  were  largely  the  means  of 
bringing  into  existence  his  anthems,  hymn 
tunes,  and  other  sacred  music.  In  October 
1867  he  visited  Vienna  in  company  with  his 
friend  Sir  George  Grove  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  an 
expedition  made  memorable  by  the  discovery 
of  some  valuable  manuscripts  of  Schubert 
(HELLBOKN,  Life  of  Franz  Schubert,  Eng- 
lish transl.,  with  appendix  by  George  Grove, 
ii.  297). 

As  Sullivan  had  now  fully  established  his 
reputation  as  a  composer,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  commissions  began  to  reach  him.  For 
the  Worcester  musical  festival  of  1869  he 
composed  his  first  oratorio,  '  The  Prodigal 
Son,'  Sims  Reeves  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  taking  the 
principal  part  on  its  production  on  8  Sept. 
The  Birmingham  festival  of  the  following 
year  brought  forth  his  '  Overture  di  Ballo  ' 
(performed  31  Aug.  1870),  'which,  while 
couched  throughout  in  dance-rhythms,  is 
constructed  in  perfectly  classical  forms.'  In 
the  spring  of  this  year  he  delivered  at  the 
South  Kensington  Museum  a  course  of  lec- 
tures (illustrated  by  part  singing)  on  the 
'  Theory  and  Practice  of  Music,'  in  connec- 
tion with  a  scheme  entitled  'Instruction  in 
Science  and  Art  for  Women.'  For  the  open- 
ing of  the  International  Exhibition  on  1  May 
1871,  he  composed  the  cantata  '  On  Shore 
and  Sea'  (words  by  Tom  Taylor),  and 
exactly  a  year  later  his  festival '  Te  Deum,' 
to  celebrate  the  recovery  of  King  Ed- 
ward VII,  then  prince  of  Wales,  from  his 
serious  illness,  was  performed  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  by  two  thousand  executants  in  the 
presence  of  thirty  thousand  people.  In 
November  of  the  same  year  he  became  the 
first  conductor  of  the  Royal  Amateur  Or- 
chestral Society.  His  second  oratorio,  'The 
Light  of  the  World,'  was  composed  for  the 
Birmingham  festival  of  1873,  and  first  per- 
formed 27  Aug.  In  the  following  year 
he  edited  the  musical  section  of  'Church 
Hymns,  with  Tunes,'  published  by  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Know- 
ledge. At  Manchester,  on  26  Feb.  1874, 
after  a  performance  of  'The  Light  of  the 
World '  he  was  presented  with  an  old  Eng- 
lish silver  goblet  and  a  purse  containing 
200/.  In  July  1874  he  was  appointed  con- 
ductor of  the  Royal  Aquarium  orchestra: 
this  post  he  held  till  May  1876.  His  other 
conducting  engagements,  in  addition  to  those 

B  B  2 


Sullivan 


372 


Sullivan 


already  mentioned,  were :  Messrs.  Gatti's  pro- 
menade concerts  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre 
during  the  seasons  of  1878  and  1879 ;  the 
Glasgow  Choral  Union  orchestral  concerts 
for  two  seasons,  1875-7  ;  the  Leeds  musical 
festival  (triennial)  from  1880  to  1898  ;  and 
the  Philharmonic  Society  (London)  from 

1885  to  1887. 

Sullivan  was  appointed  the  first  principal 
of  the  "National  Training  School  of  Music 
(South  Kensington)  in  1876,  which  office  he 
held  till  1881,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Dr.  (afterwards  Sir  John)  Stainer.  On  1  June 
1876,  in  company  with  his  old  master,  John 
Goss,  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  in 
Music  (honoris  causa)  at  the  university  of 
Cambridge.  A  similar  distinction  was  be- 
stowed upon  him  at  Oxford  three  years  later, 
the  occasion  being  the  first  time  that  hono- 
rary degrees  in  music  were  conferred  by  the 
university.  In  1878  he  acted  as  British 
Commissioner  for  Music  at  the  International 
Exhibition  at  Paris,  when  he  was  decorated 
with  the  Order  of  the  Legion  d'honneur  of 
France.  A  visit  to  America  in  November 
1879,  in  company  with  Mr.  W.  S.  Gilbert 
and  D'Oyly  Carte,  was  in  the  nature  of  a 
triumphal  reception. 

To  inaugurate  his  conductorship  of  the 
Leeds  festival — in  succession  to  Michael 
Costa  [q.  v.] — he  composed  his  sacred  music 
drama  '  The  Martyr  of  Antioch  '  (the  words 
selected  from  Dean  Milman's  poem),  per- 
formed 15  Oct.  1880.  At  the  festival  of 

1886  (16  Oct.)  his  setting  of  Longfellow's 
'  Golden  Legend '  was  first  produced  with  a 
success  that  has  ever  since  been  accorded  to 
this  his  finest  as  well  as  his  most  popular 
choral  work.     The  Leeds  festival  of  1886 
was  made  additionally  memorable  by  a  very 
remarkable  performance  under  Sullivan  of 
Bach's  Mass  in  B  minor.     Apart  from  the 
succession  of  his  comic  operas,  the  outstand- 
ing event  in  the  latter  years  of  Sullivan's  life 
was  his  serious  (or '  grand')  opera '  Ivanhoe,' 
produced  at  the  Royal  English  Opera  House 
(now    the    Palace    Theatre),    Shaftesbury 
Avenue,  31  Jan.  1891. 

Delicate  as  a  child,  Sullivan  suffered 
much  ill-health  during  the  greater  part  of 
his  life.  He  died,  somewhat  suddenly,  at 
his  residence,  1  Queen's  Mansions,  Victoria 
Street,  Westminster,  on  22  Nov.  1900.  His 
funeral  partook  of  the  nature  of  a  public 
ceremony,  and,  after  a  service  in  the  Chapel 
Royal,  St.  James's,  where  he  had  so  often 
sung  as  a  boy,  his  remains  were  interred  in 
the  crypt  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  Shortly 
before  his  death  he  returned  to  his  early 
love,  church  music,  by  composing,  at  the 
request  of  the  authorities  of  St.  Paul's 


Cathedral,  a  '  Te  Deum '  for  chorus  and 
orchestra  to  celebrate  the  cessation  of  hos- 
tilities in  South  Africa  when  that  happy 
consummation  should  take  place  (Sir  George 
Martin's  letter  to  the  Times,  29  Nov. 
1900). 

Sullivan,  who  was  unmarried,  received  the 
following  distinctions :  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  (his  alma  mater); 
Mus.Doc.  Cantabr.  (1876)  and  Mus.Doc.  Oxon. 
(1879),  both  honoris  causa;  Order  of  the 
Legion  d'honneur  of  France,  1878 ;  Order  of 
the  Medjidieh  from  the  sultan  of  Turkey, 
1888;  Order  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha; 
the  Royal  Victorian  Order.  He  was  knighted 
on  22  May  1883. 

A  portrait  of  Sullivan  by  Sir  J.  E.  Mil- 
lais,  painted  in  1888,  is  destined  for  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery.  It  is  proposed 
(1901)  to  place  a  mural  tablet  above  his 
grave  in  the  crypt  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
A  memorial  tablet  placed  on  the  house 
where  he  was  born  was  unveiled  on  20  July 
1901  (Times,  22  July). 

As  a  composer  Sullivan  was  typically 
British  (see  his  letter,  signed  'A  British 
Musician,'  to  the  Times,  20  July  1897,  on 
the  subject  of  neglect  of  native  music  by 
British  military  bands).  Melody,  that  rare 
gift,  he  possessed  in  a  degree  that  may  be 
classed  as  genius.  The  influence  of  his  early 
training  in  the  choir  of  the  Chapel  Royal  is 
traceable  in  all  his  vocal  music,  solo  and 
concerted,  which  is  always  grateful  to  sing 
and  interesting  to  the  singer.  He  was  a 
master  of  orchestration,  his  treatment  of  the 
wood-wind  being  in  many  instances  worthy 
of  Schubert.  Here  again  the  seed  sown  in 
the  band-room  at  Sandhurst  bore  rich  fruit. 
Moreover,  not  a  little  of  the  humour  of  the 
comic  operas  is  due  to  his  masterfulness  in 
extracting  fun  from  his  lifelong  friends,  the 
instruments.  His  creative  achievements 
may  be  summarised  in  the  words  of  his 
friend  and  early  encourager,  Sir  George 
Grove :  '  Form  and  symmetry  he  seems  to 
possess  by  instinct ;  rhythm  and  melody 
clothe  everything  he  touches;  the  music 
shows  not  only  sympathetic  genius,  but 
sense,  judgment,  proportion,  and  a  complete 
absence  of  pedantry  and  pretension  ;  while 
the  orchestration  is  distinguished  by  a  happy 
and  original  beauty  hardly  surpassed  by  the 
great  masters '  (  GROVE,  Diet,  of  Music  and 
Musicians,  iii.  763  «). 

The  following  is  an  attempt  at  a  complete 
list  of  Sullivan's  compositions  : 

Oratorios  and  Cantatas. — 4Kenilworth' 
(H.  F.  Chorley),  Birmingham  festival, 
8  Sept.  1864 ;  '  The  Prodigal  Son,'  Worcester 
festival,  8  Sept.  1869;  'On  Shore  and  Sea' 


Sullivan 


373 


Sullivan 


(Tom  Taylor),  composed  for  the  opening  of 
the  Royal  Albert  Hall,  Kensington,  1  May 
1871 ;  Festival  '  Te  Deum,'  Crystal  Palace, 
1  May  1872,  to  commemorate  the  recovery 
of  King  Edward  VII,  then  prince  of  Wales ; 
'The  Light  of  the  World,'  oratorio,  Bir- 
mingham festival,  27  Aug.  1873 ;  '  The 
Martyr  of  Antioch '  (Dean  Milman),  Leeds 
festival,  16  Oct.  1880; '  The  Golden  Legend ' 
(Longfellow,  adapted  by  Joseph  Bennett), 
Leeds,  16  Oct.  1886  ;  Exhibition  ode  (Ten- 
nyson), opening  of  the  Colonial  exhibition, 
Royal  Albert  Hall,  4  May  1886 ;  Imperial 
Institute  ode  (Lewis  Morris),  composed  for 
the  laying  of  the  foundation-stone  by  Queen 
Victoria,  4  July  1887 ;  Imperial  March,  open- 
ing of  the  Imperial  Institute  by  Queen  Vic- 
toria, 10  May  1893. 

Operas  and  Plays.—'  Cox  and  Box '  (F.  C. 
Burnand),  Adelphi  Theatre,  first  public  per- 
formance 11  May  1867;  'The  Contrabandists ' 
(F.  C.  Burnand),  St.  George's  Hall,  18  Dec. 
1867 ;  '  Thespis,  or  the  Gods  grown  old,' 
Gaiety  Theatre,  26  Dec.  1871 ;  '  Trial  by 
Jury,'  new  Royalty  Theatre,  25  March  1875 ; 
'  The  Zoo :  an  original  musical  folly ' 
(B.  C.  Stephenson,  who  wrote  the  libretto 
under  the  pseudonym  W.  M.  Bolton  Rowe), 
St.  James's  Theatre,  5  June  1875;  'The 
Sorcerer,'  Opera  Comique,  17  Nov.  1877  ; 
'  H.M.S.  Pinafore,'  the  same,  25  May  1878 ; 
'Pirates  of  Penzance,'  3  April  1880; 
'  Patience,' the  same,  23  April  1881.  The 
following  were  produced  at  the  Savoy 
Theatre :  '  lolanthe,'  25  Nov.  1882 ;  '  Prin- 
cess Ida,'  5  Jan.  1884;  'The  Mikado,' 
14  March  1885 ;  '  Ruddigore,'  22  Jan.  1887  ; 
'  The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard,'  3  Oct.  1888 ; 
'  The  Gondoliers,'  7  Dec.  1889  ;  '  Haddon 
Hall'  (Sydney  Grundy),  24  Sept.  1892; 
'  Utopia  (Limited),'  7  Oct.  1893  ;  '  The  Chief- 
tain,' enlarged  version  of  '  Contrabandista ' 
(F.  C.  Burnand),  12  Dec.  1894 ;  '  The  Grand 
Duke,'  7  March  1896  ;  '  The  Beauty  Stone  ' 
(A.  W.  Pinero  and  Comyns  Carr),  28  May 
1898 ;  '  The  Rose  of  Persia,'  29  Nov.  1899 ; 
'  The  Emerald  Isle '  (Basil  Hood),  an  un- 
finished opera,  but  completed  by  Edward 
German,  and  produced  at  the  Savoy  Theatre, 
27  April  1901  (unless  otherwise  stated,  all 
the  foregoing  are  settings  of  librettos  by 
W.  S.  Gilbert)  ;  grand  opera,  '  Ivanhoe ' 
(Julian  Sturgis),  produced  at  the  Royal 
English  Opera  House,  31  Jan.  1891. 

Incidental  Music  to  Plays. — '  The  Tem- 
pest' (op.  1),  Crystal  Palace,  5  April  1862  ; 
'  Merchant  of  Venice,'  Prince's  Theatre, 
Manchester,  19  Sept.  1871 ;  '  Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor,'  Gaiety  Theatre,  19  Dec.  1874; 
'  Henry  VIII,'  Theatre  Royal,  Manchester, 
29  Aug.  1877  ;  '  Macbeth,'  Lyceum  Theatre, 


29  Dec.  1888;  'The  Foresters,'  by  Tenny- 
son, Daly's  Theatre,  New  York,  25  March 
1892;    'King  Arthur,'    Lyceum    Theatre, 
12  Jan.  1895. 

Orchestral  Compositions.  —  Procession 
March,  composed  in  celebration  of  the  mar- 
riage of  King  Edward  VII,  then  prince  of 
Wales,  and  performed  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
on  14  March  1863 ;  Symphony  in  E,  Crystal 
Palace,  10  March  1866.  Overtures :  '  In  Me- 
moriam'  (of  his  father),  Norwich  festival, 

30  Oct.    1886;    'Marmion,'    Philharmonic 
Society,  3  June  1867 ;    '  Di    Ballo,'   Bir- 
mingham festival,  31  Aug.  1870 ;  Concertino 
for  violoncello  and  orchestra,  Crystal  Palace 
(Piatti    soloist),  24  Nov.    1866.     Ballets: 
'  L'He  Enchantee,'  Covent  Garden  Theatre, 
16  May  1864  ;  '  Victoria  and  Merrie  Eng- 
land'  (ballet),  Alhambra,  25  May  1897. 

Pianoforte  Compositions. — Reverie  in  A, 
Melody  in  D  (originally  published  as 
'  Thoughts'),  1862  ;  '  Day  Dreams,'  six  pieces, 
1867  ;  and  '  Twilight,'  1868. 

Violoncello  Compositions. — Concerto  in  D 
(composed  expressly  for  Signer  Piatti),  1866 ; 
and  Duo  concertante  for  pianoforte  and  vio- 
loncello, 1868. 

Songs  and  Duets. — Nearly  one  hundred. 
Of  these  'The  Lost  Chord'  (a  setting  of 
Adelaide  Procter's  words)  has  attained  ex- 
traordinary popularity.  The  cycle  of  (eleven 
out  of  twelve)  songs  entitled  '  The  Window, 
or  the  Loves  of  the  Wrens,'  lyrics  by  Tenny- 
son, published  in  1871,  take  high  rank  in 
the  realm  of  the  art-song. 

Part-songs  (secular). — Ten.  The  settings 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  lines,  '  O  hush  thee, 
my  babie '  (for  mixed  voices),  first  performed 
by  Barnby's  choir,  St.  James's  Hall,  23  May 
1867,  and  '  The  long  day  closes '  (for  male 
voices),  words  by  H.  F.  Chorley,  are  the 
best  known. 

Sacred  Music. — Thirteen  anthems ;  Morn- 
ing Service  in  D :  part-songs,  arrangements 
of  tunes,  &c.  (a  complete  list  of  these 
appeared  in  the  Musical  Times,  January 
1901,  p.  24);  Hymn  tunes,  about  fifty,  of 
which  '  St.  Gertrude,'  a  setting  of  the  Rev. 
S.  Baring-Gould's  words,'  Onward,  Christian 
soldiers,'  was  composed  for  the  '  Hymnary,' 
1872,  but'  the  tune  first  appeared  in  the 
'  Musical  Times,'  December  1871.  A  prac- 
tically complete  'collection  of  his  hymn 
tunes  is  about  to  be  published  by  Messrs. 
Novello. 

Sullivan  edited  'Church  Hymns  with 
Tunes '  (1874),  and  Messrs.  Bopsey's  edition 
of  operas,  and  he  wrote  additional  accom- 
paniments to  Handel's  '  Jephtha '  for  the 
performance  of  that  work  at  the  Oratorio 
Concerts,  St.  James's  Hall,  5  Feb.  1869. 


Swanborough  374 


Symons 


[GroTe's  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musicians,  iii. 
761,  iv.  797  ;  Lawrence's  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan, 
Life-story,  Letters,  and  Eemini sconces,  1899 ; 
Willeby's  Masters  of  English  Music,  1893; 
James  D.  Brown  and  S.  S.  Stratton's  British 
Musical  Biography,  1897  ;  Fredk.  R.  Spark  and 
Joseph  Bennett's  History  of  the  Leeds  Musical 
Festival,  1892;  Musical  Times,  December  1900 
p.  785,  January  1901  p.  21,  February  1901  p.  99, 
March  1901  p.  167,  April  1901  p.  241 ;  Brit.  Mus. 
Cat.]  F.  G.  E. 

SWANBOROUGH,  MRS.  ARTHUR 
(1840-1893),  actress.  [See  BUFTON,  ELEA- 
NOK.] 

SWANWICK,  ANNA  (1813-1899), 
authoress,  youngest  daughter  of  John  Swan- 
wick  and  his  wife,  Hannah  Hilditch,  was 
born  at  Liverpool  on  22  June  1813.  The 
Swanwicks  were  descended  from  Philip 
Henry,  the  seventeenth-century  noncon- 
formist divine.  Anna  was  educated  chiefly 
at  home,  but,  wishing  to  carry  on  her  educa- 
tion beyond  the  age  usual  for  girls  in  this 
country  at  that  time,  she  went  in  1839  to 
Berlin,  where  she  studied  German  and  Greek, 
and  gained  a  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  She 
returned  to  England  in  1843  and  commenced 
translating  some  of  the  German  dramatists. 
Her  earliest  publication,  which  appeared  in 
1843,  was  '  Selections  from  the  Dramas  of 
Goethe  and  Schiller.'  They  included  Goethe's 
'  Torquato  Tasso  '  and  '  Iphigenia  in  Tauris,' 
and  Schiller's  '  Maid  of  Orleans.'  In  1850 
appeared  a  volume  of  translations  from  Goethe 
containing  the  first  part  of '  Faust,' '  Egmont,' 
and  the  two  plays  of  the  former  volume. 
The  translations  are  in  blank  verse.  In 
1878  she  published  the  second  part  of 
'  Faust' — the  two  parts  with  Re  tsch's  illustra- 
tions appeared  together  in  one  volume  the 
same  year.  Miss  Swanwick's  '  Faust'  passed 
through  many  editions  and  was  included  in 
Bohn's  series  of  translations  from  foreign 
classics.  Her  English  version  is  accurate  and 
spirited,  and  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
best  in  existence. 

About  1850  Bunsen  advised  her  to  try  her 
hand  at  translating  from  the  Greek,  with 
the  result  that  in  1865  she  published  a  blank- 
verse  translation  of  the  '  Trilogy '  of /Eschylus, 
and  in  1873  of  the  whole  of  his  dramas.  The 
choruses  are  in  rhymed  metres.  Her  trans- 
lation has  passed  through  many  editions  and 
ranks  high  among  English  versions.  It  keeps 
fairly  close  to  the  original. 

But  Miss  Swanwick  did  not  confine  her- 
self to  literary  work.  She  took  a  keen  in- 
terest in  many  social  questions  of  the  day, 
and  especially  in  that  of  women's  education, 
and  in  raising  the  moral  and  intellectual  tone 


of  the  working  classes.  She  was  a  member 
of  the  councils  both  of  Queen's  and  Bedford 
Colleges,  London,  and  was  for  some  time  pre- 
sident of  the  latter.  She  assisted  in  the 
founding  of  Girton  College,  Cambridge,  and 
Somerville  Hall,  Oxford,  and  in  extending 
the  King's  College  lectures  to  women.  To 
all  these  institutions  she  subscribed  liberally. 
She  was  associated  with  Anthony  John 
Mundella  [q.  v.  Suppl.]  and  Sir  Joshua 
Fitch  in  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the 
will  of  Mrs.  Emily  Pfeiffer  [q.  v,],  who  left 
in  1890  large  sums  of  money  for  the  pro- 
motion of  the  higher  education  of  women. 
She  strongly  advocated  the  study  of  Eng- 
lish literature  in  the  universities,  and  herself 
lectured  privately  on  the  subject  to  young 
working  men  and  women. 

Miss  Swanwick's  life  was  thus  divided 
between  literary  pursuits  and  active  philan- 
thropy. She  never  sought  publicity,  but  her 
example  and  influence  had  an  important  and 
invigorating  effect  on  women's  education 
and  on  their  position  in  the  community.  She 
signed  John  Stuart  Mill's  petition  to  parlia- 
ment in  1865  for  the  political  enfranchise- 
ment of  women.  The  university  of  Aberdeen 
conferred  on  her  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.  She  was  a  Unitarian  in  religion. 
Miss  Swanwick  was  the  centre  of  a  large 
circle  of  distinguished  friends,  who  included 
Crabb  Robinson,  Tennyson,  Browning,  Glad- 
stone, James  Martineau,  and  Sir  James 
Paget,  and  these,  with  many  others,  were 
frequent  visitors  at  her  house.  Her  mar- 
vellous memory  made  her  a  delightful  talker, 
and  she  was  full  of  anecdote  in  later  years 
about  the  eminent  persons  she  had  known. 

She  died  on  2  Nov.  1899  at  Tunbridge 
Wells,  and  was  buried  on  the  7th  in  High- 
gate  cemetery. 

Other  works  by  Miss  Swanwick  are: 
1.  'Books,  our  best  Friends  or  our  deadliest 
Foes,'  1886.  2.  'An  Utopian  Dream  and 
how  it  may  be  realised,'  1888.  3.  '  Poets,  the 
Interpreters  of  their  Age,'  1892.  4.  '  Evo- 
lution and  the  Religion  of  the  Future,' 
1894. 

[Times,  4  Nov.  1899  ;  private  information.] 

E.  L. 

SYMONS,  GEORGE  JAMES  (1838- 
1900),  meteorologist,  was  the  only  child  of 
Joseph  Symons  by  his  wife,  Georgina  Moon, 
and  was  born  at  "Queen's  Row,  Pimlico,  on 
6  Aug.  1838.  His  education,  begun  at  St. 
Peter's  collegiate  school,  Eaton  Square, 
was  completed  under  private  tuition  at 
Thornton  rectory,  Leicestershire.  He  sub- 
sequently passed  with  distinction  through 
the  course  at  the  school  of  mines,  Jermyn 


Symons 


375 


Symons 


Street.  From  boyhood  he  made  observations 
on  the  weather  with  instruments  of  his  own 
construction,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen 
became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Meteoro- 
logical Society.  From  1863  he  sat  on  the 
council,  acted  as  secretary  1873-9  and 
1882-99,  and  was  elected  president  in 
1880  and  again  in  1900.  In  1857  he  under- 
took, and  continued  to  discharge  until  his 
death,  the  duties  of  meteorological  reporter 
to  the  registrar-general,  and  was  appointed 
by  Admiral  Fitzroy  in  1860  to  a  post  in  the 
meteorological  department  of  the  board  of 
trade,  which  he  held  for  three  years.  He 
resigned  it  owing  to  the  growing  exigencies 
of  his  rainfall  observations.  The  first  of  a 
series  of  thirty-nine  annual  volumes  con- 
taining statistics  on  the  subject  was  pub- 
lished by  him  in  1860 ;  it  included  records 
from  168  stations  in  England  and  Wales. 
In  1898  the  number  of  stations  had  grown 
to  3,404,  of  which  436  were  in  Scotland  and 
186  in  Ireland,  and  they  were  manned  by  an 
army  of  over  three  thousand  volunteer  ob- 
servers. This  unique  organisation  was  kept 
by  Symons  under  close  personal  supervision, 
and  the  upshot  was  the  accumulation  of  a 
mass  of  data  of  standard  value,  unmatched 
in  any  other  country.  The  sanitary  import- 
ance of  water-supply  was  a  determining 
motive  for  its  collection. 

Symons  began,  in  1863,  the  issue  of  a 
monthly  rain-circular,  which  developed  in 
1866  into  the  'Monthly  Meteorological 
Magazine,'  still  in  course  of  publication.  He 
was  a  prominent  member  of  various  com- 
mittees appointed  by  the  British  Association, 
and  as  secretary  to  the  conference  on  light- 
ning rods  in  1878  shared  largely  in  the 
four  years'  task  of  compiling  its  report. 
Elected  in  1878  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  he  acted  as  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  the  eruption  of  Krakatoa  in  1883, 
and  edited  the  voluminous  report  published 
in  1888.  He  sat  on  the  council  of  the  Social 
Science  Association  in  1878,  and  on  the 
jury  of  the  Health  Exhibition  in  1884;  was 
registrar  to  the  Sanitary  Institute  from  1880 
to  1895,  and  drew  up  a  report  on  the  Essex 
earthquake  of  22  April  1884  for  the  Mansion 
House  committee.  In  1876  he  received  the 
Telford  premium  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers  for  a  paper  on  '  Floods  and  Water 
Economy,'  and  in  1897  the  Albert  medal  of 
the  Society  of  Arts  for  the  '  services  ren- 
dered to  the  United  Kingdom '  by  his  rain- 
fall observations. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Scottish  and 
Australasian  Meteorological  Societies,  of  the 
Royal  Botanical  Society,  and  of  many  foreign 
learned  associations.  Twice  elected  to  the 


council  of  the  Societe  Met6orologique  de 
France,  he  frequently  attended  its  meetings 
at  Paris,  and  was  made,  in  1891,  a  chevalier 
of  the  legion  of  honour. 

Struck  with  paralysis  on  14  Feb.,  he  died 
on  10  March  1900,  and  was  buried  in  Kensal 
Green  cemetery.  He  married  in  1866  Eliza- 
beth Luke,  who  shared  his  labours  until 
her  death  in  1884.  Their  only  child  died  in 
infancy. 

His  work  on  rainfall  is  being  continued 
by  Mr.  H.  Sowerby  Wallis,  his  coadjutor 
during  thirty  years.  A  paper  on  'The 
Wiltshire  Whirlwind  of  October  1,  1889,' 
prepared  by  him  a  few  days  before  his  last 
illness,  was  read  to  the  Royal  Meteorological 
Society  on  16  May  1900.  A  gold  medal  in 
his  memory  was  founded  by  the  same  body, 
to  be  awarded  for  services  to  meteorological 
science.  The  record  of  weather  kept  by 
Symons  at  his  house  in  Camden  Square  was 
maintained  unbroken  for  forty-two  years. 
Throughout  his  life  he  made  many  friends  and 
incurred  no  enmity.  His  library  contained 
ten  thousand  volumes  and  pamphlets.  Besides 
essays  and  reports,  he  wrote:  1.  'Rain: 
how,  when,  where,  why  it  is  measured,' 
London,  1867.  2.  '  Pocket  Altitude  Tables,' 
London,  1876,  &c.,  three  editions.  3.  '  The 
Floating  Island  in  Derwentwater,'  London, 
1889.  4.  '  Merle's  MS.  Consideraciones 
Temperiei  pro  7  Annis  1337-1344,'  repro- 
duced under  his  supervision,  London,  1891 
[see  MERLE,  WILLIAM],  5.  '  Theophrastus 
on  Winds  and  Weather  Signs,'  edited  from 
John  George  Wood's  translation,  London, 
1894.  Mr.  Benjamin  Daydon  Jackson's '  Ve- 
getable Technology,'  London,  1882,  was  based 
upon  a  catalogue  of  works  on  applied  botany 
published  by  Symons  in  the  '  Colonies  and 
India'  for  13  Sept.  1879.  A  report  drawn  up 
by  him  in  1861  on  the  anemometry  of  Ber- 
muda appeared  in  the  eighth  number  of  the 
meteorological  papers  issued  by  the  board 
of  trade. 

[Symons's  British  Kainfall  for  1899,  com- 
piled by  H.  Sowerby  "Wallis,  p.  14  (with  por- 
trait) ;  Times,  13  March  1900 ;  Nature,  15  March 
1900:  Observatory,  xxiii.  173  (W.  C.  Nash).] 

A.  M.  C. 

SYMONS,  SIE  WILLIAM  PENN  (1843- 
1899),  major-general,  born  on  17  July  1843, 
was  eldest  son  of  William  Symons  of  Hatt, 
Cornwall,  by  Caroline  Anne  Southwell, 
daughter  of  William  Courtis  of  Plymouth. 
His  father  was  recorder  of  Saltash,  and  was 
a  descendant  of  Simon,  lord  of  Saint-Sever, 
who  came  to  England  with  William  I.  He 
was  educated  privately,  and  was  commis- 
sioned as  ensign  in  the  24th  foot  on  6  March 
1863.  He  became  lieutenant  on  30  Oct. 


Symons 


376 


Symons 


1866,  and  captain  on  16  Feb.  1878.  He 
served  with  the  second  battalion  of  his  regi- 
ment in  the  operations  against  Sandile  in 
Kaifraria  in  1878,  and  in  the  Zulu  war  of 
1879,  receiving  the  medal  with  clasp.  Owing 
to  the  destruction  of  the  first  battalion  at 
Isandhlwana,  he  obtained  his  majority  on 
1  July  1881.  He  went  to  India  with  his 
battalion  in  1880,  and  on  30  Sept.  1882  was 
appointed  assistant  adjutant-general  for  mus- 
ketry in  Madras.  He  served  on  the  staft'  in 
the  expedition  to  Burma  in  1885,  and  after- 
wards organised  a  force  of  mounted  infantry 
which  won  special  praise  from  Lord  Roberts 
(Forty-one  Years  in  India,  p.  518).  In  1889 
he  commanded  the  Burma  column  in  the 
Chin-Lushai  expedition,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  the  Indian  government.  He  was 
repeatedly  mentioned  in  despatches  (London 
Gazette,  22  June  1886, 2  Sept.  1887, 15  Nov. 
1889,  12  Sept.  1890),  and  was  given  the 
brevet  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  (17  May 
1886)  and  of  colonel  (1  July  1887),  the  C.B. 
(14  Nov.  1890),  and  the  Indian  medal  of 
1894  with  two  clasps. 

On  31  Jan.  1891  he  was  promoted  regi- 
mental lieutenant-colonel,  and  commanded 
the  second  battalion  of  the  South  Wales 
borderers  (late  24th)  till  8  April  1893,  when 
he  became,  by  Lord  Roberts  s  selection,  as- 
sistant adjutant-general  for  musketry  in 
Bengal.  An  excellent  shot  and  a  skilful 
swordsman  himself,  he  did  his  best  to  raise 
the  standard  of  shooting  in  the  army.  On 
25  March  1895  he  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand a  second-class  district  in  the  Punjab 
as  brigadier-general.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  in  the  Waziristan  expedition  of 
1894-6  (ib.  2  July  1895),  and  received  the 
clasp.  In  1898  he  commanded  a  brigade  in 
the  Tochi  field  force,  and  afterwards  the  first 
division  in  the  Tirah  expedition  (ib.  11  Feb. 
and  5  April  1898).  He  was  made  K.C.B. 
on  20  May  1898,  and  received  the  Indian 
medal  of  1895  with  two  clasps. 

On  15  May  1899  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  troops  in  Natal,  then  num- 
bering about  five  thousand  men.  War  with 
the  Transvaal  Republic  was  already  in  pro- 
spect, and  in  July  Symons  informed  the 
governor  that  an  increase  of  sixteen  hundred 
men  was  required  to  defend  the  colony 
against  raids,  and  of  5,600  men  to  defend  it 


against  an  invasion.  In  the  autumn  rein- 
forcements larger  than  he  had  asked  for 
came  from  India  and  the  Mediterranean,  and 
on  20  Sept.  Symons  was  given  the  temporary 
rank  of  major-general.  To  meet  the  wish 
of  the  civil  government  of  Natal,  he  divided 
his  troops  between  Ladysmith  and  Dundee, 
On  3  Oct.  Sir  George  White  arrived  and 
assumed  the  chief  command  in  Natal.  War 
was  declared  by  the  Transvaal  and  the 
Orange  Free  State  Republics  on  10  Oct.  The 
troops  were  organised  as  the  fourth  division 
of  the  South  Africa  field  force,  under  Symonsf 
who  was  made  temporary  lieutenant-general 
on  9  Oct.  He  was  sent  to  Dundee,  where 
four  battalions,  three  batteries,  and  one 
cavalry  regiment  were  encamped.  There- 
he  was  attacked  on  20  Oct.  by  about  four 
thousand  Boers  with  six  guns  under  Lucas 
Meyer.  These  had  come  from  the  east, 
while  two  other  bodies  were  approaching^ 
from  the  north  and  west,  blocking  the  rail- 
way from  Ladysmith.  The  guns  of  Meyer's 
force  opened  fire  on  the  camp  at  daybreak 
from  Talana  hill,  three  miles  to  the  east  of 
it.  Symons  led  out  his  troops  and  assailed 
this  hill  with  three  battalions.  By  1.30  P.M. 
it  was  most  gallantly  stormed,  but  Symons 
was  mortally  wounded  by  a  bullet  in  the 
stomach  in  the  course  of  the  advance.  Two- 
days  afterwards  the  British  force  retired  on 
Ladysmith,  but  Symons, with  otherwounded 
men,  had  to  be  left  at  Dundee,  and  he  died 
there  on  the  23rd.  He  was  buried  on  the 
24th  in  the  church  of  England  burial-ground, 
with  marks  of  respect  from  the  Boers.  The 
'  London  Gazette'  of  that  day  notified  his 
promotion  to  major-general  for  distinguished 
service  in  the  field.  Sir  George  White  de- 
scribed him  as  '  an  officer  of  high  ability  and 
a  leader  of  exceptional  valour.'  A  memorial 
window  in  Botusfleming  Church,  near  Salt- 
ash,  Cornwall,  was  unveiled  in  October 
1900. 

On  13  Feb.  1877  he  married  Caroline, 
only  daughter  of  Thomas  Pinfold  Hawkins 
of  Edgbaston ;  she  survived  him. 

[Burke's  Landed  Gentry;  Historical  Kecords 
of  the  24th  Eegiment  (of  which  Symons  was  one- 
of  the  editors);  Hutchinson's  Campaign  in  Tirah; 
Parliamentary  Papers,  Cd.  44,  correspondence- 
relative  to  the  defence  of  Natal;  Standard, 
27  Oct.  1899.]  E.  M.  L. 


Tait 


377 


Tait 


T 


TAIT,  ROBERT  LAWSON  (1846-1899), 
surgeon,  born  at  45  Frederick  Street,  Edin- 
burgh, on  1  May  1845,  was  son  of  Archibald 
Campbell  Tait  of  Dryden,  then  a  guild  brother 
of  Heriot's  Hospital,  and  Isabella  Stewart 
Lawson  of  Leven.  From  the  age  of  seven 
LawsonTait  was  educated  at  Heriot's  Hospi- 
tal school.  He  became  a  student  of  medicine 
at  the  university  of  Edinburgh  and  in  the 
extramural  school,  where  he  worked  under 
the  immediate  superintendence  of  Alexander 
McKenzie  Edwards,  the  favourite  pupil  of 
Sir  William  Fergusson  [q.  v.]  In  1866  he 
was  admitted  a  licentiate  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians  and  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  Edinburgh,  and  he  acted  for  a 
time  as  assistant  to  Sir  Henry  Littlejohn  and 
Sir  James  Young  Simpson  [q.  v.]  He  was 
also  profoundly  influenced  by  the  example  of 
James  Syme  [q.  v.],  whose  habits  of  cleanli- 
ness in  his  surgical  work  were  in  contrast 
with  the  methods  and  results  of  most  of  his 
contemporaries.  During  this  time  he  gave 
particular  attention  to  biology  and  histology. 

Tait  was  appointed  house-surgeon  to  the 
Wakefield  Hospital  in  1867,  a  post  he  held 
for  three  years,  and  it  was  here  that  he  per- 
formed his  first  ovariotomy  on  29  July  1868, 
in  the  earlier  months  of  his  twenty-fourth 
year.  He  performed  a  similar  operation  on 
five  occasions  before  he  removed  to  Birming- 
ham in  1870  ;  but  this  experience  does  not 
seem  to  have  directed  his  attention  to  the 
work  of  his  life,  for  in  September  1870  he 
took  the  practice  of  Mr.  Thomas  Partridge 
and  settled  in  Birmingham  at  the  corner  of 
Burbury  Street,  Lozell's  Road.  He  was  ad- 
mitted a  member  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  England  on  25  Jan.  1870,  and 
later  in  the  same  year  he  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of 
Edinburgh.  In  Birmingham  he  soon  made  a 
name  for  himself  as  a  bold  surgeon,  an  aggres- 
sive enemy,  and  an  original  thinker.  He  was 
a  lecturer  on  physiology  at  the  Midland  In- 
stitute from  1871  to  1879,  where  his  teaching 
of  the  Darwinian  theory  of  evolution  excited 
from  time  to  time  much  public  opposition. 
He  was  elected,  after  examination,  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England 
on  8  June  1871,  and  in  the  following  month 
he  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  newly 
founded  Hospital  for  Diseases  of  Women,  a 
post  he  held  until  1893,  when  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  consulting  staff.  In  1873 
lie  was  awarded  the  Hastings  gold  medal  of 


the  British  Medical  Association  for  his  essay 
on  '  Diseases  of  the  Ovaries,'  and  in  1890  he 
received  the  Cullen  and  Liston  triennial 
prize  at  Edinburgh  for  his  services  to  medi- 
cine, especially  in  connection  with  his  work 
on  the  gall-bladder.  This  prize,  which  was 
afterwards  exhibited  in  the  art  gallery  at 
Birmingham,  consisted  of  a  silver  bowl  of 
seventeenth-century  London  workmanship. 
In  1872  he  performed  two  operations  of  his- 
toric importance,  for  on  2  Feb.  he  removed  an 
ovary  for  suppurative  disease,  and  on  1  Aug. 
he  extirpated  the  uterine  appendages  to 
arrest  the  growth  of  a  bleeding  myoma.  In 
1873  he  performed  his  first  hysterectomy  for 
myoma  of  the  uterus,  following  with  but 
slight  modification  the  technique  of  Koeberle, 
and  in  June  1876  he  removed  a  naematosalpinx, 
and  thus  made  the  profession  familiar  with 
the  pathology  of  this  condition.  In  1878 
Tait  began  to  express  doubts  as  to  the  value 
of  the  Listerian  precautions  then  adopted  by 
most  operating  surgeons,  and  thus  became  a 
leader  in  the  school  of  '  aseptic '  as  opposed 
to  '  antiseptic '  surgery.  In  1879  he  did  his 
first  cholecystotomy,  an  operation  which 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  rational  surgery 
of  the  gall  tract.  On  17  Jan.  1883  he  first 
performed  the  operation  for  ruptured  tubal 
pregnancy  and  saved  the  patient.  A  series 
of  thirty-five  cases  with  but  two  deaths 
speedily  followed,  and  the  operation  took  its  • 
place  as  a  recognised  method  of  treating  a 
desperate  condition. 

In  1874  Lawson  Tait  was  instrumental  in 
organising  the  Birmingham  Medical  Institute, 
of  which  he  was  an  original  member,  and  in 
1887  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
British  Gynaecological  Society,  serving  as 
its  president  in  1885.  In  1887  he  became 
professor  of  gynaecology  at  Queen's  College, 
and  in  1890  he  was  bailiff  of  the  Mason 
College.  He  was  instrumental  in  1892  in 
causing  the  medical  school  of  Queen's  Col- 
lege to  be  transferred  to  Mason  College,  and 
thus  smoothed  the  way  for  the  foundation  of 
the  university  of  Birmingham. 

Tait  performed  many  of  the  duties  of  a 
citizen  m  Birmingham.  Elected  a  member 
of  the  city  council  in  1866  as  a  representa- 
tive of  the  Bordesley  division,  he  became 
chairman  of  the  health  committee  and  a 
member  of  the  asylums  committee.  He 
contested  the  Bordesley  division  of  the  city 
in  the  Gladstonian  interest  in  1886,  but  was 
easily  defeated  by  Mr.  Jesse  Ceilings. 


Tait 


378 


Tate 


In  the  British  Medical  Association  Tait 
was  a  member  of  the  council,  president  of  the 
Birmingham  branch  and  also  of  the  Worcester- 
shire and  Herefordshire  branch,  and  in  1890 
he  delivered  the  address  on  surgery  when 
the  association  held  its  annual  meeting  in 
Birmingham.  He  was  president  of  the 
Medical  Defence  Union  and  raised  the 
society  to  a  position  of  considerable  import- 
ance. In  1876  he  was  president  of  the  Bir- 
mingham Natural  History  Society,and  in  1884 
he  was  president  of  the  Birmingham  Philo- 
sophical Society.  He  was  also  professor  of 
anatomy  at  the  Royal  Society  of  Artists  and 
Birmingham  School  of  Design.  He  was  too 
a  founder  of  the  Midland  Union  of  Natural 
History  Societies,  and  was  largely  concerned 
in  the  establishment  of  coffee-houses  in 
Birmingham. 

The  university  of  the  State  of  New  York 
conferred  on  him,  honoris  causa,  the  degree 
of  M.D.  in  1886,  and  in  1889  he  received  a 
similar  tribute  from  the  St.  Louis  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  while  in  1888  the 
Union  University  of  New  York  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  an  honorary  fellow  of  the 
American  Gynaecological  Society  and  of  the 
American  Association  of  Obstetricians  and 
Gynaecologists. 

The  last  five  years  of  Tait's  life  were  marked 
by  almost  continuous  ill-health,  which  caused 
him  to  relinquish  much  of  his  operative  work 
for  the  repose  of  Llandudno,  where  he  pur- 
chased a  house.  Here  he  died  of  uraemia  on 
13  June  1899.  His  body  was  cremated  at 
Liverpool,  the  ashes  being  afterwards  interred 
in  Gogarth's  cave,  an  ancient  burial-place  in 
the  grounds  of  his  Welsh  home.  He  mar- 
ried, in  1871,  Sybil  Anne,  a  daughter  of  Wil- 
liam Stewart,  solicitor  of  Wakefield,  York- 
shire, but  he  had  no  children. 

Lawson  Tait  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  the  press,  lay  as  well  as  medical.  He  had 
a  sound  antiquarian  knowledge  ;  he  was  an 
excellent  companion,  a  good  raconteur,  and  an 
admirable  public  speaker.  He  enjoyed  being 
in  a  minority,  and  this  led  him  to  champion 
many  lost  causes.  As  a  surgeon  he  simplified 
and  perfected  the  technique  and  greatly  en- 
larged the  scope  of  abdominal  surgery.  The 
pioneers  in  this  department  of  surgery  had 
almost  limited  themselves  to  the  diseases  of 
the  ovaries  and  uterus ;  but  Tait's  consum- 
mate operative  skill,  coupled  with  his  power 
of  generalisation,  enabled  him  to  extend  the 
range  of  uterine  surgery  and  to  apply  its 
principles,  until  now  nearly  every  abdominal 
organ  can  be  successfully  explored  and 
treated  by  the  surgeon. 

He  published :    1.  '  The  Pathology  and 


Treatment  of  Diseases  of  the  Ovaries '  (the 
Hastings  prize  essay,  1873),  1874  ;  4th  edit. 
1882.  2.  '  An  Essay  on  Hospital  Mortality, 
based  on  the  Statistics  of  the  Hospitals  of 
Great  Britain  for  Fifteen  Years,'  London, 
1877,  8vo.  3.  'Diseases  of  Women,' London, 
1877,  8vo ;  2nd  edit.  1886.  An  American 
edition  was  published  in  New  York  in  1879 
and  at  Philadelphia  in  1889,  and  the  work 
was  translated  into  French  by  Dr.  Olivier  in 
1886  and  by  Dr.  Betrix  in  1891.  4.  'The 
Uselessness  of  Vivisection  upon  Animals  as 
a  Method  of  Scientific  Research,'  Birming- 
ham, 1882,  8vo  ;  reissued  in  America  in  1883, 
and  translated  into  German,  Dresden,  1883, 
8vo.  5.  '  Lectures  on  Ectopic  Pregnancy 
and  Pelvic  Haematocele,'  Birmingham,  1888, 
8vo. 

[Lancet  and  British  Medical  Journal,  vol.  i. 
1899;  The  Journal  of  the  American  Medical 
Association,  vol.  xviii.  1892  and  xxxii.  875, 
1 899 ;  Contemporary  Medical  Men,  edited  by 
John  Leyland,  vol.  ii.  1888;  private  informa- 
tion.] D'A.  P. 

TATE,  SIB  HENRY  (1819-1899),  first 
baronet,  public  benefactor,  eldest  son  of 
William  Tate  of  Chorley,  Lancashire,  by 
Agnes,  daughter  of  Nathaniel  Booth  of 
Gildersoine,  Yorkshire,  was  born  at  Chorley 
on  11  March  1819.  Having  started  life  as 
a  grocer's  assistant,  he  entered  the  firm  of 
a  large  sugar-refiner  in  Liverpool,  and  soon 
rose  to  a  position  of  responsibility.  In  1872 
an  invention  was  brought  to  him  which 
removed  one  of  the  great  difficulties  of  the 
retail  sugar  trade.  By  au  exceedingly  simple 
process  the  invention  cut  up  sugar-loaves 
into  small  pieces  for  domestic  use.  Tate  at 
once  recognised  the  usefulness  of  the  inven- 
tion, patented  it,  and  laid  the  foundations 
of  his  fortune.  In  1880  he  migrated  to 
London,  very  soon  took  a  leading  position 
in  the  Mincing  Lane  market,  and  developed 
his  business  until  it  assumed  gigantic  pro- 
portions and  until  '  Tate's  cube  sugar '  be- 
came known  all  over  the  world.  Tate's  local 
benefactions  kept  pace  with  his  fortune. 
He  gave  no  less  than  42,000/.  to  the  newly 
founded  University  College  of  Liverpool 
(1881-2),  and  even  larger  sums  to  the  various 
Liverpool  hospitals,  in  addition  to  a  large 
number  of  anonymous  donations  both  to  in- 
dividuals and  to  charities.  On  becoming  a 
resident  at  Streatham  Common  his  bounty 
was  extended  to  South  London,  where,  among 
other  donations, he  gave  (at  a  cost  of  16,700Z.) 
a  handsome  free  library  to  Brixton,  opened 
by  King  Edward  VII,  then  prince  of  Wales, 
on  3  March  1893. 

But  Tate  is  remembered  primarily  for  his 
munificent  patronage  of  British  art.  He 


Tate 


379 


Thomas 


built    a    spacious    gallery    at    Park    Hill, 
Streatham,  and   adorned  it  with  the  best  • 
works  by  contemporary  masters,  conspicu- 
ously with  the  finest  works  of  Millais,  such 
as   '  Ophelia,'    '  The   North- West  Passage,' 
and  '  The  Vale  of  Rest.'     Every  year,  just  j 
before   the   opening  of   the  academy  exhi- 
bition, he  gave  a  dinner  of  the  proportions 
of  a  banquet  to  the  leading  artists  at  his 
house.     About  1890  he  formed  the  design 
of  presenting  his  collection  of  modern  pic- 
tures to  the   National   Gallery.     Scruples 
having  been  raised  as  to  the  acceptance  of 
such  a  collection  en  bloc,  Tate  approached 
the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  (Mr.  Goschen) 
with  an  offer  to  erect  a  gallery  of  British 
art,  and  to  present   the    nation  with  the 
bulk  of  his  pictures  as  a  nucleus  for  a  per- 
manent exhibition  of  modern  British  paint- 
ings,  provided   only   that  the   government 
would   find   the   site   for  such   a   building. 
Mr.  Goschen  accepted  the  offer,  and  made 
overtures,  which  were  rejected  by  the  City 
corporation,  for  acquiring  a  site  upon  the 
Blackfriars  Embankment,  after  which  but 
little  energy  was  displayed  in  the  discovery 
of  a  site  until  in  1893  Sir   William  Har- 
court  offered  the  ground  upon  which  stood 
Millbank  Prison,  then  about  to  be  demo- 
lished.    He  also  promised  to  maintain  the 
gallery,  and  to  place  the  foundation  in  the 
hands  of  the  trustees  of  the  National  Gal- 
lery.    The    offer  was   gladly   accepted    by 
Tate.     The  gallery,  reared  at  his  expense, 
and  designed  by  Mr.  Sidney  R.  J.  Smith  in 
'  a  free    classic   style '    with    a    handsome 
Corinthian  portico,  was  opened  by  King  Ed- 
ward  VII   and    Queen    Alexandra    (then 
prince  and  princess  of  Wales)  on  21  July 
1897,  Sir  W.  Harcourt  and  Mr.  Arthur  Bal- 
four  being  present  and  making  speeches,  to 
which  Tate  replied.     In  the  seven  galleries 
that  formed  the  original  building  were  housed 
sixty-five  pictures    from   Tate's  collection, 
sixty-four  pictures  purchased  under  the  be- 
quest of  Sir  Francis  Legatt  Chantrey  [q.v.], 
eighteen  pictures  presented  by  Mr.  George 
Frederick  Watts,  R.A.,  and  ninety-eight  pic- 
tures from  the  modern  portion  of  the  National 
Gallery.     The  building  was  styled  the  Na- 
tional Gallery  of  British  Art,  but  familiarly 
known  as  '  The  Tate  Gallery.'    Predictions 
made  as  to  the  dampness  of  the  site  have 
happily  proved  unfounded ;  the  building  is 
light,  the  internal  arrangements  admirable 
in  every  way,  and  all  that  remains  to  be 
done  is  for  the  situation  to  be  made  more 
accessible.     Tate  was  made  a  trustee  of  the 
National  Gallery  at  the  end  of  1897,  and 
was  created  a  baronet  on  27  June  1898.     In 
the  same  year  Sir  Henry  commenced  the 


extension  of  the  building,  which  he  had  pro- 
mised to  undertake  in  his  speech  at  the 
opening  of  the  gallery.  The  additions  were 
completed  on  27  Nov.  1899,  when  the  accom- 
modation was  nearly  doubled,  and  the  value 
of  Tate's  gift  to  the  nation  raised  to  not  far 
short  of  half  a  million.  At  the  present  time 
(December  1900)  the  gallery  contains  344 
paintings  and  drawings,  in  addition  to 
twenty-seven  pieces  of  sculpture,  for  which 
a  very  handsome  gallery  was  provided  in  the 
new  buildings.  A  seventh  edition  of  the 
'Catalogue'  was  issued  by  the  keeper  in  Oc- 
tober 1900-  Several  fine  pictures  were  added 
to  the  collection  by  Tate  as  a  supplement  to 
the  original  '  Tate  gift,' and  '  The  Childhood 
of  Raleigh,'  by  M  illais,  was  presented  by  Lady 
Tate  shortly  after  his  death,  which  took  place 
at  Streatham  Hill  after  a  long  illness  on  5  Dec. 
1899.  He  married,  first,  on  1  March  1841, 
Jane,  daughter  of  John  Wignall,  by  whom 
he  had,  with  other  issue,  Sir  William  Henry 
Tate  (b.  23  Jan.  1842),  the  present  baronet; 
secondly,  on  8  Oct.  1885,  Amy  Fanny,  only 
daughter  of  Charles  Hislop  of  Brixton  Hill, 
who  survives  him. 

A  speaking  likeness  of  Sir  Henry  Tate  is 
in  the  gallery  which  the  nation  owes  to  his 
munificence.  It  is  a  bronze  bust  by  Mr. 
Thomas  Brock,  presented  to  the  gallery  by 
Sir  William  Agnew,  Sir  Edward  Poynter, 
and  other  admirers  in  recognition  of  Tate's 
great  service  to  British  art.  A  photographic 
likeness  forms  the  frontispiece  to '  The  Year's 
Art,'  1898.  An  oil  portrait  by  Mr.  Hubert 
Herkomer,  in  the  possession  of  Lady  Tate, 
has  been  engraved  in  mezzotint ;  the  original 
is  destined  eventually  to  be  placed  in  the 
Tate  Gallery.  A  bust  is  in  the  library  of 
the  University  College,  Liverpool,  which 
was  built  at  his  expense. 

[Times,  21  July  1897,  28  Nov.  1899,  6  Dec. 
1899;  Athenaeum,  9  Dec.  1899;  Ann.  Reg. 
1899  [183] ;  Magazine  of  Art,  November  1893. 
December  1«97,  January  1900;  Tate  Gallery 
Illustrated  Catalogue,  1897  ;  Saturday  Review, 
9  Dec.  1899 ;  Illustrated  London  News.  9  Dec. 
1899  (portrait).]  T.  S. 

THOMAS,  WILLIAM  LUSON  (1830- 
1900),  founder  of  the  '  Graphic  '  and  '  Daily 
Graphic,'  the  son  of  a  London  shipbroker, 
William  Thomas,  by  his  wife,  Alicia  Hayes, 
was  born  on  4  Dec.  1830,  and  was  educated 
at  Fulham.  On  leaving  school  he  joined  his 
elder  brother,  George  Housman  Thomas 
(1824-1868)  [q.v.],  who  was  practising  at 
Paris  as  an  engraver  on  wood.  In  1846  the 
two  brothers,  accompanied  by  Mr.  H.  Harri- 
son, the  brother-in-law  and  partner  of  the 
elder,  went  to  America  to  take  part  in  the 


Thomas 


38o 


Thompson 


promotion  of  two  illustrated  journals,  'The 
Republic'  and  ' The  Picture  Gallery.'  Both 
enterprises  failed,  the  health  of  George 
Thomas  broke  down,  and  the  brothers  re- 
turned to  Europe.  They  spent  two  years  at 
Rome,  and  William  Thomas  then  joined  the 
wood-engraver  William  James  Linton  [q.  v. 
Suppl.]  as  an  assistant.  He  soon  started  an 
engraving  establishment  of  his  own  with  a 
large  staff,  employed  in  illustrating  books 
('The  Pilgrim's  Progress,'  1857;  Hans 
Andersen's  '  Tales  for  Children,'  1861  ; 
'  Gulliver's  Travels,'  1864,  &c.)  On  12  July 
1855  Thomas  married  Annie,  daughter  of  the 
marine  painter  John  Wilson  Carmichael 
(1800-1868)  [q.  v.]  He  was  himself  a 
painter  in  water-colours,  and  an  exhibitor 
from  1860  at  the  Suffolk  Street  Gallery; 
and  though  he  could  only  devote  his  leisure 
to  this  branch  of  art,  he  distinguished  him- 
self sufficiently  to  be  elected  on  7  Nov.  1864 
an  associate,  and  on  3  May  1875  a  full  mem- 
ber, of  the  Institute  of  Painters  in  Water- 
colours.  He  took  a  keen  interest  in  that 
society,  and  was  largely  instrumental  in 
raising  the  capital  which  enabled  it  to  move 
from  Pall  Mall  to  its  new  quarters  in  Picca- 
dilly, and  in  procuring  in  1884  the  addition 
of  the  prefix  'royal'  to  its  title.  His  scheme 
for  amalgamating  the  institute  with  the 
Royal  Water-colour  Society  was  unsuccess- 
ful. A  collection  of  Thomas's  own  work  was 
exhibited  in  1882  under  the  title  '  Ten  Years' 
Holiday  in  Switzerland.' 

As  an  engraver  Thomas  had  done  much 
work  for  '  The  Illustrated  London  News.' 
The  experience  thus  gained  enabled  him  to 
form  and  carry  out  a  scheme  for  the  founda- 
tion of  the  rival  journal  with  which  his 
name  is  most  closely  identified.  He  raised 
the  necessary  capital  with  the  aid  of  an  elder 
brother,  a  Brazilian  merchant,  and  other 
friends,  and  the  first  number  of  the  '  Gra- 
phic '  appeared  on  4  Dec.  1869.  '  It  was  a 
bold  idea,'  he  wrote  himself  (  Universal  Re- 
view, 15  Sept.  1888),  '  to  attempt  a  new 
journal  at  the  price  of  sixpence  a  copy  in 
the  face  of  the  most  successful  and  firmly 
established  illustrated  paper  in  the  world, 
costing  then  only  fivepence,'  but  his  energy, 
zeal,  and  thorough  knowledge  both  of  art 
and  business  soon  ensured  the  success  of 
the  venture.  The  Franco-German  war  of 
1870-1  gave  the  '  Graphic '  a  great  oppor- 
tunity, and  in  times  of  peace  there  was  a 
steady  demand  for  a  paper  which  contained 
good  literary  matter  and  drawings  by  such 
artists  as  Walker,  Pinwell,  Herkomer, 
Fildes,  Macbeth,  Gregory,  Houghton,  Small, 
and  Green.  Thomas  had  a  knack  of  dis- 
covering rising  talent,  and  his  journal  was 


open  to  all  artists,  whatever  their  method, 
instead  of  being  confined  to  professional 
draughtsmen  on  wood.  He  had  much  to  do 
with  the  introduction  of  photography  as  a 
means  of  preserving  the  original  drawing 
from  being  destroyed  in  the  cutting  of  the 
wood-block.  He  set  a  high  standard  of 
draughtsmanship,  and  his  constant  effort 
was  to  maintain  it  and  to  spare  no  cost  in  pro- 
curing the  best  work.  He  paid  large  sums  to 
Millais  and  other  eminent  painters  for  Christ- 
mas pictures,  and  the  popular  'Graphic 
Gallery  of  Shakespeare's  Heroines '  was  due 
to  his  initiative. 

For  twenty  years  Thomas  devoted  almost 
all  his  time  and  thought  to  the  '  Graphic ; ' 
but  a  scheme  for  another  enterprise  gradually 
shaped  itself  in  his  mind  and  bore  fruit  in 
the  foundation  in  1890  of  the  '  Daily  Gra- 
phic,' the  first  daily  illustrated  paper  pub- 
lished in  England.  The  difficulties,  both 
mechanical  and  financial,  of  such  a  scheme 
were  enormous,  but  he  overcame  them  as 
soon  as  improvements  in  process  work  and 
in  machinery  enabled  him  to  get  illustra- 
tions produced  and  printed  with  the  re- 
quisite speed.  The  'Daily  Graphic'  had  its 
seasons  of  difficulty,  but  its  founder  faced 
them  with  imperturbable  confidence  and  left 
his  second  paper  no  less  firmly  established 
than  the  first.  Apart  from  his  work  as 
managing  director  of  these  journals  he  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  Artists'  Benevolent 
Institution,  the  Prince  of  Wales's  Hospital 
Fund,  and  other  philanthropic  agencies,  and 
was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  the  Sunday 
opening  of  picture  galleries  and  museums. 
He  died  at  his  house  at  Chertsey  on  16  Oct. 
1900  and  was  buried  at  Woking.  His  wife 
and  family  of  nine  sons  and  one  daughter 
survive  him.  His  eldest  son,  Mr.  Carmichael 
Thomas,  succeeded  him  as  managing  director 
of  the  'Graphic.'  A  portrait  by  Mr.  W. 
Ridley,  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1874,  is  in  the  possession  of  Mrs.  W.  L. 
Thomas. 

[Obituary  notices,  with  portraits,  in  the 
Graphic,  20  Oct.  1900,  and  the  Daily  Graphic, 
18  Oct.  1900;  private  information.]  C.  D. 

THOMPSON,  WILLIAM  (1785?-!  833), 
political  economist,  and  by  many  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  scientific  socialism,  born 
about  1785,  was  a  native  of  county  Cork. 
A  wealthy  Irish  landlord,  he  was  early  led 
to  the  study  of  economic  problems  by  con- 
trasting his  own  affluent  position  with  that 
of  the  wretched  Irish  peasantry.  In  182 
he  discovered  that  for  twelve  years  he  had 
been  living  '  on  what  is  called  rent,  the  pro- 
duce of  the  labour  of  others.' 


Thompson 


381 


Thompson 


At  an  earlier  period  he  had  been  brought 
under  the  influence  of  the  writings  of  Bent 
ham,  and  resolved  to  work  out  that  philo- 
sopher's utilitarian  principles.  Correspon- 
dence led  to  personal  acquaintance.  A  strong 
attachment  grew  up  between  the  two  men, 
and  at  Bentham's  request  Thompson  visited 
him  in  London,  and  lived  with  him  for  some 
years.  Thompson  was  also  an  enthusiastic 
supporter  of  Robert  Owen,  whose  co-opera- 
tive system  he  believed  to  be  the  means 
of  realising  the  conception  of  '  the  greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number.'  At  the 
same  time  Thompson  closely  studied  God- 
win's '  Political  Justice.' 

In  1824  Thompson  held  a  public  discus- 
sion at  Cork  with  one  who  had  acquired  a 
considerable  local  reputation  for  '  his  skill  in 
the  controversies  of  political  economy.'  In 
the  result  Thompson  published  in  the  same 
year  his  chief  work,  '  An  Inquiry  into  the 
Principles  of  the  Distribution  of  Wealth 
most  conducive  to  Human  Happiness.'  A 
second  edition  appeared  in  1850,  and  a  third 
in  1869,  edited  by  William  Pare  [q.  v.] 
Thompson  starts  with  the  assumption  that 
all  wealth  is  the  product  of  labour,  which  is 
the  sole  measure  as  well  as  the  characteristic 
distinction  of  wealth.  The  three  principles 
he  proceeds  to  lay  down  are  :  first,  all  labour 
ought  to  be  free  and  voluntary  as  to  its 
direction  and  continuance  ;  secondly,  all  the 
products  of  labour  ought  to  be  secured  to 
the  producers  of  them ;  thirdly,  all  exchanges 
of  these  products  ought  to  be  free  and  volun- 
tary. 

In  working  out  his  theory  of  the  right  to 
the  whole  produce  of  labour  Thompson  does 
not  lose  sight  of  the  doctrine  of  the  right  to 
subsistence  on  the  part  of  the  young  or  of 
the  incapacitated.  He  did  not  clearly  see  the 
logical  difference  between  the  right  to  the 
whole  produce  of  labour  and  the  right  to  sub- 
sistence. His  object  was  to  prove  the  in- 
justice of  unearned  income  and  private  pro- 
perty by  the  assertion  of  the  former  doctrine, 
*  but  the  communistic  tendencies  which  he 
borrowed  from  Owen  prevented  him  from 
drawing  its  positive  consequences '  (MENGER, 
p.  59).  Thompson  omitted  from  his  treatise 
a  chapter  of  a  hundred  pages  on  the  institu- 
tions of  society,  on  the  ground  that  in  the 
then  existing  state  of  public  opinion  his  criti- 
cism would  have  caused  unnecessary  irrita- 
tion. William  Pare,  his  literary  executor, 
also  excluded  this  chapter  from  the  1850 
and  the  1869  editions.  It  was  then  probably 
lost  or  destroyed. 

The  fame  of  Thompson's  works  rests  '  not 
upon  his  advocacy  of  Owenite  co-operation, 
devoted  and  public-spirited  as  that  was,  but 


upon  the  fact  that  he  was  the  first  writer  to 
elevate  the  question  of  the  just  distribution 
of  wealth  to  the  supreme  position  it  has 
since  held  in  English  political  economy. 
Up  to  his  time  political  economy  had  been 
rather  commercial  than  industrial'  (Fox- 
WELL). 

According  to  Professor  Menger,  'from 
Thompson's  book  the  later  socialists,  the 
Saint-Simonians,  the  Proudhons,  and  above 
all  Marx  and  Rodbertus,  have  directly  or 
indirectly  drawn  their  opinions'  (The  Right 
to  the  whole  Produce  of  Labour,  Engl.  trans. 
1899,  p.  51).  Marx  quotes  Thompson, 
although  he  fails  to  give  him  credit  for  the 
discovery  of  the  theory  of  surplus  value. 

In  his  '  Distribution  of  Wealth '  Thomp- 
son incidentally  advocated  the  equal  eco- 
nomic and  political  rights  of  men  and  wo- 
men. He  deplored  what  he  regarded  as 
the  fatal  consequences  of  depriving  women 
of  the  educational  advantages  enjoyed  by 
men.  '  Give  men  and  women,'  he  says, 
'  equal  civil  and  political  rights.'  Thompson 
expounded  his  ideas  on  sexual  equality  into 
a  volume  with  the  title  of '  Appeal  of  One 
Half  the  Human  Race,  Women,  against 
the  Pretentions  of  the  other  Half,  Men,  to 
retain  them  in  Political,  and  thence  in 
Civil  and  Domestic,  Slavery  '  (1825).  This 
work  was  largely  aimed  at  a  passage  in 
James  Mill's  'Essay  on  Government,'  and 
it  had  great  influence  in  moulding  John 
Stuart  Mill's  views  on  the  same  subject.  J.  S. 
Mill  met  Thompson  when  he  came  to  Lon- 
don about  1827.  Mill  notes  in  his  '  Auto- 
biography '  (p.  125)  that  at  the  free  debates 
held  weekly  at  the  Co-operation  (Owenite) 
Society's  rooms  in  Chancery  Lane,  '  the 
principal  champion  on  their  (the  Owenite) 
side  was  a  very  estimable  man  with 
whom  I  was  well  acquainted,  Mr.  William 
Thompson  of  Cork,  author  of  a  book  on  the 
distribution  of  wealth,  and  of  an  "  Appeal  " 
on  behalf  of  women  against  the  passage  re- 
lating to  them  in  my  father's  "  Essay  on 
Government." ' 

Thompson  was  also  the  author  of  the 
following  works :  '  Labour  Rewarded ;  The 
Claims  of  Labour  and  Capital  Conciliated, 
or  how  to  secure  to  Labour  the  whole  Pro- 
ducts of  its  Exertions.  By  one  of  the  Idle 
Classes,'  London,  8vo,  1827  (see  GRAHAM 
WALLAS,  Life  of  Francis  Place,  pp.  268-9) ; 
and  '  Practical  Directions  for  the  Speedy  and 
Economical  Establishment  of  Communities 
on  the  Principles  of  Mutual  Co-operation, 
United  Possessions,  and  Equality  of  Exer- 
tions, and  of  the  Means  of  Enjoyment,' 
London,  8vo,  1830. 

For  the  last    twenty  years  of  his  life 


Thorne 


382 


Thorne 


Thompson  was  a  strict  vegetarian  and 
teetotaler.  He  died  of  inflammation  of  the 
chest  at  Clounksen,  Roscarbery,  co.  Cork, 
on  28  March  1833. 

Thompson  made  every  endeavour  to  give 
practical  effect  to  his  views.  During  his 
lifetime  he  gave  money  to  assist  the  co- 
operative movement,  and  made  provision 
for  carrying  on  its  propaganda  after  his 
death.  By  a  will  dated  1830  he  bequeathed 
the  bulk  of  his  property,  consisting  of  free- 
hold estates  in  co.  Cork,  to  trustees  for  pro- 
mulgating the  principles  of  Robert  Owen, 
and  aiding  (says  "William  Pare,  one  of 
his  executors)  the  humbler  classes  in  any 
practical  operations  founded  on  those  prin- 
ciples. One  clause  of  his  will  ran  :  '  To 
aid  in  conquering  the  foolish  but  frequently 
most  mischievous  prejudice  respecting  the 
benevolent — but  to  the  operators  most  un- 
pleasant and  sometimes  dangerous — process 
of  examining  dead  bodies  for  the  benefit  of 
the  living,  I  will  that  my  body  be  publicly 
examined  by  a  lecturer  on  anatomy  on  con- 
dition of  his  returning  the  bones  in  the 
form  of  a  skeleton,  natural  or  artificial,  to  be 
preserved  in  the  Museum  of  Human  and 
Comparative  Anatomy,  as  my  books  are  to 
be  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  first  Co- 
operative Community  in  Britain  or  Ireland.' 
Thompson's  will  was  disputed  by  his  heirs- 
at-law  on  the  ground  that  some  of  its  pro- 
visions were  '  immoral.'  The  Irish  court 
of  chancery  took  a  quarter  of  a  century  to 
decide  the  point,  and  ultimately  gave  judg- 
ment in  favour  of  the  plaintiffs. 

[Leslie  Stephen's  English  Utilitarians  (1900), 
ii.  260  seq. ;  Anton  Menger's  Right  to  the 
•whole  Produce  of  Labour,  English  transl.  with 
Introduction  by  Professor  Foxwell,  1899  ;  Holy- 
oake's  Hist,  of  Co-operation ;  J.  S.  Mill's  Auto- 
biography, p.  125.] 

THORNE,  SIB  RICHARD  THORNE- 

(1841-1899),  physician,  was  the  second  son  of 
Thomas  Henry  Thorne,  banker,  of  Leaming- 
ton, where  he  was  born  on  13  Oct.  1841. 
He  was  sent  to  school  at  Nieuwied  in 
Rhenish  Prussia,  whence  he  was  transferred 
to  France  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  to  attend,  after 
a  year's  schooling  there,  the  cours  de  troisi&me 
at  the  Lycee  St.-Louis,  Paris,  where  he  gained 
two  first  prizes.  He  then  returned  to  Eng- 
land and  became  a  pupil  at  the  Mill  Hill 
school,  from  which  he  matriculated  at  the 
London  University.  He  began  his  medical 
career  as  an  apprentice  to  a  medical  prac- 
titioner in  Leamington,  afterwards  entering 
as  a  student  at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital, 
London.  In  1863  he  was  admitted  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Eng- 


land, and  served  the  office  of  midwifery 
assistant  at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital. 
In  1865  he  became  a  licentiate  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians  of  London,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  graduated  M.B.  at  the 
London  University,  with  first-class  honours 
in  medicine  and  obstetric  medicine. 

From  1864  to  1866  he  acted  as  junior 
resident  medical  officer  at  the  Sussex  House 
Asylum,  Hammersmith,  and  in  1867  he  was 
elected  assistant  physician  to  the  general 
dispensary  in  Bartholomew  Close,  E.G.,  a 
post  he  resigned  in  the  following  year,  when 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Hospital 
for  Diseases  of  the  Chest  in  the  City  Road. 
From  1869  to  1871  he  was  assistant  phy- 
sician to  the  London  Fever  Hospital.  He 
was  chosen  demonstrator  of  microscopic 
anatomy  in  the  medical  school  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital  in  1869,  and  from  April 
1870  he  filled  for  a  year  the  office  of  casualty 
physician  to  the  hospital. 

Thorne  was  first  employed  as  a  super- 
numerary inspector  in  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  the  privy  council  in  1868,  and  in 
this  capacity  he  conducted  several  investi- 
gations in  connection  with  outbreaks  of 
typhoid  fever  with  such  marked  ability  that 
in  February  1871  he  was  appointed  a  per- 
manent inspector.  He  rose  gradually  from 
this  position  until  in  1892  he  succeeded  to 
the  post  of  principal  medical  officer  to  the 
local  government  board  on  the  retirement 
of  Sir  George  Buchanan  [q.  v.  Suppl.] 
Thome's  knowledge  of  French  and  German, 
no  less  than  his  polished  manners  and  courtly 
address,  soon  made  him  especially  acceptable 
to  his  political  chiefs,  and  he  was  repeatedly 
selected  to  represent  this  country  in  matters 
of  international  hygiene.  Thus  he  was  the 
British  delegate  at  the  international  con- 
gresses held  at  Rome  in  1885,  at  Venice 
(Paris  sitting)  in  1892,  at  Dresden  in  1893, 
at  Paris  in  1894,  at  Venice  in  1897;  and  was 
her  majesty's  plenipotentiary  to  sign  the  con- 
ventions of  Dresden  in  1893,  Paris  in  1894, 
and  Venice  in  1897,  the  last  convention 
being  very  largely  drawn  up  under  his 
guidance.  His  conspicuous  services  were 
recognised  by  the  government,  who  increased 
his  salary  in  consequence  of  a  recommenda- 
tion made  by  a  special  committee  in  1898. 

At  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  of 
London  Thorne  was  admitted  a  member  in 
1867,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  in  1875 ;  he 
acted  as  an  examiner  1885-89,  and  was  a 
member  of  council  1894-96.  In  1891  he 
delivered  the  Milroy  lectures,  '  Diphtheria : 
its  Natural  History  and  Prevention.'  He 
began  to  lecture  on  hygiene  at  the  medical 
school  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  in  1879, 


Torrens 


383 


Torrens 


and  was  formally  appointed  there  the  first 
permanent  lecturer  on  public  health  in  1891. 
He  was  elected  F.R.S.  on  5  June  1890,  and 
was  awarded  the  Stewart  prize  of  the  British 
Medical  Association  in  1893.  In  1895  he 
succeeded  Sir  John  Simon  as  crown  nominee 
at  the  General  Medical  Council,  and  in  1898 
honorary  degrees  were  conferred  upon  him 
by  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  the  Royal 
University  of  Ireland,  and  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians  of  Ireland,  while  his  services 
to  public  health  were  recognised  by  his  se- 
lection as  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Medicine  at  Rome,  correspond- 
ing member  of  the  Royal  Italian  Society  of 
Hygiene,  and  foreign  associate  of  the  Society 
of  Hygiene  of  France.  He  was  president  of  the 
Epidemiological  Society  from  1887  to  1889, 
and  in  1898  he  delivered  the  Harben  lectures 
'  On  the  Administrative  Control  of  Tuber- 
culosis.' He  was  made  C.B.  in  1892,  and 
K.C.B.  in  1897.  He  died  on  18  Dec.  1899, 
and  is  buried  at  St.  John's,  Woking.  He 
married  in  1866  Martha,  daughter  of  Joseph 
Rylands  of  Sutton  Grange,  Hull,  by  whom 
he  had  four  children :  three  sons  and  a 
daughter. 

Thorne  ranks  as  one  of  the  foremost  ex- 
ponents of  the  science  of  public  health,  both 
at  home  and  abroad,  and  he  worthily  filled 
the  position  occupied  in  succession  by  Sir 
Edwin  Chadwick,  Sir  John  Simon,  and  Sir 
George  Buchanan.  His  acumen  first  proved 
that,  as  had  long  been  suspected,  typhoid 
fever  was  a  water-borne  disease.  It  was  his 
energy  that  gave  an  impulse  to  the  esta- 
blishment of  hospitals  for  the  isolation  of 
infectious  disease,  which  are  now  common 
in  every  part  of  the  country.  Throughout 
Europe  his  name  is  inseparably  connected 
with  attempts  to  abolish  the  expensive  and  j 
tedious  methods  of  quarantine  in  favour  of 
a  higher  standard  of  cleanliness  combined 
with  the  early  and  efficient  notification  of 
individual  cases  of  epidemic  disease. 

Almost  the  whole  of  Sir  Richard  Thorne- 
Thorne's  work  is  recorded  in  the  form  of 
reports  in  the  blue-books  of  the  medical  de- 
partment of  the  privy  council  and  the  local 
government  board.  The  Milroy  lectures  on 
diphtheria  were  published  in  12mo,  London, 
1891. 

[Personal  knowledge ;  British  Medical  Journal, 
1899,  ii.  1771,  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital 
Journal,  vii.  53,  and  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital 
Reports,  vol.  xxxvi. ;  private  information.] 

D'A.  P. 

TORRENS,  HENRY  WHIT  BLOCK 
(1806-1852),  Indian  civil  servant,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  General  Sir  Henry  Torrens 
[q.  v.],  and  was  born  at  Canterbury  on  20  May 


1806.  He  was  educated  at  a  private  school 
at  Brook  Green,  and  afterwards  at  the  Char- 
terhouse and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where 
he  was  admitted  student  in  1823,  and  ma- 
triculated on  16  Dec. ;  he  had  the  honour  to 
be  rusticated  along  with  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington's sons  for  painting  the  doors  of  the 
college  red.  After  graduating  B.A.  in  1828 
he  began  to  read  for  the  bar,  a  profession 
entirely  unsuitable  to  his  mercurial  and 
ebullient  temperament.  A  clerkship  in  the 
foreign  office  was  procured  for  him,  but  was 
almost  immediately  exchanged  for  an  Indian 
writership,  which  he  was  induced  to  accept 
by  a  promise  of  patronage  from  Lord  Wil- 
liam Bentinck,  then  (1828)  on  the  point  of 
proceeding  to  India  as  governor-general.  So 
far  as  Lord  William  was  concerned  the  under- 
taking was  redeemed,  but  kings  were  to 
arise  who  knew  not  Joseph.  It  was  also 
most  unfortunate  for  Torrens  to  have  en- 
tered the  service  without  having  imbibed  its 
spirit  and  traditions  by  a  previous  course  at 
Haileybury.  He  seemed,  however,  fully  to 
justify  his  appointment  by  his  general  ability 
and  his  rapid  progress  in  the  oriental  lan- 
guages, especially  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Hin- 
dustani. His  first  appointment  was  that  of 
assistant  to  the  collector  at  Meerut,  July 
1829.  By  January  1835  he  had  worked  his 
way  into  the  secretariat,  and  in  1837  he  was 
in  a  position,  according  to  Sir  John  Kaye, 
to  aid  Macnaghten  and  Colvin  in  bringing 
about  the  Afghan  war  by  his  personal  influ- 
ence as  one  of  the  secretaries  in  attendance 
upon  Lord  Auckland,  who  was  then  at 
Simla,  remote  from  the  steadying  influence 
of  his  council  at  Calcutta.  Torrens  denied 
the  imputation ;  it  seems  clear,  however, 
upon  his  own  showing,  that  he  did  recom- 
mend interference  in  the  affairs  of  Afghani- 
stan, although  he  had  not  come  to  the  point 
of  advocating  an  actual  British  invasion.  A 
recent  publication  of  documents,  neverthe- 
less, has  proved  that  Lord  Auckland's  pru- 
dent reluctance  was  not  overcome  by  the 
advice  of  his  secretaries,  which  advice  he 
rejected  somewhat  cavalierly,  but  by  what 
he  conceived  to  be  an  imperative  instruction 
from  home  (see  SIR  AUCKLAND  COLVIN'S 
Life  of  J.  Russell  Colvin). 

In  1838  Torrens  published  that  firetvplume 
of  a  translation  of  the  '  Arabian  Nights ' 
which  chiefly  preserves  his  name  as  a  man  of 
letters.  In  1840  he  edited  C.  Lassen's  '  Points 
in  the  History  of  the  Greek  and  Indo- 
Scythian  Kings'  (Calcutta,  1840,  8vo),  and 
in  the  same  year  he  was  made  secretary  to 
the  board  of  customs  at  Calcutta,  and  in  this 
capacity  effected  important  reforms  in  the 
excise  department.  In  April  1847  he  was 


Tony 


384 


Torry 


officially  shelved  as  agent  to  the  governor- 
general  of  Murshidabad.  This  virtual  ex- 
tinction of  one  of  the  most  brilliant  men  in 
the  service  was  attributed  to  the  jealousy  of 
a  clique,  but  no  further  explanation  seems 
necessary  than  the  fact,  admitted  by  Torrens's 
biographer,  that  he  disliked  his  vocation  and 
made  few  friends  among  his  colleagues.  If 
another  reason  is  required,  it  may  be  found 
in  the  indiscretion  of  which  his  writings 
afford  sufficient  proof.  Among  them,  for 
instance,  is  a  squib  in  the  style  of  Black- 
wood's  '  Chaldee  Manuscript '  on  an  occur- 
rence which  had  created  much  stir  in  Cal- 
cutta, extremely  clever  and  amusing,  but 
which  must  have  made  an  enemy  of  one  of 
the  most  influential  personages  in  Bengal, 
supposing  that  he  had  not  been  made  one 
already.  In  his  latter  days  Torrens  turned 
as  much  as  he  could  from  official  life  to 
literature,  producing  '  Madame  de  Malguet ' 
(London,  1848, 3vols.  12mo),a  novelfounded 
on  youthful  experiences  in  France,  so  greatly 
admired  by  the  veteran  Miss  Edgeworth  that 
she  wrote  to  the  publishers  to  ascertain  the 
author ;  and  '  Remarks  on  the  Scope  and 
Uses  of  Military  Literature  and  History,'  a 
book  highly  eulogised  by  his  biographer ;  it 
began  to  appear  in  the  '  Eastern  Star'  in 
January  1846,  and  was  subsequently  reissued 
in  book  form.  No  copy  of  it  is  in  the  British 
Museum  Library,  but  copious  extracts  are 
reprinted  in  the  '  Collected  Writings '  (ed. 
Hume).  He  also  contributed  a  number  of 
papers  to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society's  Journal. 
He  died  at  Calcutta  from  the  effects  of  climate 
on  11  Aug.  1852. 

Torrens's  dispersed  literary  remains  were 
collected  and  printed  at  Calcutta,  and  pub- 
lished in  London  by  J.  Hume  in  1854.  They 
justify  his  character  for  wit  and  brilliancy, 
but  are  too  slight  and  occasional  to  survive, 
and  the  unquestionable  merits  of  his  novel 
have  not  preserved  it  from  oblivion.  His 
literary  reputation  must  rest  on  his  transla- 
tion of  the  '  Arabian  Nights,'  unfortunately 
unfinished,  but  pronounced  superior  to  all 
later  versions  in  virtue  of  'that  literary 
instinct  and  feeling  which  is  more  neces- 
sary even  than  scholarship  to  the  successful 
translator'  (Nation,  New  York,  1900,  ii. 
167). 

[Torrens's  Works  in  Brit.  Museum  Library; 
Memoir  by  J.  Hume,  prefixed  to  his  edition  of 
Torrens's  literary  remains ;  Kaye,  History  of  the 
War  in  Afghanistan,  vol.  i. ;  Gent.  Mag.  1852, 
ii.  546 ;  New  York  Nation,  30  Aug.  and  6  Sept. 
1900.]  R.  G. 

TORRY,  PATRICK  (1763-1852),  bishop 
of  St.  Andrews,  Dunkeld,  and  Dunblane, 
born  on  27  Dec.  1763,  in  the  parish  of  King 


Edward,  Aberdeenshire,  was  son  of  Thomas 
Torry,  a  woollen  cloth  manufacturer  at 
Garneston,  and  his  wife,  Jane  Watson, 
daughter  of  a  farmer  in  the  same  parish. 
He  was  educated  as  a  member  of  the  esta- 
blished presbyterian  church  of  Scotland,  but 
his  uncle  James  Watson,  a  Jacobite,  who  had 
been  out  in  1745,  impressed  episcopalian 
views  upon  him,  and  after  mastering  Latin, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  mathematics,  Torry  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  began  teaching,  first  in 
Selkirk  parish  school,  under  his  uncle,  and 
then  at  Lonmay,  Aberdeenshire.  In  June 
1782  he  went  to  live  with  John  Skinner 
(1721-1807)  [q.  v.],  who  completed  his  con- 
version to  episcopalianism,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing September  he  was  ordained  deacon 
of  the  Scottish  episcopal  church  by  Bishop 
Robert  Kilgour  of  Aberdeen.  Though  only 
nineteen  years  old,  he  was  at  once  put  in 
charge  01  a  congregation  at  Arradoul,  in 
Rathven  parish,  Banffshire,  and  in  1783  he 
was  ordained  priest.  In  1787  he  married 
Kilgour's  daughter,  Christian,  who  died 
without  issue  in  1789 ;  in  that  year  Torry 
became  Kilgour's  assistant  in  his  charge  at 
Peterhead,  and  on  Kilgour's  death  in  1791 
Torry  succeeded  to  his  charge,  which  he 
held  until  1837.  In  1807  he  was  made 
treasurer  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Friendly 
Society,  and  on  6  Oct.  1808  he  was  elected 
bishop  of  Dunkeld,  in  succession  to  Jona- 
than Watson;  he  retained  his  pastoral 
charge  at  Peterhead,  where  he  resided. 
George  Gleig  [q.  v.]  was  originally  chosen 
bishop,  but  the  hostility  of  Bishop  John 
Skinner  (1744-1816)  [q.  v.]  kept  Gleig  out 
of  the  see. 

Torry  retained  his  bishopric  for  forty-four 
years  ;  in  1837  he  resigned  his  charge  of  the 
congregation  at  Peterhead,  though  he  con- 
tinued to  reside  there,  and  in  September 
1841,  by  the  death  of  Bishop  James  Walker 
[q.  v.],he  became  pro-primus  of  the  episcopal 
church  of  Scotland.  In  a  synod  held  at 
Edinburgh  in  September  1844,  it  was  de- 
cided to  revive  the  episcopal  title  of  St. 
Andrews,  and  Torry  was  henceforth  known 
as  bishop  of  the  united  dioceses  of  St.  An- 
drews, Dunkeld,  and  Dunblane.  The  most 
important  incident  of  his  episcopate  was  the 
publication  in  April  1850  of  his  '  Prayer- 
book,'  which  claimed  to  be  the  embodiment 
of  the  usages  of  the  episcopal  church  of 
Scotland.  Torry  had  throughout  his  life 
been  a  staunch  champion  of  the  Scottish 
communion  office,  which  was  derived, 
through  Laud's  prayer-book  of  1637,  from 
the  first  prayer-book  of  Edward  VI,  and 
was  used  by  the  Scottish  non-jurors  until 
the  death  of  Prince  Charles  in  1^88,  whei 


Torry 


385 


Traill 


they  took  the  oath  to  George  III,  and  were 
joined  by  the  English  episcopalian  con- 
gregations in  Scotland.  The  latter,  while 
becoming  members  of  the  Scottish  episco- 
palian church,  retained  the  use  of  the  Eng- 
lish prayer-book,  which  did  not  inculcate 
such  avowedly  high-church  doctrines  as 
that  used  by  the  Scottish  non-jurors.  In 
1847  a  petition  was  presented  to  Torry 
from  some  of  his  clergy  that  he  would 
supervise  the  compilation  of  a  service-book 
comprising  the  ancient  usages  of  the 
Scottish  episcopalian  church  ;  and  this 
book,  which  was  known  as  Torry's  '  Prayer- 
book/  was  recommended  by  him  and  pub- 
lished in  April  1850,  as  though  it  claimed 
to  be  the  authorised  service-book  of  the 
Scottish  episcopal  church.  A  storm  of  op- 
position led  by  Charles  Wordsworth  [q.  v.] 
at  once  arose  ;  only  two  out  of  seven  bishops 
and  one  out  of  seven  deans  were  in  the 
habit  of  using  the  Scottish  communion 
office  recommended  by  Torry  ;  and  it  con- 
tained usages  not  sanctioned  by  any  canon. 
The  publication  was  at  once  censured  by 
the  Scottish  episcopal  synod,  by  St.  An- 
drews diocesan  synod,  on  19  June  1850,  and 
again,  after  Torry  had  published  a  protest, 
by  the  episcopal  synod  on  5  Sept.  The 
suppression  of  this  prayer-book  made  it  a 
rare  work,  and  there  does  not  appear  to  be 
a  copy  in  the  British  Museum  ;  the  distinc- 
tive passages  in  it  are  printed  in  the  appen- 
dix to  J.  M.  Xeale's  '  Life  and  Times  of 
Bishop  Torry '  (cf.  WORDSWORTH,  Episcopate 
of  Charles  Wordsivorth,  pp.  345-9). 

Other  questions  on  which  Torry  came  into 
conflict  with  his  episcopal  colleagues  were  the 
support  he  gave  to  Bishop  Michael  Luscombe 
[q.  v.],  and  his  favourable  reception  of  the 
appeal  of  William  Palmer  (1811-1879)  [q.v.] 
He  welcomed  the  foundation  of  Glenalmond 
College  within  his  diocese,  and  assisted  to- 
wards the  building  of  St.  Ninian's  Cathedral, 
Perth,  the  statutes  of  which  he  formally  ap- 
proved on  6  Jan.  1851.  Torry  died  at  Peter- 
head  on  3  Oct.  1852,  and  was  buried  in  St. 
Ninian's  Cathedral  on  the  1 3th.  He  married  in 
September  1791  his  second  wife  Jane,  daugh- 
ter of  Dr.  William  Young  of  Fawsyde,  Kin- 
cardineshire,  and  by  her  had  issue  three  sons 
and  four  daughters,  of  whom  the  eldest  son 
John  became  dean  of  St.  Andrews. 

[John  Mason  Neale's  Life  and  Times  of 
Patrick  Torry,  1856 ;  Scottish  Mag.  new  ser. 
ii.  355-9;  Scottish  Eccl.  Journal,  ii.  225,  231; 
Scottish  Guardian,  20  Nov.  1891;  Annual  Reg. 
1852,  p.  317;  Grub's  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Scotland, 
vol.  iv.  passim ;  Skinner's  Annals  of  Scottish 
Episcopacy,  1818,  pp.  472,  sqq.;  Blatch's  Me- 
moir of  Bishop  Low,  1855;  W.  Walker's  Life 

VOL.  in. — SUP. 


of  George  Gleig,  1878,  pp.  216,  251-7,  261  297 
309-14,  343-57,  and  Life  and  Times  of  Bishop 
John  Skinner,  1887,  p.  116;  C.Wordsworth's 
Early  Life,  1893,  and  J.  Wordsworth's  Episco- 
pate of  Charles  Wordsworth,  1899,  passim  ;  cf. 
also  arts.  GLEIG,  GEORGE  ;  Low,  DAVID  ;  SAND- 
FOBD,  DANIEL ;  SKINNER,  JOHN;  TERROT, 
CHARLES  HUGHES  ;  WALKEH,  JAMES  ;  and  WORDS- 
WORTH, CHARLES.]  A.  F.  P. 

TRAILL,  HENRY  DUFF  (1842-1900), 
author  and  journalist,  belonged  to  the  Traills 
of  Rattar,  an  old  family  long  settled  in  the 
county  of  Caithness  and  in  the  Orkneys. 
He  was  sixth  and  youngest  son  of  James 
Traill,  for  some  time  stipendiary  magistrate 
at  the  Greenwich  and!^  Woolwich  police- 
court,  and  of  Caroline,  daughter  of  William 
Whateley,  of  Handsworth,  Staffordshire. 
His  uncle,  George  Traill,  represented  Orkney 
and  Caithness  in  parliament  as  a  liberal  for 
nearly  forty  years  till  1869. 

Henry  Duff  Traill  was  born  at  Morden 
Hill,  Blackheath,  on  14  Aug.  1842.  He  was 
educated  from  April  1853  at  Merchant  Tay- 
lors' School,  where  he  was  distinguished  for 
his  attainments  both  in  classics  and  mathe- 
matics, particularly  the  former.  As  head  of 
the  school  he  was  elected  to  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  Michaelmas  term,  1861,  and 
subsequently  obtained  one  of  the  last  of  the 
close  fellowships  then  reserved  on  the  foun- 
dation for  Merchant  Taylors'  scholars.  He 
took  a  first  class  in  classical  moderations  in 
1863,  but  after  passing  moderations  he  took 
up  the  study  of  natural  science,  with  a  view 
to  the  medical  profession,  and  obtained  a  se- 
cond class  in  the  final  schools  in  that  subject  in 
1865.  He  graduated  B.A.  in  that  year,  B.C.L. 
in  1868,  and  D.C.L.  in  1873.  On  leaving  the 
university  he  abandoned  his  scientific  inten- 
tions and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner 
Temple  in  1869.  In  1871  he  was  appointed 
an  inspector  of  returns  under  the  education 
office.  But  literature,  or  at  least  the  periodi- 
cal form  of  it,  soon  attracted,  and  presently 
absorbed,  him.  His  earliest  journalistic  con- 
nection was  with  the  '  Yorkshire  Post,'  and, 
after  settling  down  regularly  in  London,  he 
contributed  occasionally  to  several  other 
newspapers.  In  1873  he  joined  the  staff  of 
the  '  Pall  Mall  Gazette,'  then  conducted  by 
Mr.  Frederick  Greenwood,  and  subsequently 
migrated  to  the  '  St.  James's  Gazette  on  the 
foundation  of  that  journal  in  1880.  He 
wrote  much  and  brilliantly  during  this 
period  in  the  '  Saturday  Review,'  contri- 
buting political  'leaders,'  literary  reviews, 
and  essays.  He  also  wrote  verses,  some  of 
which  were  republished  under  the  titles  of 
'  Re-captured  Rhymes '  (1882)  and  « Satur- 
day Songs'  (1890).  With  a  few  exceptions 

c  o 


Traill 


386 


Traill 


these  pieces  are  in  the  humorous  or  satirical 
vein  and  deal  with  topics  of  the  day ;  but 
one,  called  'The  Ant's  Nest,'  is  deeply 
serious,  and  deserves  to  take  rank  among  the 
finest  philosophical  and  reflective  poems  of 
the  last  twenty  years  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Traill's  remarkable  gift  of  parody,  in 
prose  as  well  as  in  metre,  was  exhibited  by 
an  anonymous  pamphlet,  published  in  1876, 
called  '  The  Israelitish  Question  and  the 
Comments  of  the  Canaan  Journals  thereon,' 
in  which  the  style  of  the  leading  London 
newspapers  was  cleverly  burlesqued. 

In  1882  he  quitted  the  '  St.  James's 
Gazette '  and  joined  the  staff  of  the  '  Daily 
Telegraph,'  with  which  journal  he  was  closely 
associated  as  chief  political  leader-writer  till 
1897.  He  continued  to  contribute  to  the 
'  Saturday  Review,'  and  after  1888  he  again 
wrote  for  the  '  St.  James's.'  In  1889  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  '  Observer,'  a  post  he  re- 
tained for  about  two  years.  In  1897  he  became 
the  first  editor  of '  Literature,'  and  held  this 
position  at  the  time  of  his  death.  Refurnished 
a  good  many  critical  essays,  political  articles, 
and  occasional  short  stories  and  satirical  skits, 
to  various  monthly  magazines  and  reviews. 

During  these  years  of  versatile  and 
strenuous  journalism,  Traill  was  also  pub- 
lishing boons  on  a  variety  of  historical,  lite- 
rary, and  political  subjects.  In  1881  he 
wrote  a  short  account  of  our  constitutional 
system, called  'Central  Government'  ('Eng- 
lish Citizen '  series).  To  the  '  English  Men 
of  Letters '  series  of  literary  biographies  he 
contributed  brief  but  excellent  memoirs  of 
Sterne  (1882)  and  Coleridge  (1884)  ;  and  he 
also  wrote  monographs  on  Shaftesbury  (1886), 
William  III  (1888),  Strafford  (1889),  the 
Marquis  of  Salisbury  (1891),  and  Lord  Cromer 
(1897).  The  literary  studies  were  more  suc- 
cessful than  the  political ;  for  Traill  was  a 
fine  and  penetrating  critic  rather  than  a 
trained  historian.  But  everything  he  wrote 
was  couched  in  the  same  admirable  style — 
easy,  fluent,  dignified,  and  correct — which 
never  seems  to  have  deteriorated  under  the 
constant  strain  of  daily  journalism.  A  more 
elaborate  biography  than  those  just  enume- 
rated was  the  '  Life  of  Sir  John  Franklin ' 
(1896).  The  work  was  executed  by  Traill 
after  a  thorough  study  of  the  materials  placed 
at  his  disposal,  and  it  is  an  adequate — 
indeed  the  only  adequate — account  of  the 
great  Arctic  explorer.  Between  1893  and 
1897  he  acted  as  editor  of  an  elaborate  com- 
pilation in  six  volumes,  called  '  Social  Eng- 
land,' which  was  intended  to  be  an  historical 
account  of  the  social,  industrial,  and  poli- 
tical development  of  the  nation.  But  he 
is  at  his  best  as  a  satirist  of  intellectual 


foibles,  or  a  speculator,  half  playful  and 
half  melancholy,  on  the  problems  of  life. 
These  qualities  are  exhibited  in  his  collec- 
tions of  literary  and  miscellaneous  essays, 
'  Number  Twenty '  (1892)  and  '  The  New 
Fiction '  (1897),  and  particularly  in  the  most 
remarkable  of  his  works,  '  The  New  Lucian.' 
This  is  a  series  of  '  Dialogues  of  the  Dead,' 
full  of  wit,  pathos,  and  insight.  It  gives  a 
better  idea  of  the  author's  brilliancy  and 
scholarship,  his  humour  and  his  irony,  than 
anything  else  he  wrote.  '  The  New  Lucian ' 
was  published  in  1884;  a  second  edition,  with 
some  supplementary  dialogues  and  a  touch- 
ing dedication,  was  issued  a  few  days  before 
the  author's  death  in  February  1900. 

Traill  made  several  attempts  at  dramatic 
composition.     He  acted  and  wrote  plays  for 
private  representation  at  school  and  at  Ox- 
ford.    Satirical  dramatic  sketches  by  him, 
called '  Present  versus  Past '  and  '  The  Battle 
of  the  Professors,'  were  performed  at  Mer- 
chant Taylors'  School  in  June  1869  and  June 
1874.     He  wrote  a  drama,  '  The  Diamond 
Seeker,'  in  the  early  seventies  which  was 
privately  printed.     It  is  a  gloomy  rhetorical 
tragedy  in  prose  and  blank  verse  of  no  great 
literary  merit.     On   5    July   1865   Traill's 
'  New  and  Original  Extravaganza,'  entitled 
j  '  Glaucus :  a  Tale  of  a  Fish,'  was  performed 
'  at  the  Olympic  Theatre,  with  the  popular 
i  burlesque  actress,  Miss  Ellen  Farren,  in  the 
j  title  role.      His  most  ambitious   dramatic 
!  effort  was  a  play  called  '  The  Medicine  Man,' 
|  written  in  collaboration  with  Mr.   Robert 
Hichens.     It  was  produced  by  Sir  Henry 
j  Irving  at  the  Lyceum  Theatre  on  4  May 
1898,  and  ran  for  about  four  weeks. 

In  private  life  Traill  was  one  of  the  most 
agreeable  of  companions,  and  in  the  com- 
pany of  intimate  friends  a  delightful  con- 
versationalist. But  his  incessant  journalistic 
and  literary  activity,  combined  with  a  con- 
stitutional shyness  and  reserve,  prevented 
him  from  taking  much  part  in  society.  He 
found  relief  from  the  strain  of  constant 
composition  in  an  occasional  trip  abroad. 
He  was  fond  of  the  Mediterranean  countries. 
In  1893  and  in  1895  he  visited  Egypt,  The 
second  of  these  journeys  he  described  in  a 
series  of  animated  letters  to  the '  Daily  Tele- 
graph,' afterwards  republislied  as  a  book, 
'From  Cairo  to  the  Soudan'  (1896).  A 
general  account  of  the  recent  history  of 
North-Eastern  Africa,  written  by  him  in 
the  last  year  of  his  life,  was  published  pos- 
thumously under  the  title  '  England,  Egypt, 
and  the  Soudan  '  (1900). 

Death  took  him  unexpectedly  in  the  full 
tide  of  his  various  projects  and  occupations. 
He  died  at  the  Great  Western  Hotel,  Pad- 


Tuer 


387 


Tuer 


dington,  on  21  Feb.  1900,  from  a  sudden  at-  j 
tack  of  heart  disease.     He  was  buried  on 
26  Feb.  1900  in  the  Paddington  cemetery,  i 
Kilburn.    A  portrait  of  H.  D.  Traill,  painted 
by  Sydney  P.  Hall,  was  exhibited  at  the 
New  Gallery  in  1889. 

[Times,  22  Feb.  1900;  Observer,  25  Feb. 
1900;  Literature,  3  March,  1900.]  S.  J.  L. 

TTJER,  ANDREW  WHITE  (1838- 
1900),  publisher  and  writer  on  Bartolozzi, 
son  of  Joseph  Tuer  by  his  marriage  with 
Jane  Taft,  was  born  at  Sunderland  on 
24  Dec.  1838.  His  parents  died  when  he 
was  a  child,  and  he  lived  chiefly  with  a 
great-uncle,  Andrew  White,  for  many  years 
M.P.  for  Sunderland,  after  whom  he  had 
been  named.  He  was  educated  at  New- 
castle-on-Tyne  and  at  Dr.  Bruce's  school  at 
York.  He  was  destined  at  first  for  holy 
orders,  and  then  for  the  medical  profession  ; 
but  after  spending  some  time  at  a  London 
hospital  he  abandoned  medicine  for  printing, 
in  which  he  had  already  made  experiments 
as  an  amateur.  In  1862  he  entered  into 
partnership  with  Mr.  Field,  stationer  and 
printer  in  Nicholas  Lane.  Under  Tuer's 
auspices  ornamental  printing  was  added  to 
the  business,  which  was  removed  to  the 
Minories  and,  about  1868,  to  Leadenhall 
Street.  Tuer's  invention  of  '  stickphast ' 
paste  largely  increased  the  revenues  of  the 
firm,  and  the  '  Paper  and  Printing  Trades' 
Journal,'  a  quarterly  founded  in  1877,  and 
for  some  years  edited  by  him,  was  a  success- 
ful venture.  He  then  commenced  publisher 
and  author,  his  first  book  being  an  illus- 
trated work  on  '  Luxurious  Bathing,'  1879. 
The  publishing  firm  of  Field  &  Tuer, 
which  issued  many  illustrated  books,  and 
especially  facsimile  reprints  of  popular 
literature  and  children's  books  of  the  reign 
of  George  III,  was  converted  in  February 
1892,  a  year  after  Field's  death,  into  a 
limited  company  under  the  name  of  the 
Leadenhall  Press.  In  July  1899  Tuer  be- 
came a  director  of  the  firm  of  Kelly,  pub- 
lishers of  the  post-office  directory. 

He  was  an  omnivorous  collector,  and 
filled  the  fine  house  which  he  had  built  on 
Campden  Hill  with  books,  engravings, 
clocks,  china,  silver,  and  bric-a-brac  of  the 
most  varied  description,  but  chiefly  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  He  did  much,  by 
writing  and  by  example,  to  foster  that 
admiration  for  the  stipple  engravings  of 
Bartolozzi  and  his  school,  which  rose  to  a 
mania  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century  and  forced  up  the  prices  of  such 
engravings,  especially  when  printed  in 
colours,  beyond  reasonable  limits.  The 


greater  part  of  his  own  collection  of  en- 
gravings was  sold  at  Christie's  in  two  por- 
tions, on  12  April  1881  and  22  April 
1884. 

His  chief  literary  work,  '  Bartolozzi  and 
his  Works,'  contains  not  only  a  great  amount 
of  information  on  Bartolozzi  and  his  con- 
temporaries and  pupils,  but  practical  hints 
to  collectors  and  many  explanations  of 
technical  matters  in  a  popular  and  pleasant 
form.  No  book  on  the  subject  of  engravings 
is  more  readable,  but  it  is  discursive 
and  unsystematic  in  its  arrangement,  and 
does  not  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  serious 
student.  Its  great  defect  is  the  absence  of 
a  catalogue  of  Bartolozzi's  works.  Tuer  had 
intended  to  produce  one,  and  no  writer  was 
better  qualified  for  the  task  ;  but  the  pro- 
visional list  of  the  engravings,  still  the 
fullest  in  existence,  which  was  included  in 
the  first  edition  of  1882,  was  withdrawn 
from  the  second  edition  of  1885,  and  the 
complete  catalogue  .which  was  then  pro- 
mised in  its  place  was  never  written.  The 
collector's  zeal  was  diverted  to  other  ob- 
jects, the  nature  of  which  is  sufficiently  in- 
dicated by  the  titles  of  his  later  books. 

Tuer  became  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries  in  January  1890.  He  was  an 
amateur  of  music,  as  of  other  forms  of  art, 
and  possessed  a  fine  tenor  voice.  He  mar- 
ried, on  10  Oct.  1867,  Thomasine  Louisa, 
youngest  daughter  of  Samuel  John  Louttit, 
controller  of  accounts  in  the  tea  office  at  the 
custom  house,  London.  There  were  no 
children  by  the  marriage.  Mrs.  Tuer  sur- 
vives her  husband,  who  died  at  18  Campden 
Hill  Square  on  24  Feb.  1900. 

Tuer's  published  works  are  :  1. '  Luxurious 
Bathing/ fol.  1879.  2.  '  Bartolozzi  and  his 
Works,'  fol.  1882,  2  vols. ;  2nd  edit,  with 
additional  matter,  1885, 1  vol.  8vo.  3.  '  Lon- 
don Cries,'  1883,  4to.  4.  'Old  London 
Street  Cries  and  the  Cries  of  To-day,'  1885, 
16mo.  5.  '  The  Follies  and  Fashions  of  our 
Grandfathers,'  1886,  8vo.  6.  'History  of 
the  Horn-Book,'  1896,  2  vols.  8vo ;  2nd  edit. 
1897,  1  vol.  8vo.  7.  'Pages  and  Pictures 
from  Forgotten  Children's  Books,'  1898, 8vo. 
8.  'Stories  from  Old-fashioned  Children's 
Books,'  1900,  8vo. 

He  also  contributed  prefaces  or  introduc- 
tions to  Nash's '  Catalogue  of  a  Loan  Collec- 
tion of  Engravings  by  Bartolozzi,'  1883 ; '  By- 
gone Beauties  painted  by  Hoppner,'  1883 ; 
Lamb's  '  Prince  Doras,'  1884;  '  The  Book  of 
Delightful  and  Strange  Designs '  (Japanese 
stencil  plates),  1893,  and  other  works. 

[Athenaeum,  3  March  1900;  Literature, 
3  March  1900;  Times,  27  Feb.  1900;  private 
information.]  C.  D. 

cc2 


Vaughan 


388 


Victor 


V 


VAUGHAN,  HENRY  (1803-1899),  art 
collector,  son  of  George  Vaughan  and  Eliza- 
beth Andrews,  his  wife,  was  born  on 
17  April  1809  in  Southwark,  where  his 
father  carried  on  a  successful  business  as  a 
hat  manufacturer.  He  was  privately  edu- 
cated, and  in  1828,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  succeeded  to  a  large  fortune.  He 
travelled  much  and  became  a  cultivated 
and  enthusiastic  collector  of  works  of  art, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  with  a  special 
predilection  for  the  works  of  Turner, 
Stothard,  Flaxman,  and  Constable.  Of 
•water-colour  drawings  by  Turner,  with 
whom  he  was  personally  acquainted,  he 
formed  a  singularly  fine  series,  and  also  of 
proofs  of  his  '  Liber  Studiorum.'  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Athenaeum  Club  in 
1849,  and  F.SA.  in  1879.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  and  most  active  members  of 
the  Burlington  Fine  Arts  Club,  and  a  con- 
stant contributor  to  its  exhibitions.  In  1886 
he  presented  the  celebrated  '  Hay  Wain '  of 
Constable  to  the  National  Gallery,  and  in 
1887  some  fine  drawings  by  Michel  Angelo 
to  the  British  Museum.  He  died,  un- 
married, at  28  Cumberland  Terrace,  Re*- 
gent's  Park,  where  he  had  resided  since 
1834,  on  26  April  1899.  By  his  will 
Vaughan  distributed  the  whole  of  his  art  col- 
lections among  public  institutions,  the  list 
of  his  specific  bequests  occupying  more  than 
thirty  folios  (Times,  3  Jan.  1900).  To  the 
National  Gallery  he  left  his  oil  paintings,  a 
series  of  Turner's  original  drawings  for 
'  Liber  Studiorum,'  and  studies  by  Reynolds, 
Leslie,  and  Constable.  The  British  Mu- 
seum received  his  drawings  by  old  masters; 
a  large  collection  of  studies  by  Flaxman 
and  finished  water-colours  by  Stothard  and 
other  English  artists ;  also  such  of  the 
'  Liber  Studiorum '  proofs  as  might  be  re- 
quired. To  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Mu- 
seum he  assigned  his  collections  of  stained 
glass  and  carved  panels,  and  several  draw- 
ings by  Turner.  The  remainder  of  the 
Turner  drawings  he  divided  between  the 
National  Gallery  of  Ireland  and  the  Royal 
Institution  for  the  Encouragement  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  Edinburgh.  Some  drawings  by 
Flaxman,  Stothard,  and  De  "\Vint,  the 
etchings  by  Rembrandt,  and  the  remainder 
of  the '  Liber  Studiorum '  went  to  University 
College,  London.  Vaughan  bequeathed  the 
bulk  of  his  fortune  to  charitable  and  religious 
societies. 


[Times,  27  Nov.  1899,  3  Jan.  1900,  and  8  May 
1901  ;  Athenaeum,  1899,  ii.  767;  private  infor- 
mation.] F.  M.  O'D. 

VICTOR       FERDINAND       FRANZ 
EUGEN  GUSTAF  ADOLF  CONSTAN- 
|TIN  FRIEDRICH  OF  HOHENLOHE-LAX- 
GENBURG,  PRINCE,  for  many  years  known  as 
COUNT  GLEICHEN  (1833-1891),  admiral  and 
1  sculptor,  was  third   and  youngest   son   of 
Prince  Ernest  of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg  and 
of  Princess  Feodore,  only  daughter  of  Emich 
j  Charles,  reigning  Prince  of  Leiningen,  by 
Princess  Victoria  of  Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, 
1  afterwards  Duchess  of  Kent.     His  mother 
,  was  therefore  half-sister  to  Queen  Victoria. 
Born  at  the  castle  of  Langenburg  in  Wiirtem- 
;  berg  on  11  Nov.  1833,  Prince  Victor  was  sent 
I  to  school  at  Dresden,  from  which  he  ran  away. 
\  Through  the  interest  of  Queen  Victoria  he- 
I  was  put  into  the  British  navy,  entering  as  a 
midshipman  on  H.M.S.  Powerful  in  1848. 
He  served  in  H.M.S.  Cumberland,  the  flag- 
ship of  Admiral  Sir  George  Seymour  on  the- 
North  American  station.     During  the  expe- 
dition to  the  Baltic  in  1854  he  was  slightly 
wounded  at  Bomarsund.     He  was  next  ap- 
pointed to  H.M.S.  St.  Jean  d'Acre  off  Sevas- 
topol, and  afterwards  transferred  to  the  naval 
brigade,  doing  duty  in  the  trenches.  As  aide- 
de-camp  to  Sir  Harry  Keppel  he  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  the  Tchernaya,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  bravery  under  fire.  In  185ft 
i  he  was  appointed  flag-lieutenant  to  Sir  Harry 
!  Keppel  in  China,  and  took  a  prominent  part 
!  in  the  fighting,  being  recommended  for  the- 
'  Victoria  Cross.     Repeated  illness,  however,. 
]  undermined  his  constitution,  and  prevented 
1  him  from  earning  fresh  distinction  in  the 
'  navy.      He  was  compelled  for  this  reason  to- 
retire  on  half-pay  in  1866.     He  was  created 
j  a   K.C.B.  in  1867,   and   appointed  by   the- 
queen  to  be  governor  and  constable  of  Wind- 
sor Castle.     On  26  Jan.  1861  Prince  Victor 
married  Laura  Williamina,  youngest  daugh- 
ter of  Admiral  Sir  George  Francis  Seymour 
[q.  v.]     By  an  old  law  in  Germany,  relating- 
to   reigning  families,  Prince  Victor's  wife, 
not  being  of  equal  rank,  was  disqualified 
from  using  her  husband's  title.     In  conse- 
quence Prince  Victor  assumed  the  title  of 
Count  Gleichen,the  second  title  in  the  family, 
by  whichhe was  known  formany years.  After 
he  retired  from  the  navy  Count  Gleichen  de- 
voted himself  to  an  artistic  career,  for  which 
he  had  considerable  talent.     Being  fond  of 


Victor 


389 


Victoria 


modelling,  he  studied  for  three  years  under 
"William  Theed  [q.  v.l  Loss  of  fortune, 
owing  to  the  failure  of  a  bank,  caused  him 
to  look  to  sculpture  as  a  serious  profession. 
He  had  been  granted  by  Queen  Victoria  a 
suite  of  apartments  in  St.  James's  Palace, 
where  he  set  up  a  studio  and  entered  into  re- 
gular competition  as  a  working  sculptor.  He 
executed  several  imaginative  groups,  as  well 
as  monuments  and  portrait  busts.  Some  of 
the  busts  were  very  successful,  notably  those 
of  the  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  the  Marquis  of 
Salisbury,  and  Sir  Harry  Keppel.  His  most 
important  work,  however,  was  a  colossal 
statue  of  Alfred  the  Great,  executed  for  the 
town  of  Wantage,  where  it  was  erected. 
He  was  enabled  by  his  success  as  a  sculptor 
to  build  himself  a  small  house  near  Ascot. 
Jn  1885  Count  and  Countess  Gleichen  were 
permitted  by  the  queen  to  revert  to  the 
names  of  Prince  and  Princess  Victor  of 
Hohenlohe-Langenburg.  Prince  Victor  died 
on  31  Dec.  1891.  He  had  in  1887  been  pro- 
moted to  be  G.C.B.  and  an  admiral  on  the 
retired  list. 

He  left  one  son,  Count  Albert  Edward 
"Wilfred  Gleichen,  C.M.G.,  major  in  the 
.grenadier  guards,  and  three  daughters,  of 
whom  the  eldest,  Countess  Feodore  Gleichen, 
has  inherited  her  father's  skill  in  sculpture. 

[Private  information.]  L.  0. 

VICTORIA,  QTTEEN  OP  THE  UNITED 
KINGDOM  OF  GEEAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND 
and  EMPRESS  OP  INDIA  (1819-1901),  was 
granddaughter  of  George  III,  and  only  child 
of  George  Ill's  fourth  son  Edward,  duke  of 
Kent,  K.G.,  G.C.B.,  field-marshal. 


Princess  Charlotte  Augusta  of  Wales, 
only  child  of  the  Prince  Regent  (George  Ill's 
heir),  having  married  Prince  Leopold  of 
Saxe-Coburg  on  2  May  1816,  died  after  the 
birth  of  a  stillborn  son  op.  6  Nov.  1817. 
The  crown  was  thereby  deprived  of  its  only 
legitimate  representative  in  the  third  gene- 

ration.  Of  the  seven  sons  of 
fiion  txTthT"  George  III  who  survived  infancy 
crown  in  three,  at  the  date  of  Princess 

Charlotte's  death,  were  bachelors, 
and  the  four  who  were  married  were  either 
childless  or  without  lawful  issue.  With  a 
•view  to  maintaining  the  succession  it  was 
deemed  essential  after  Princess  Charlotte's 
•demise  that  the  three  unmarried  sons — Wil- 
liam, duke  of  Clarence,  the  third  son ;  Ed- 
ward, duke  of  Kent,  the  fourth  son;  and 
Adolphus  Frederick,  duke  of  Cambridge,  the 
seventh  and  youngest  son — should  marry 
without  delay.  All  were  middle-aged.  In 


each  case  the  bride  was  chosen  from  a  princely 
family  of  Germany.  The  weddings  followed 
one  another  with  rapidity.  On  7  May  1818 
the  Duke  of  Cambridge,  who  had  long  resided 
in  Hanover  as  the  representative  of  his 
father,  George  III,  in  the  government  there, 
married,  at  Cassel,  Augusta,  daughter  of 
Frederick,  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel.  On 
11  June  1818  the  Duke  of  Clarence  married 
in  his  fifty-third  year  Adelaide,  eldest  daugh- 
ter of  George  Frederick  Charles,  reigning 
duke  of  Saxe-Meiningen.  In  the  interval, 
on  29  May,  the  Duke  of  Kent,  who  was  in 
his  fifty-first  year,  and  since  1816  had  mainly 
lived  abroad,  took  to  wife  a  widowed  sister 
of  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  the 
widowed  husband  of  that  Princess  Charlotte 
whose  death  had  induced  so  much  matri- 
monial activity  in  the  English  royal  house. 
The  Duke  of  Kent's  bride,  who  was  com- 
monly known  by  the  Christian  name  of 
Victoria,  although  her  full  Christian  names 
were  Mary  Louisa  Victoria,  was 
Stride,  nearly  thirty-two  years  old.  She 
was  fourth  daughter  and  youngest 
of  the  eight  children  of  Francis  Frederick 
Antony  (1750-1 806),  reigning  duke  of  Saxe- 
Coburg  and  Saalfeld.  (In  1825  Saalfeld, 
by  a  family  arrangement,  was  exchanged  for 
Gotha.)  Her  first  husband  was  Ernest 
Charles,  reigning  prince  of  Leiningen,  whose 
second  wife  she  became  on  21  Sept.  1803, 
at  the  age  of  seventeen  ;  he  died  on  4  July 
1814,  leaving  by  her  a  son  and  a  daughter. 
For  the  son,  who  was  born  on  12  Sept.  1804, 
she  was  acting  as  regent  and  guardian  when 
the  Duke  of  Kent  proposed  marriage  to  her. 
Her  responsibilities  to  her  first  family  and 
to  the  principality  of  Leiningen  made  her 
somewhat  reluctant  to  accept  the  duke's 
offer.  But  her  father's  family  of  Saxe- 
Coburg  was  unwilling  for  her  to  neglect  an 
opportunity  of  reinforcing  those  intimate 
relations  with  the  English  reigning  house 
which  the  Princess  Charlotte's  marriage  had 
no  sooner  brought  into  being  than  her  pre- 
mature death  threatened  to  extinguish. 
The  Dowager  Princess  of  Leiningen  conse- 
quently married  the  Duke  of  Kent,  and  the 
ceremony  took  place  at  the  ducal  palace  of 
Coburg.  "The  princess  was  a  cheerful  woman 
of  homely  intellect  and  temperament,  with 
a  pronounced  love  of  her  family  and  her 
fatherland.  Her  kindred  was  exceptionally 
numerous;  she  maintained  close  relations 
with  most  of  them,  and  domestic  interests 
thus  absorbed  her  attention  through  life. 
Besides  the  son  and  daughter  of  her  first 
marriage,  she  had  three  surviving  brothers 
and  three  sisters,  all  of  whom  married,  and 
all  but  one  of  whom  had  issue.  Fifteen 


Victoria 


390 


Victoria 


nephews  and  three  nieces  reached  maturity, 
and  their  marriages  greatly   extended  her 
family  connections.      Most  of  her  near  kin-  . 
dred  allied  themselves  in  marriage,  as  she  i 
in  the  first  instance  had  done,  with   the 
smaller  German    reigning    families.      Her 
eldest  brother,  Ernest,  who  succeeded  to  the 


ments  were  allotted  them  in  the  palace  at 
Kensington,  in  the  south-east  wing,  and 
there  on  Monday,  24  May  1819,  at  4.15  in 
the  morning,  was  born  to  them  the  girl 
who  was  the  future  Queen  Victoria.  A  gilt 
plate  above  the  mantelpiece  of  the  room  still 
attests  the  fact.  The  Duke  of  Kent,  while 


duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg,  and  was  father  of  j  describing  his  daughter  as  '  a  fine  healthy 


Albert,  prince   consort  of  Queen  Victoria, 
twice  married  princesses  of  small  German 
courts.   A  sister,  Antoinette  Ernestina  Ame- 
lia, married  Alexander  Frederick  Charles, 
duke  of  Wiirtemberg.     At  the  same  time 
some  matrimonial  unions  were  ef- 
.   fected  by  the  Saxe-Coburg  family 
with  the  royal  houses  of  Latin 
countries — France  and  Portugal.     One  of 
the  Duchess  of  Kent's  nephews  married  the 
queen  of  Portugal,  while  there  were  no  fewer 
than  five  intermarriages  on  the  part  of  her 
family  with  that  of  King  Louis  Philippe : 
two  of  her  brothers  and  two  of  her  nephews 
married  the  French  king's  daughters,  and  a 
niece  married  his  second  son,  the  Due  de 
l^emours.  Members  of  the  Hanoverian  family 
on  the  English  throne  had  long  been  accus- 
tomed to  seek  husbands  or  wives  at  the  minor 
courts  of  Germany,  but  the  private  rela- 
tions of  the  English  royal  house  with  those 
courts  became  far  closer  than  before  through 
the   strong    family    sentiment    which    the 
Duchess  of  Kent  not  merely  cherished  per- 
sonally but  instilled  in  her  daughter,  the 
queen  of  England.     For  the  first  time  since 
the  seventeenth  century,  too,  the  private 
ties  of  kinship  and  family  feeling  linked  the 
sovereign  of  England  with  rulers  of  France 
and  Portugal. 

The  Duke  of  Kent  brought  his  bride  to 
England  for  the  first  time  in  July  1818, 
and  the  marriage  ceremony  was  repeated  at 
Kew  Palace  on  the  llth  of  that  month. 
The  duke  received  on  his  marriage  an  an- 
nuity of  6,000/.  from  parliament,  but  he 
was  embarrassed  by  debt,  and  his  income 
was  wholly  inadequate  to  his  needs.  His 
brothers  and  sisters  showed  no  disposition 
either  to  assist  him  or  to  show  his  duchess 
much  personal  courtesy.  He  therefore  left  the 
country  for  Germany  and  accepted  the  hospi- 
tality of  his  wife,  with  whom  and  with  whose 
children  by  her  former  marriage  he  settled 
at  her  dower-house  at  Amorbach  in  her 
son's  principality  of  Leiningen.  In  the  spring 
of  1819  the  birth  of  a  child  grew  imminent. 
There  was  a  likelihood,  although  at  the 
Queen  moment  it  looked  remote,  that 

Victoria's       it   might  prove  the  heir  to  the 
birth.  English  crown;    the   duke    and 

duchess  hurried  to  England  so  that  the  birth 
might  take  place  on  English  soil.    Apart- 


child,'  modestly  deprecated  congratulations 
which    anticipated    her  succession   to   the 
throne,   'for  while  I   have  three  brothers 
senior  to  myself,  and  one  (i.e.  the  Duke  of 
Clarence)  possessing  every  reasonable  pro- 
spect of  having  a  family,  I  should  deem  it 
the  height  of  presumption  to  believe  it  pro- 
bable that  a  future  heir  to  the   crown  of 
England    would  spring    from    me.'      Her 
mother's    mother,    the   Duchess    of    Saxe- 
Coburg-Saalfeld,  wrote  of  her  as  '  a  Char- 
lotte— destined  perhaps  to  play  a  great  part 
one  day.'     '  The  English  like  queens,'  she 
added,  '  and  the  niece  [and  also  first  cousin] 
of  the  ever-lamented  beloved  Charlotte  will 
se  most  dear  to  them.'    Her  father  remarked 
that  the  infant  was  too  healthy  to  satisfy 
the  members  of  his  own  family,  who  re- 
garded her  as  an  unwelcome  intruder.     The 
child  held,  in  fact,  the  fifth  place  in  the 
succession.     Between  her   and   the  crown 
there   stood  her   three  uncles,   the  Prince 
Regent,  the  Duke  of  York,  and  the  Duke 
of  Clarence,  besides  her  father  the  Duke  of 
Kent.     Formal  honours  were  accorded  the 
newly  born  princess  as  one  in  the  direct 
line.     The  privy  councillors  who  were  sum- 
moned to  Kensington  on  her  birth  included 
her  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Sussex,  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  the  Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  and 
two  leading  members  of  Lord  Liverpool's 
tory  ministry,  Canning  and  Vansittart.     On 
24  June  her  baptism  took  place  in  the  grand 
saloon  at  Kensington  Palace.   The  gold  font, 
which  was  part  of  the  regalia  of  the  king- 
dom,  was   brought  from   the  Tower,  and 
crimson  velvet  curtains  from  the  chapel  at 
St.  James's.     There  were  three  sponsors,  of 
whom   the  most  interesting  was  the  tsar, 
Alexander  I,  the  head  of  the  Holy  Alliance 
and  the  most  powerful  monarch  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.    The  regent  and  the  tory 
prime  minister,  Lord  Liverpool,  desired  to 
maintain  friendly  relations  with  Russia,  and 
the  offer  of  Prince  Lieven,  Russian  ambas- 
sador in  London,  that  his  master  should  act 
as  sponsor  was  accepted  with  alacrity.     The 
second  sponsor  was  the  child's  eldest  aunt, 
the  queen  of  Wiirtemberg  (princess  royal  of 
England),  and  the  third  her  mother's  mother, 
the  Duchess  of  Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.   The 
three  were  represented  respectively  by  the 
infant's  uncle,  the  Duke  of  York,  and  her 


Victoria 


391 


Victoria 


aunts,  the  Princess  Augusta  and  the  Duchess 
of  Gloucester.  The  rite  was  performed  by 
Dr.  Manners  Sutton,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, assisted  by  the  bishop  of  London. 
The  prince  regent,  who  was  present,  declared 
Her  that  the  one  name  of  '  Alexan- 

baptismai  drina,'  after  the  tsar,  was  suffi- 
cient. The  Duke  of  Kent  re- 
quested that  a  second  name  should  be  added. 
The  prince  regent  suggested  '  Georgina.'' 
The  Duke  of  Kent  urged '  Elizabeth.'  There- 
upon the  regent  brusquely  insisted  on  the 
mother's  name  of  Victoria,  at  the  same  time 
stipulating  that  it  should  follow  that  of 
Alexandrina.  The  princess  was  therefore 
named  at  baptism  Alexandrina  Victoria,  and 
for  several  years  was  known  in  the  family 
circle  as  '  Drina.'  But  her  mother  was 
desirous  from  the  first  to  give  public  and 
official  prominence  to  her  second  name  of 
Victoria.  When  only  four  the  child  signed 
her  name  as  Victoria  to  a  letter  which 
is  now  in  the  British  Museum  (Addit.  MS. 
18204,  fol.  12).  The  appellation,  although 
it  was  not  unknown  in  England  [see  CLARKE, 
MRS.  MARY  VICTORIA  COWDEX-,  Suppl.], 
had  a  foreign  sound  to  English  ears,  and  its 
bestowal  on  the  princess  excited  some  insular 
prejudice. 

When  the  child  was  a  month  old  her 
parents  removed  with  her  to  Claremont,  the 
residence  which  had  been  granted  for  life  to 
her  uncle,  Prince  Leopold,  the  widowed  hus- 
band of  the  Princess  Charlotte,  and  remained 
his  property  till  his  death  in  1865.  In  August 
the  princess  was  vaccinated,  and  the  fact  of 
her  being  the  first  member  of  the  royal 
family  to  undergo  the  operation  widely  ex- 
tended its  vogue.  Before  the  end  of  the 
month  the  Duchess  of  Kent  learned  from  her 
mother  of  the  birth  on  the  26th,  at  Rosenau 
in  Coburg,  of  the  second  son  (Albert)  of 
her  eldest  brother,  the  reigning  Duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld  (afterwards  Gotha). 
Madame  Siebold,  the  German  accoucheuse, 
who  had  attended  Princess  Victoria's  birth, 
was  also  present  at  Prince  Albert's,  and  in 
the  Saxe-Coburg  circle  the  names  of  the 
two  children  were  at  once  linked  together. 
In  December  1819  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of 
Kent  went  with  their  daughter  to  Sidmouth, 
where  they  rented  a  small  house  called 
Woolbrook  Cottage.  The  sojourn  there  did 
not  lack  incident.  The  discharge  of  an 
arrow  by  a  mischievous  boy  at  the  window 
of  the  room  which  the  infant  was  occupy- 
ing went  very  near  ending  her  career  before 
it  was  well  begun.  After  a  few  weeks  at 
Sidmouth,  too,  the  child's  position  in  the 
state  underwent  momentous  change. 

On  14  Jan.  1820  her  grandfather,  King 


Deaths  of 
Duke  of 
Kent  and 
George  III, 
Jan.  1820. 


George  III,  who  had  long  been  blind  and 
imbecile,  passed  away,  and  the  prince  re- 

fent  became  king  at  the  age  of 
fty-eight.  Six  days  later,  on 
20  Jan.  1820,  her  father,  the  Duke 
of  Kent,  fell  ill  of  a  cold  con- 
tracted while  walking  in  wet 
weather ;  inflammation  of  the  lungs  set  in, 
and  on  the  23rd  he  died.  Thus  the  four 
lives  that  had  intervened  between  the  prin- 
cess and  the  highest  place  in  the  state  were 
suddenly  reduced  to  two— those  of  her 
uncles,  the  Duke  of  York,  who  was  fifty- 
seven,  and  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  who  was 
fifty-five.  Neither  duke  had  a  lawful  heir, 
or  seemed  likely  to  have  one.  A  great 
future  for  the  child  of  the  Duchess  of  Kent 
thus  seemed  assured. 

The  immediate  position  of  mother  and 
daughter  was  not,  however,  enviable.  The 
Duke  of  Kent  appointed  his  widow  sole 

Saardian  of  their  child,  with  his  friends 
eneral  Wetherall  and  Sir  John  Conroy  as 
executors  of  his  will.  Conroy  thenceforth 
acted  as  major-domo  for  the  duchess,  and 
lived  under  the  same  roof  until  the  accession 
of  the  princess,  by  whom  he  was  always  cor- 
dially disliked.  The  duchess  was  obnoxious 
to  her  husband's  brothers,  especially  to  the 
new  king,  to  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  to 
their  younger  brother,  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, the  next  heir  to  the  throne  after 
Position  of  ner  daughter.  Speaking  later  of 
Duchess  of  her  relations  with  the  heads  of 
Kent.  £Qe  rOyai  family,  she  said  that 

on  her  husband's  death  she  stood  with  her 
daughter  'friendless  and  alone.'  Not  the 
least  of  her  trials  was  her  inability  to  speak 
English.  Although  the  duke  had  made  a 
will,  he  left  no  property.  He  only  bequeathed 
a  mass  of  debts,  which  the  princess,  to  her 
lasting  credit,  took  in  course  of  time  on 
her  own  shoulders  and  discharged  to  the 
last  penny.  Parliament  had  granted  the 
duchess  in  1818  an  annuity  of  6,000/.  in  case 
of  her  widowhood ;  apartments  were  allowed 
her  in  Kensington  Palace,  but  she  and  her 
daughter  had  no  other  acknowledged  re- 
sources. Her  desolate  lot  was,  however,  not 
without  private  mitigation.  She  had  the 
sympathy  of  her  late  husband's  unmarried 
sisters,  Sophia  and  Augusta,  who  admired 
her  self-possession  at  this  critical  period;  and 
the  kindly  Duchess  of  Clarence,  who,  a  Ger- 
man princess,  like  herself,  conversed  with 
her  in  her  mother-tongue,  paid  her  con- 
stant visits.  But  her  main  source  of  conso- 
lation was  her  brother  Leopold,  who  proved  an 
invaluable  adviser  and  a  generous  benefactor. 
As  soon  as  the  gravity  of  the  duke's  illness 
declared  itself  he  had  hurried  to  Sidmouth  to 


Victoria 


392 


Victoria 


console  and  counsel  her.  Deprived  by  death 
some  four  years  before  of  wife  and  child,  he 
had  since  led  an  aimless  career  of  travel  in 
England  and  Scotland,  without  any  recog- 
nised position  or  influence.  It  was  congenial 
to  him  to  assume  informally  the  place  of  a 
father  to  the  duke's  child.  Although  his 
German  education  never  made  him  quite  at 
home  in  English  politics,  he  was  cautious 
and  far-seeing,  and  was  qualified  for  the  role 
of  guardian  of  his  niece  and  counsellor  of  his 
sister.  He  impressed  the  duchess  with  the 
destiny  in  store  for  her  youngest  child.  Her 
responsibilities  as  regent  of  the  principality 
of  Leiningen  in  behalf  of  her  son  by  her  first 
marriage  weighed  much  withher.  But  strong 
as  was  her  aftection  for  her  German  kindred, 
anxious  as  she  was  to  maintain  close  relations 
with  them,  and  sensitive  as  she  was  to  the  in- 
difference to  her  manifested  at  the  English 
court,  she,  under  Leopold's  influence,  resigned 
the  regency  of  Leiningen,  and  resolved  to 
reside  permanently  in  England.  After  de- 
liberating with  her  brother,  she  chose  as '  the 
whole  object  of  her  future  life '  the  education 
of  her  younger  daughter,  in  view  of  the  like- 
lihood of  her  accession  to  the  English  throne. 
Until  the  princess's  marriage,  when  she  was 
in  her  twenty-first  year,  mother  and  daughter 
were  never  parted  for  a  day. 

Of  her  father  the  princess  had  no  personal 
remembrance,  but  her  mother  taught  her  to 
honour  his  memory.  Through  his  early  life 
he  had  been  an  active  soldier  in  Canada 
and  at  Gibraltar,  and  he  was  sincerely  at- 
tached to  the  military  profession.  When 
his  daughter,  as  Queen  Victoria,  presented 
new  colours  to  his  old  regiment,  the  royal 
Scots,  at  Ballater  on  26  Sept.  1876,  she  said 
of  him :  '  He  was  proud  of  his  profession, 
and  I  was  always  told  to  consider  myself  a 
soldier's  child.'  Strong  sympathy  with  the 
army  was  a  main  characteristic  of  her  career. 
Nor  were  her  father's  strong  liberal,  even  radi- 
cal, sympathies  concealed  from  her.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  arranging  to  visit 
New  Lanark  with  his  wife  as  the  guests  of 
Robert  Owen,  with  whose  principles  he  had 
already  declared  his  agreement  (OwEN,  Auto- 
biography, 1857,  p.  237).  The  princess's 
whiggish  proclivities  in  early  life  were  part 
of  her  paternal  inheritance. 

It  was  in  the  spring  of  1820  that  the 
Duchess  of  Kent  took  up  her  permanent 
abode  in  Kensington  Palace,  and  there  in 
comparative  seclusion  the  princess  spent 
most  of  her  first  eighteen  years  of  life.  Ken- 
sington was  then  effectually  cut  off  from 
London  by  market  gardens  and  country  lanes. 
Besides  her  infant  daughter  the  duchess  had 
another  companion  in  her  child  by  her  first 


husband,  Princess  F6odore  of  Leiningen,  who 
was  twelve  years  Princess  Victoria's  senior, 
and  inspired  her  with  deep  and  lasting  affec- 
tion. Prince  Charles  of  Leiningen,  Princess 
Victoria's  stepbrother,  was  also  a  frequent 
visitor,  and  to  him  also  she  was  much  at- 
tached. Chief  among  the  permanent  mem- 
bers of  the  Kensington  household  was  Louise 
Lehzen,  the  daughter  of  a  Lutheran  clergy- 
man of  Hanover,  who  had  acted  as  governess 
of  the  Princess  FVSodore  from  1818.  Princess 
Theprin-  Victoria's  education  was  begun 
cess's  educa-  in  1824,  when  Fraulein  Lehzen 
tion-  transferred  her  services  from  the 

elder  to  the  younger  daughter.  Voluble  in 
talk,  severe  in  manner,  restricted  in  infor- 
mation, conventional  in  opinion,  she  was 
never  popular  in  English  society ;  but  she 
was  shrewd  in  judgment  and  whole-hearted 
in  her  devotion  to  her  charge,  whom  she 
at  once  inspired  with  affection  and  fear,  me- 
mory of  which  never  wholly  left  her  pupil. 
Long  after  the  princess's  girlhood  close  in- 
timacy continued  between  the  two.  At 
Lehzen's  death  in  1870  the  queen  wrote  of 
her :  '  She  knew  me  from  six  months  old, 
and  from  my  fifth  to  my  eighteenth  years 
devoted  all  her  care  and  energies  to  me  with 
most  wonderful  abnegation  of  self,  never 
even  taking  one  day's  holiday.  I  adored, 
though  I  was  greatly  in  awe  of  her.  She 
really  seemed  to  have  no  thought  but  for 
me.' 

The  need  of  fittingly  providing  for  the 
princess's  education  first  brought  the  child 
to  the  formal  notice  of  parliament.  In  1825 
parliament  unanimously  resolved  to  allow 
the  Duchess  of  Kent  an  additional  6,000/.  a 
year  '  for  the  purpose  of  making  an  adequate 
provision  for  the  honourable  support  and 
education  of  her  highness  Princess  Alexan- 
drina  Victoria  of  Kent '  (Hansard,  new  ser. 
xiii.  909-27).  English  instruction  was  need- 
ful, and  Fraulein  Lehzen,  whose  position 
was  never  officially  recognised,  was  hardly 
qualified  for  the  whole  of  the  teaching.  On 
the  advice  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Russell, 
vicar  of  Kensington,  the  Rev.  George  Davys, 
at  the  time  vicar  of  a  small  Lincolnshire 

Earish — from  which  he  was  soon  trans- 
;rred  to  the  crown  living  of  St.  Hallows- 
on-the-Wall,  in  the  city  of  London — became 
the  princess's  preceptor.  He  was  formally 
appointed  in  1827,  when  he  took  up  his  re- 
sidence at  Kensington  Palace.  To  recon- 
cile Fraulein  Lehzen  to  the  new  situation, 
George  IV  in  1827,  at  the  request  of  his 
sister,  Princess  Sophia,  made  her  a  Hano- 
verian baroness.  Davys  did  his  work  dis- 
creetly. He  gathered  round  him  a  band 
of  efficient  masters  in  special  subjects  of 


Victoria 


393 


Victoria 


study,  mainly  reserving  for  himself  religious 
knowledge  and  history.  Although  his  per- 
sonal religious  views  were  decidedly  evan- 
gelical, he  was  liberal  in  his  attitude  to  all 
religious  opinions,  and  he  encouraged  in  his 
pupil  a  singularly  tolerant  temper,  which 
in  after  life  served  her  in  good  stead.  Thomas 
Steward,  the  writing-master  of  Westminster 
school,  taught  her  penmanship  and  arith- 
metic. She  rapidly  acquired  great  ease  and 
speed  in  writing,  although  at  the  sacrifice  ol 
elegance.  As  a  girl  she  was  a  voluble  cor- 
respondent with  her  numerous  kinsfolk,  and 
she  maintained  the  practice  till  the  end 
of  her  life.  Although  during  her  girlhood 
the  duchess  conscientiously  caused  her 
daughter  to  converse  almost  entirely  in  Eng- 
lish, German  was  the  earliest  language  she 
learned,  and  she  always  knew  it  as  a  mother- 
tongue.  She  studied  it  and  German  litera- 
ture grammatically  under  M.  Barez.  At 
first  she  spoke  English  with  a  slight  German 
accent ;  but  this  was  soon  mended,  and  in 
mature  years  her  pronunciation  of  English 
was  thoroughly  natural,  although  refined. 
As  a  young  woman  she  liked  to  be  regarded 
as  an  authority  on  English  accent  (LADY 
LYTTELTOX,  Letters).  She  was  instructed 
in  French  by  M.  Grandineau,  and  came  to 
speak  it  well  and  with  fluency.  At  a 
later  period,  when  she  was  fascinated  by 
Italian  opera,  she  studied  Italian  assiduously, 
and  rarely  lost  an  opportunity  of  speaking  it. 
Although  she  was  naturally  a  good  linguist, 
she  showed  no  marked  aptitude  or  liking  for 
literary  subjects  of  study.  She  was  not  per- 
mitted in  youth  to  read  novels.  First-rate 
literature  never  appealed  to  her.  Nor  was 
she  endowed  with  genuine  artistic  taste. 
But  to  the  practical  pursuit  of  the  arts  she 
applied  herself  as  a  girl  with  persistency  and 
delight.  Music  occupied  much  time.  John 
Bernard  Sale,  organist  of  St.  Margaret's, 
Westminster,  and  subsequently  organist  of 
the  Chapel  Royal,  gave  her  her  first  lessons 
in  singing  in  1826.  She  developed  a  sweet 
soprano  voice,  and  soon  both  sang  and  played 
the  piano  with  good  effect.  Drawing  was 
first  taught  her  by  Richard  Westall  the  aca- 
demician, who  in  1829  painted  one  of  the 
earliest  portraits  of  her,  and  afterwards  by 
(Sir)  Edwin  Landseer.  Sketching  in  pencil 
Her  youthful  or  water-colours  was  a  lifelong 
devotion  to  amusement,  and  after  her  mar- 
music  and  riage  she  attempted  etching.  In 
music  and  the  pictorial  arts  she 
sought  instruction  till  comparatively  late  in 
life.  To  dancing,  which  she  was  first  taught 
by  Mdlle.  Bourdin,  she  was,  like  her  mother, 
devoted;  and  like  her,  until  middle  age, 
danced  with  exceptional  grace  and  energy. 


She  was  also  from  childhood  a  skilful  horse- 
woman, and  thoroughly  enjoyed  physical 
exercise,  taking  part  in  all  manner  of  indoor 
and  outdoor  games. 

The  princess  grew  up  an  amiable,  merry, 
affectionate,  simple-hearted  child — very  con- 
siderate for  others'  comfort,  scrupulously  re- 
gardful of  truth,  and  easily  pleased  by  homely 
amusement.  At  the  same  time  she  was  self- 
willed  and  often  showed  impatience  of  re- 
straint. Her  memory  was  from  the  first 
singularly  retentive.  Great  simplicity  was 
encouraged  in  her  general  mode  of  life. 
She  dressed  without  ostentation.  Lord 
Albemarle  watched  her  watering,  at  Ken- 
sington, a  little  garden  of  her  own,  wear- 
ing '  a  large  straw  hat  and  a  suit  of  white 
cotton,'  her  only  ornament  being  '  a  coloured 
fichu  round  the  neck.'  Charles  Knight 
watched  her  breakfasting  in  the  open  air 
when  she  was  nine  years  old,  enjoying 
all  the  freedom  of  her  years,  and  suddenly 
darting  from  the  breakfast  table  '  to  gather 
a  flower  in  an  adjoining  pasture.'  Leigh 
Hunt  often  met  her  walking  at  her  ease  in 
Kensington  Gardens,  and  although  he  was 
impressed  by  the  gorgeous  raiment  of  the 
footman  who  followed  her,  noticed  the  un- 
affected playfulness  with  which  she  treated  a 
companion  of  her  own  age.  The  Duchess 
of  Kent  was  fond  of  presenting  her  at  Ken- 
sington to  her  visitors,  who  included  men  of 
distinction  in  all  ranks  of  life.  William 
Wilberforce  describes  how  he  received  an 
invitation  to  visit  the  duchess  at  Kensing- 
ton Palace  in  July  1820,  and  how  the 
duchess  received  him  '  with  her  fine  ani- 
mated child  on  the  floor  by  her  side  with 
its  playthings,  of  which  I  soon  became  one.' 
On  19  May  1828  Sir  Walter  Scott  '  dined 
with  the  duchess '  and  was  '  presented  to 
the  little  Princess  Victoria — I  hope  they  will 
change  her  name  (he  added) — 

Sir  Walter       ^e  ^e[T  apparent  to  the  crown  as 

SCOtt  3  VISlt.        ,   .  rp,   .      ,..., 

things  now  stand.  .  .  .  This  little 
lady  is  educating  with  much  care,  and 
watched  so  closely,  that  no  busy  maid  has  a 
moment  to  whisper,  "  You  are  heir  of  Eng- 
land." '  But  Sir  Walter  suggested '  I  suspect, 
if  we  could  dissect  the  little  heart,  we  should 
find  that  some  pigeon  or  other  bird  of  the 
air  had  carried  the  matter.' 

According  to  a  story  recorded  many  years 
afterwards  by  Baroness  Lehzen,  the  fact  of 
her  rank  was  carefully  concealed  from  her 
until  her  twelfth  year,  when  after  much  con- 
sultation it  was  solemnly  revealed  to  her  !>y 
the  baroness,  who  cunningly  inserted  in  th<> 
child's  book  of  English  history  a  royal 
genealogical  tree  in  which  her  place  was 
prominently  indicated.  The  princess,  the 


Victoria 


394 


Victoria 


baroness  stated,  received  the  information, 
of  which  she  knew  nothing  before,  with  an 
ecstatic  assurance  that  she  would  be  '  good ' 
thenceforth.  But  there  were  many  oppor- 
tunities open  to  her  previously  of  learning 
the  truth  about  her  position,  and  on  the  story 
in  the  precise  form  that  it  took  in  the 
Baroness  Lehzen's  reminiscence  the  queen 
herself  threw  doubt.  Among  the  princess's 
childish  companions  were  the  daughters  of 
Heinrich  von  Billow,  the  Prussian  ambas- 
sador in  London,  whose  wife  was  daughter 
of  Humboldt.  When,  on  28  May  1829,  they 
and  some  other  children  spent  an  afternoon 
at  Kensington  at  play  with  the  princess, 
each  of  them  on  leaving  \vas  presented  by 
her  with  her  portrait — an  act  which  does 
not  harmonise  well  with  the  ignorance  of 
her  rank  with  which  Baroness  Lehzen  was 
anxious  to  credit  her  (Gabriels  von  Billow, 
a  memoir,  English  transl.  1897,  p.  163). 

The  most  impressive  of  the  princess's  re- 
creations \vere  summer  and  autumn  excur- 
sions into  the  country  or  to  the  seaside. 

Visits  to  her  uncle  Leopold's 
excursions.  nouse  at  Claremont,  near  Esher, 

were  repeated  many  times  a  year. 
There,  she  said,  the  happiest  days  of  her 
youth  were  spent  (GREY,  p.  392).  In  the 
autumn  of  1824  she  was  introduced  at  Clare- 
mont to  Leopold's  mother,  who  was  her  own 
godmother  and  grandmother,  the  Duchess 
Dowager  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who  stayed  at 
Claremont  for  more  than  two  months. 
The  old  duchess  was  enthusiastic  in  praise 
of  her  granddaughter — '  the  sweet  blossom 
of  May  she  called  her — and  she  favoured 
the  notion,  which  her  son  Leopold  seems 
first  to  have  suggested  to  her,  that  the  girl 
might  do  worse  than  marry  into  the  Saxe- 
Coburg  family.  Albert,  the  younger  of  the 
two  sons  of  her  eldest  son,  the  reigning 
Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg — a  boy  of  her  own 
age — was  seriously  considered  as  a  suitor. 
Thenceforth  the  princess's  uncle  Leopold 
was  as  solicitous  about  the  well-being  of  his 
nephew  Albert  as  about  that  of  his  niece 
Victoria.  A  little  later  in  the  same  year 
(1824)  the  child  and  her  mother  paid  the 
first  of  many  visits  to  Ramsgate,  staying  at 
Albion  House.  Broadstairs  was  also  in 
early  days  a  favourite  resort  with  the  duchess 
and  her  daughter,  and  on  returning  thence 
on  one  occasion  they  paid  a  first  visit  to  a 
nobleman,  the  Earl  of  Winchilsea,  at  East- 
well  Park,  Ashford. 

In  1826  the  princess  and  her  mother  were 
invited  for  the  first  time  to  visit  the  king, 
George  IV,  at  Windsor.  He  was  then  re- 
siding at  the  royal  lodge  in  the  park  while 
the  castle  was  undergoing  restoration,  and 


his  guests  were  allotted  quarters  at  Cum- 
berland Lodge.  The  king  was  gracious  to 
his  niece,  and  gave  her  the  badge 
worn  by  members  of  the  royal 
family.  Her  good  spirits  and 
frankness  made  her  thoroughly  agreeable  to 
him.  On  one  occasion  she  especially  pleased 
him  by  bidding  a  band  play  '  God  save  the 
King '  after  he  had  invited  her  to  choose  the 
tune.  On  17  Aug.  1826  she  went  with  him 
on  Virginia  Water,  and  afterwards  he  drove 
her  out  in  his  phaeton. 

Next  year  there  died  without  issue  her 
uncle  the  Duke  of  York,  of  whom  she 
knew  little,  although  just  before  his  death, 
while  he  was  living  in  the  King's  Road, 
Chelsea,  he  had  invited  her  to  pay  him 
a  visit,  and  had  provided  a  punch-and- 
judy  show  for  her  amusement.  His  death 
left  only  her  uncle  the  Duke  of  Clarence 
between  herself  and  the  throne,  and  her 
ultimate  succession  was  now  recognised. 
On  28  May  1829  she  attended,  at  St. 
James's  Palace,  a  court  function  for  the  first 
time.  The  queen  of  Portugal,  Maria  II  (da 
Gloria),  who  was  only  a  month  older  than 
the  princess,  although  she  had  already  occu- 
pied her  throne  three  years,  was  on  a 
visit  to  England,  and  a  ball  was  given  in 
her  honour  by  George  IV.  Queen  Maria 
afterwards  (9  April  1836)  married  Prin- 
cess Victoria's  first  cousin,  Prince  Ferdinand 
Augustus  of  Saxe-Coburg,  and  Queen  Vic- 
toria always  took  an  extremely  sympathe- 
tic interest  in  her  career,  her  descendants, 
and  her  country. 

In  June  1830  the  last  stage  but  one 
in  the  princess's  progress  towards  the  crown 
was  reached.  Her  uncle  George  IV  died  on 
26  June,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
William,  duke  of  Clarence.  The  girl  thus 
became  heir-presumptive.  Public  interest  was 
much  excited  in  her,  and  in  November  1830 
Heir-pre-  ^er  status  was  brought  to  the 
sumptive  to  notice  of  parliament.  A  bill  was 
!830CrOWn'  introduced  by  the  lord  chan- 
cellor, Lord  Lyndhurst,  and  was 
duly  passed,  which  conferred  the  regency  on 
the  Duchess  of  Kent,  in  case  the  new  king 
died  before  the  princess  came  of  age.  This 
mark  of  confidence  was  a  source  of  great 
satisfaction  to  the  duchess.  Next  year  Wil- 
liam IV  invited  parliament  to  make  further 
'  provision  for  Princess  Alexandrina  Victoria 
of  Kent,  in  view  of  recent  events.'  The 
government  recommended  that  10,000/. 
should  be  added  to  the  Duchess  of  Kent's 
allowance  on  behalf  of  the  princess.  Two 
influential  members,  Sir  Matthew  White 
Ridley  and  Sir  Robert  Inglis,  while  sup- 
porting the  proposal,  urged  that  the  princess 


Victoria 


395 


Victoria 


should  as  queen  assume  the  style  of  Eliza- 
beth II,  and  repeated  the  old  complaint  that 
the  name  Victoria  did  not  accord  with  the 
feelings  of  the  people.  The  princess  had, 
however,  already  taken  a  violent  antipathy 
to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  always  deprecated 
any  association  with  her.  An  amendment 
to  reduce  the  new  allowance  by  one  half 
was  lost,  and  the  government's  recommen- 
dation was  adopted  (Hansard,  3rd  ser.  v. 
691,  654  seq.)  Greater  dignity  was  thus 
secured  for  the  household  of  the  Duchess  of 
Kent  and  her  daughter,  although  the  duchess 
regarded  the  addition  to  her  income  as  inade- 
quate to  the  needs  of  her  position.  The 
Duchess  of  Northumberland  (a  granddaugh- 
ter of  Clive)  was  formally  appointed  go- 
verness of  the  princess,  and  her  preceptor 
Davys  was  made  dean  of  Chester.  She  was 
requested  to  attend  court  functions.  On 
20  July  1830,  dressed  in  deep  mourning  with 
a  long  court  train  and  veil  reaching  to  the 
ground  (BiJLOW,  p.  191),  she  followed  Queen 
Adelaide  at  a  chapter  of  the  order  of  the 
Garter  held  at  St.  James's  Palace.  A  few 
months  later  she  was  present  at  the  proro- 
gation of  parliament.  On  24  Feb.  1831  she 
attended  her  first  drawing-room,  in  honour 
of  Queen  Adelaide's  birthday.  The  king 
complained  that  she  looked  at  him  stonily, 
and  was  afterwards  deeply  offended  by  the 
irregularity  of  her  attendances  at  court.  She 
and  her  mother  were  expected  to  attend  his 
coronation  on  8  Sept.  1831,  but  they  did  not 
come,  and  comment  on  their  absence  was 
made  in  parliament. 

With  the  apparent  access  of  prosperity 
went  griefs  and  annoyances  which  caused 
passing  tears,  and  permanently  impressed 
the  princess's  mind  with  a  sense  of  the 
'  sadness  '  of  her  youth.  In  1828  her  con- 
stant companion,  the  Princess  Feodore  of 
Leiningen,  left  England  for  good,  on  her 
marriage,  18  Feb.,  to  Prince  von  Hohenlohe- 
Langenburg,  and  the  separation  deeply 
pained  Victoria.  In  1830  alarm  was  felt  at 
Kensington  at  the  prospect  of  Prince 
Leopold's  permanent  removal  to  the  conti- 
nent. Both  mother  and  daughter  trusted 
his  guidance  implicitly.  The  princess  was 
almost  as  deeply  attached  to  him  as  to  her 
mother.  Although  he  declined  the  offer  of 
the  throne  of  Greece  in  1830,  his  acceptance 
next  year  of  the  throne  of  Belgium  grieved 
her  acutely.  As  king  of  the  Belgians,  he 
watched  her  interests  with  no  less  devo- 
tion than  before,  and  he  was  assiduous  in 
correspondence :  but  his  absence  from  the 
country  and  his  subsequent  marriage  with 
Louis  Philippe's  daughter  withdrew  him 
from  that  constant  control  of  her  affairs  to 


which  she  and  her  mother  had  grown  accus- 
tomed. Two  deaths  which  followed  in  the 
Saxe-Coburg  family  increased  the  sense  of 
depression.  The  earlier  loss  did  not  justify- 
deep  regrets.  The  Duchess  of  Kent's  sister- 
in-law,  the  mother  of  Prince  Albert,  who 
soon  after  his  birth  had  been  divorced,  died 
in  August  1831.  But  the  death  on  16  Nov. 
of  the  Duchess  Dowager  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
the  Duchess  of  Kent's  mother  and  the 
princess's  godmother  and  grandmother,  who 
took  the  warmest  interest  in  the  child's 
future,  was  a  lasting  sorrow. 

The  main  cause  of  the  Duchess  of  Kent's 
anxieties  at  the  time  was,  however,  the 
hostile  attitude  that  William  IV  assumed 
William  iv's  towards  her.  She  had  no  reason 
treatment  of  to  complain  of  the  unconven- 

motherdher  tional  S°°d  numour  which  he 
extended  to  her  daughter,  nor 
would  it  be  easy  to  exaggerate  the  maternal 
solicitude  which  the  homely  Duchess  of 
Clarence,  now  become  Queen  Adelaide, 
showed  the  princess.  But  the  king  re- 
sented the  payment  to  the  duchess  of  any 
of  the  public  consideration  which  the  prin- 
cess's station  warranted.  The  king  seems  to 
have  been  moved  by  a  senile  jealousy  of  the 
duchess's  influence  with  the  heiress  pre- 
sumptive to  the  crown,  and  he  repeatedly 
threatened  to  remove  the  girl  from  her 
mother's  care.  When  the  two  ladies  re- 
ceived, in  August  1831,  a  royal  salute  from 
the  ships  at  Portsmouth  on  proceeding  for 
their  autumn  holiday  to  a  hired  residence, 
Norris  Castle,  Isle  of  Wight,  AVilliam  IV 
requested  the  duchess  to  forego  such  honours, 
and,  when  she  refused,  prohibited  them  from 
being  ottered.  Incessant  wrangling  between 
him  and  the  duchess  continued  throughout 
the  reign. 

From  a  maternal  point  of  view  the  duchess's 
conduct  was  unexceptionable.  She  was  in- 
defatigable in  making  her  daughter  ac- 
quainted with  places  of  interest  in  England. 
On  23  Oct.  1830  the  princess  opened  at  Bath 
the  Royal  Victoria  Park,  and  afterwards  in- 
augurated the  Victoria  Drive  at  Malvern. 
From  1832  onwards  the  duchess  frequently 
accompanied  her  on  extended  tours,  during 
which  they  were  the  guests  of  the  nobility, 
or  visited  public  works  and  manufacturing 
centres,  so  that  the  princess  might  acquire 
practical  knowledge  of  the  industrial  and 
social  conditions  oi  the  people.  William  IV 
made  impotent  protests  against  these  '  royal 
progresses,'  as  he  derisively  called  them.  The 
royal  heiress  was  everywhere  well  received, 
took  part  for  the  first  time  in  public  func- 
tions, and  left  in  all  directions  a  favourable 
impression.  Municipal  corporations  invaria- 


Victoria 


396 


Victoria 


bly  offered  her  addresses  of  welcome  ;  and  the 
Duchess  of  Kent,  in  varying  phraseology,  re- 
plied that  it  was  '  the  object  of  her  life  to 
render  her  daughter  deserving  of  the  affec- 
tionate solicitude  she  so  universally  inspires, 
and  to  make  her  worthy  of  the  attachment 
and  respect  of  a  free  and  loyal  people.' 

The  first  tour,  which  took  place  in  the 
autumn  of  1832,  introduced  the  princess  to 
the  principality  of  Wales.  Leaving  Ken- 
sington in  August,  the  party  drove  rapidly 
through  Birmingham,  Wolverhampton,  and 
Shrewsbury  to  Powis  Castle,  an  early  home 
of  her  governess,  the  Duchess  of  Northum- 
berland ;  thence  the  princess  went  over  the 
Menai  Bridge  to  a  house  at  Beaumaris, 
which  she  rented  for  a  month. 
The  toi  of  ghe  presented  prizes  at  the  Eis- 
teddfod there;  but  an  outbreak 
of  cholera  shortened  her  stay,  and  she 
removed  to  Plas  Newydd,  which  was  lent 
them  by  the  Marquis  of  Anglesea.  She  laid 
the  first  stone  of  a  boys'  school  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood on  13  Oct.,  and  made  so  good 
an  impression  that  '  the  Princess  Vic- 
toria '  was  the  topic  set  for  a  poetic  com- 
petition in  1834  at  the  Cardiff  Bardic  Fes- 
tival. The  candidates  were  two  hundred,  and 
the  prize  was  won  by  Mrs.  Cornwell  Baron 
Wilson.  Passing  on  to  Eaton  Hall,  the  seat 
of  Lord  Grosvenor,  she  visited  Chester  on 
17  Oct.,  and  opened  a  new  bridge  over  the 
Dee,  which  was  called  Victoria  Bridge. 
From  17  to  24  Oct.  she  stayed  with  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire  at  Chatsworth,  and 
made  many  excursions  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, including  a  visit  to  Strutt's  cotton 
mills  at  Belper.  Subsequently  they  stayed 
at  a  long  series  of  noblemen's  houses — Shad- 
borough,  the  house  of  Lord  Lichfield ;  Pitch- 
ford,  the  seat  of  the  old  tory  statesman, 
Lord  Liverpool,  for  whom  the  queen  cherished 
much  affection;  Oakley  Court,  the  seat  of 
Mr.  Clive ;  Newell  Grange,  the  seat  of  Lord 
Plymouth ;  and  Wytham  Abbey,  the  seat  of 
the  Earl  of  Abingdon.  From  Wytham  she 
and  her  mother  twice  went  over  to  Ox- 
ford  (8-9  Nov.),  where  they  re- 
0  ceived  addresses  from  both  town 
and  university;  Dean  Gaisford  conducted 
them  over  Christ  Church  ;  they  spent  some 
time  at  the  Bodleian  Library  and  at  the 
buildings  of  the  university  press,  and  they 
lunched  with  Vice-chancellor  Rowley  at 
University  College.  "Robert  Lowe  (after- 
wards Viscount  Sherbrooke),  then  an  under- 
graduate, described  the  incidents  of  the  visit 
in  a  brilliant  macaronic  poem  (printed  in 
PATCHETT  MAETiu'sXt/e  of  Lord  Sherbrooke, 
i.  86-90).  Leaving  Oxford  the  royal  party 
journeyed  by  way  of  High  Wy combe  and 


The  tour  of 
1833. 


Uxbridge  to  Kensington.  Throughout  this 
tour  the  princess  dined  with  her  mother  and 
her  hosts  at  seven  o'clock  each  evening. 

Every  year  now  saw  some  increase  of 
social  occupation.  Visitors  of  all  kinds  grew 
numerous  at  Kensington.  In  November 
1832  Captain  Back  came  to  explain  his  pro- 
jected polar  expedition.  In  January  1833  the 
portrait  painters  David  Wilkie  and  George 
Hayter  arrived  to  paint  the  princess's  por- 
trait. On  24  April  the  Duchess  of  Kent,  with 
a  view  to  mollifying  the  king,  elaborately 
entertained  him  at  a  large  dinner  party; 
the  princess  was  present  only  before  and 
after  dinner.  In  June  two  of  her  first  cousins, 
Princes  Alexander  and  Ernest  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  and  her  half-brother,  the  prince  of 
Leiningen,  were  her  mother's  guests.  On 
24  May  1833  the  princess's  fourteenth  birth- 
day was  celebrated  by  a  juvenile  ball  given 
by  the  king  at  St.  James  s  Palace. 

A  summer  and  autumn  tour  was  arranged 
for  the  south  coast  in  July  1833.  The  royal 
party  went  a  second  time  to 
Norris  Castle,  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  made  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  those  parts  of  the  island  with 
which  an  important  part  of  the  princess's 
after-life  was  identified.  She  visited  the 
director  of  her  mother's  household,  Sir  John 
Conroy,  at  his  residence,  Osborne  Lodge,  on 
the  site  of  which  at  a  later  date  Queen  Vic- 
toria built  Osborne  Cottage,  and  near  which 
she  erected  Osborne  House.  She  explored 
Whippingham  Church  and  East  Cowes ; 
but  the  main  object  of  her  present  sojourn  in 
the  island  was  to  inspect  national  objects 
of  interest  on  the  Hampshire  coast.  At 
Portsmouth  she  visited  the  Victory,  Nelson's 
flagship.  Crossing  to  Weymouth  on  29  July 
she  spent  some  time  at  Melbury,  Lord 
Ilchester's  seat.  On  2  Aug.  she  and  her 
mother  arrived  at  Plymouth  to  inspect  the 
dockyards.  Next  day  the  princess  presented 
on  Plymouth  Hoe  new  colours  to  the  89th 
regiment  (royal  Irish  fusiliers),  which  was 
then  stationed  at  Devonport.  Lord  Hill, 
the  commander-in-chief,  who  happened  to 
be  at  the  barracks,  took  part  in  the  ceremony. 
The  Duchess  of  Kent  on  behalf  of  her 
daughter  addressed  the  troops,  declaring 
that  her  daughter's  study  of  English  his- 
tory had  inspired  her  with  martial  ardour. 
With  the  fortunes  of  the  regiment  the  prin- 
cess always  identified  herself  thenceforth. 
It  was  at  a  later  date  named  the  Princess 
Victoria's  Royal  Irish  Fusiliers,  and  twice 
again,  in  1866  and  1889,  she  presented  it  with 
new  colours  (cf.  ROWLAND  BRINCKMAX'S 
Hist.  Records  of  the  Eighty-ninth  (Princess 
Victoria's)  Regiment,  1888,  pp.  83-4).  The 


Victoria 


397 


Victoria 


princess  afterwards  made  a  cruise  in  the 
yacht  Emerald  to  Eddystone  lighthouse,  to 
Torquay,  whence  she  visited  Exeter,  and  to 
Swanage. 

While  she  was  responding  to  the  calls  of 
public  duty  she  was  enjoying  enlarged 
Her  delight  opportunities  of  recreation.  She 
in  music  and  frequently  visited  the  theatre, 
the  drama.  jn  which  g^e  always  delighted. 
But  it  was  the  Italian  opera  that  roused 
her  highest  enthusiasm.  She  never  forgot 
the  deep  impressions  that  Pasta,  Mali- 
bran,  and  Grisi,  Tamburini  and  Rubini 
made  on  her  girlhood.  Grisi  was  her  ideal 
vocalist,  by  whom  she  judged  all  others. 
All  forms  of  music,  competently  rendered, 
fascinated  her.  Her  reverence  for  the  vio- 
linist Paganini,  after  she  had  once  heard 
him,  never  waned.  In  June  1834  she 
was  a  deeply  interested  auditor  at  the 
royal  musical  festival  that  was  given  at 
Westminster  Abbey.  During  her  autumn 
holiday  in  the  same  year,  when  she  first 
stayed  at  Tunbridge  Wells,  and  afterwards 
at  St.  Leonards-on-Sea,  she  spent  much  of 
her  time  in  playing  and  singing,  and  her 
instrument  was  then  the  harp  (cf.  Memoirs 
of  Georgiana  Lady  Chatterton,  by  E.  H. 
Bering,  1901,  p,  29).  In  1836  Lablache  be- 
came her  singing  master,  and  he  gave  her 
lessons  for  nearly  twenty  years,  long  after 
her  accession  to  the  throne. 

During  1835,  when  she  completed  her 
sixteenth  year,  new  experiences  crowded 
on  her.  In  June  she  went  for  the  first  time 
to  Ascot,  and  joined  in  the  royal  procession. 
The  American  observer,  N.  P.  Willis, 
watched  her  listening  with  unaffected  delight 
to  an  itinerant  ballad  singer,  and  thought 
her  'quite  unnecessarily  pretty  and  inte- 
resting,' but  he  regretfully  anticipated  that 
it  would  be  the  fate  of '  the  heir  to  such  a 
crown  of  England '  to  be  sold  in  marriage 
for  political  purposes  without  regard  to  her 
personal  character  or  wishes  (WILLIS,  Pen- 
cilling.? by  the  Way,  1835,  lii.  115).  On 
30  July  1835  the  princess  was  confirmed 
Her  con-  at  Chapel  Royal,  St.  James's, 
firmation,  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury's 
address  on  her  future  responsi- 
bilities affected  her.  She 'was  drowned  in 
tears  and  frightened  to  death.'  Next  Sun- 
day, at  ',the  chapel  of  Kensington  Palace, 
the  princess  received  the  holy  sacrament  for 
the  first  time.  The  grim  archbishop  (Howley) 
again  officiated,  together  with  her  preceptor, 
Davys,  the  dean  of  Chester.  After  a  second 
visit  to  Tunbridge  Wells,  where  she  stayed 
at  Avoyne  House,  she  made  a  triumphal 
northern  progress.  At  York  she  remained  a 
•week  with  Archbishop  Harcourt  at  Bishops- 


thorp,  and  visited  Lord  Fitzwilliam  at  Went/- 
worth House,  whence  she  went  over  to  the 
The  tour  of  races  at  Donca8ter.  She  was  the 
1835.  guest  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland  at 

Belvoir  House,  was  enthusiasti- 
cally received  by  the  people  of  Stamford, 
and  was  next  entertained  by  the  Marquis  of 
Exeter  at  Burghley.  A  great  ball  at  Burgh- 
ley  was  opened  by  a  dance  in  which  the 
marquis  was  the  princess's  partner.  When 
she  reached  Lynn  on  her  way  to  Holkham, 
the  Earl  of  Leicester's  seat,  navvies  yoked 
themselves  to  her  carriage  and  drew  it 
round  the  town.  Her  last  sojourn  on  this 
tour  was  at  Euston  Hall,  the  residence  of 
the  Duke  of  Grafton.  After  returning  to 
Kensington,  she  spent  the  month  of  Septem- 
ber at  Ramsgate,  making  excursions  to 
Walmer  Castle  and  to  Dover. 

In  1836,  when  the  princess  was  seventeen, 
her  uncle  Leopold  deemed  that  the  time 
had  arrived  to  apply  a  practical  test  to  his 
scheme  of  uniting  her  in  marriage  with  her 
first  cousin,  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg. 
Accordingly,  he  arranged  with  his  sister,  the 
Duchess  of  Kent,  that  Albert  and  his  elder 
brother  Ernest,  the  heir-apparent  to  the 
duchy,  should  in  the  spring  pay  a  visit  of 
some  weeks'  duration  to  aunt  and  daughter 
at  Kensington  Palace.  In  May 
m'gwith6 "  Princess  Victoria  met  Prince 
Prince  Albert  for  the  first  time.  Wil- 

Aibert,  1836.  Ham  Iv  and  Queen  Adelaide 
received  him  and  his  brother  courteously, 
and  they  were  frequently  entertained  at 
court.  They  saw  the  chief  sights  of  London, 
and  lunched  with  the  lord  mayor  at  the 
Mansion  House.  But  the  king  looked  with 
no  favour  on  Prince  Albert  as  a  suitor  for 
his  niece's  hand.  At  any  rate,  he  was 
resolved  to  provide  her  with  a  wider 
field  of  choice,  and  he  therefore  invited 
the  prince  of  Orange  and  his  two  sons  and 
Duke  William  of  Brunswick  to  be  his  guests 
at  the  same  period  that  the  Saxe-Coburg 
princes  were  in  England,  and  he  gave  the 
princess  every  opportunity  of  meeting  all 
the  young  men  together.  His  own  choice 
finally  fell  on  Alexander,  the  younger  son 
of  the  prince  of  Orange.  On  30  May  the 
Duchess,  of  Kent  gave  a  brilliant  ball  at 
Kensington  Palace,  and  found  herself  under 
the  necessity  of  inviting  Duke  William  of 
Brunswick  and  the  prince  of  Orange  with 
his  two  sons  as  well  as  her  own  prot6ges. 
Among  the  general  guests  was  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  Some  days  later  the  Saxe- 
Coburg  princes  left  England.  Albert  had 
constantly  sketched  and  played  the  piano 
with  his  cousin ;  but  her  ordinary  language, 
like  that  of  those  about  her,  was  English 


Victoria 


398 


Victoria 


which  placed  him  at  a  disadvantage,  for  he 
had  but  recently  begun  to  learn  it.  The 
result  of  their  visit  was  hardly  decisive. 
Prince  Albert  wrote  of  his  cousin  as  '  very 
amiable/  and  astonishingly  self-possessed, 
but  parted  with  her  heart-whole.  The  prin- 
cess, however,  had  learned  the  suggested  plan 
from  her  uncle  Leopold,  whose  wishes  were 
law  for  her,  and  on  7  June,  after  Albert 
had  left  England,  she  wrote  ingenuously  to 
Leopold  that  she  commended  the  youth  to 
her  uncle's  special  protection,  adding,  '  I 
hope  and  trust  that  all  will  go  on  pro- 
sperously and  well  on  this  subject,  now  of 
so  much  importance  to  me.'  Her  views 
were  uncoloured  by  sentiment.  It  was 
natural  and  congenial  to  obey  her  uncle. 

In  the  early  autumn  of  1836  she  paid  a 
second  visit  to  the  retired  tory  statesman, 
Lord  Liverpool,  who  was  then  living  at 
Buxted  Park,  near  Uckfield,  and  afterwards 
spent  a  quiet  month  at  Ramsgate.  The  old 
king  was  at  the  moment  causing  the  Duchess 
of  Kent  renewed  disquietude.  The  princess 
had  consequently  absented  herself  from 
court,  and  the  king  complained  that  he  saw 
too  little  of  her.  On  20  Aug.  1836,  the 
king's  birthday,  mother  and  daughter  dined 
with  him  at  a  state  banquet,  when  he 
publicly  expressed  the  hope  that  he  might 
live  till  his  niece  came  of  age,  so  that  the 
kingdom  might  be  spared  the  regency  which 
parliament  had  designed  for  the  Duchess  of 
Kent.  He  described  his  sister-in-law  as  a 
'  person  '  '  surrounded  by  evil  counsellors,' 
and  unfitted  '  to  the  exercise  of  the  duties 
of  her  station.'  He  asserted  that,  contrary 
to  his  command,  she  was  occupying  an  ex- 
cessive number  of  rooms — seventeen — at 
Kensington  Palace.  He  would  not '  endure 
conduct  so  disrespectful  to  him.'  The  prin- 
cess burst  into  tears.  The  breach  between 
the  king  and  her  mother  was  complete. 

William  IVs  hope  of  living  long  enough 
to  prevent  a  regency  was  fulfilled.  Although 
Coming  of  his  health  was  feeble,  no  serious 
age,  24  May  crisis  was  feared  when,  on  24  May 
1837,  the  princess  celebrated  her 
eighteenth  birthday,  and  thus  came  of  age. 
At  Kensington  the  occasion  was  worthily 
celebrated,  and  the  hamlet  kept  holiday. 
The  princess  was  awakened  by  an  aubade, 
and  received  many  costly  gifts.  Addresses 
from  public  bodies  were  presented  to  her 
mother.  To  one  from  the  corporation  of 
London  the  duchess  made,  on  behalf  of  her 
daughter,  an  elaborate  reply.  She  pointed 
out  that  the  princess  was  in  intercourse 
with  all  classes  of  society,  and,  after  an  in- 
discreet reference  to  the  slights  put  on  her- 
self by  the  royal  family,  spoke  volubly  of 


the  diffusion  of  religious  knowledge,  the 
preservation  of  the  constitutional  preroga- 
tives of  the  crown,  and  the  protection  of 
popular  liberties  as  the  proper  aims  of  a 
sovereign.  The  king  was  loth  to  with- 
draw himself  from  the  public  rejoicing.  He 
sent  his  niece  a  grand  piano,  and  in  the 
evening  gave  a  state  ball  in  her  honour  at 
St.  James's  Palace.  Neither  he  nor  the 
queen  attended  it,  owing,  it  was  stated,  to 
illness.  The  princess  opened  the  entertain- 
ment in  a  quadrille  with  Lord  FitzAlan, 
grandson  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and  after- 
wards danced  with  Nicholas  Esterhazy,  son 
of  the  Austrian  ambassador.  In  the  same 
month  she  paid  two  visits  to  the  Royal 
Academy,  which  then  for  the  first  time  held 
its  exhibition  in  what  is  now  the  National 
Gallery,  Trafalgar  Square.  She  was  the 
centre  of  attraction.  On  the  first  visit  she 
shook  hands  and  talked  with  Rogers  the 
poet,  and,  hearing  that  the  actor,  Charles 
Kemble,  was  in  the  room,  desired  that  he 
should  be  introduced  to  her.  A  few  days 
later  the  king,  in  a  letter  addressed  per- 
sonally to  her,  offered  to  place  10,0007.  a 
year  at  her  own  disposal,  independently  of 
her  mother.  She  accepted  the  offer  to  her 
mother's  chagrin. 

II 

No  sooner  had  the  celebrations  of  the 
princess's  majority  ended  than  death  put 
her  in  possession  of  the  fullest  rights 
that  it  could  confer.  Early  in  June  it  was 
announced  that  the  king's  health  was  break- 
ing. On  Tuesday,  20  June  1837,  at  twelve 
minutes  past  two  in  the  morning,  he  died  at 
Windsor  Castle.  The  last  barrier  between 
Princess  Victoria  and  the  crown  was  thus 
removed. 

The  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  had 
performed  the  last  religious  rites,  at  once 
took  leave  of  Queen  Adelaide,  and  with 
Lord  Conyngham,  the  lord  chamberlain, 
drove  through  the  early  morning  to  Ken- 
sington to  break  the  news  to  the  new  sove- 
Accession,  reign.  They  arrived  there  before 
20  June  5  A.M.  and  found  difficulty  in  ob- 
taining admission.  The  porter 
refused  to  rouse  the  princess.  At  length 
the  Baroness  Lehzen  was  sent  for,  and  she 
reluctantly  agreed  to  warn  the  princess  of 
their  presence.  The  girl  came  into  the 
room  with  a  shawl  thrown  over  her  dressing- 
gown,  her  feet  in  slippers,  and  her  hair 
falling  down  her  back.  Lord  Conyngham 
dropped  on  his  knee,  saluted  her  as  queen, 
and  kissed  the  hand  she  held  towards  him. 
The  archbishop  did  the  like,  addressing  to 
her  '  a  sort  of  pastoral  charge.'  At  the  same 


Victoria 


399 


Victoria 


time  she  was  informed  of  the  king's  peaceful 
end.  The  princess  clasped  her  hands  and 
anxiously  asked  for  news  of  her  aunt 
(BUNSEN,  i.  272). 

The  prime  minister,  Lord  Melbourne, 
arrived  before  nine  o'clock,  and  was  at  once 
received  in  audience.  The  queen's  uncle,  the 
Duke  of  Sussex,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
the  most  popular  man  in  the  state,  also  visited 
her.  But,  in  accordance  with  the  constitu- 
tion, it  was  from  the  prime  minister,  Lord 
Melbourne,  alone  that  she  could  receive 
counsel  as  to  her  official  duties  and  conduct. 
The  privy  council  was  hastily  summoned 
to  meet  at  Kensington  at  11  A.M.  on  the  day 
of  the  king's  death.  On  entering  the  room 
the  queen  was  met  by  her  uncles,  the  Dukes 
of  Cumberland  and  Sussex,  and  having 
taken  her  seat  at  once  read  the  speech  which 
Lord  Melbourne  had  written  for  her  some 
days  before  in  consultation  with  Lord 
Lansdowne,  the  veteran  president  of  the 
council.  She  was  dressed  very  plainly  in 
black  and  wore  no  ornaments.  She  was 
already  in  mourning  for  the  death  of  Queen 
Adelaide's  mother.  She  spoke  of  herself  as 
'educated  in  England  under  the  tender  and 
enlightened  care  of  a  most  affectionate 
mother ;  she  had  learned  from  her  infancy 
to  respect  and  love  the  constitu- 
tion of  her  native  country.'  She 
would  aim  at  securing  the  enjoy- 
ment of  religious  liberty  and  would  protect 
the  rights  of  all  her  subjects.  She  then  took 
the  oath,  guaranteeing  the  security  of  the 
church  of  Scotland ;  the  ministers  gave  up 
their  seals  to  her  and  she  returned  them ; 
they  then  kissed  hands  on  reappointment, 
and  the  privy  councillors  took  the  oaths. 
Although  she  was  unusually  short  in  stature 
(below  five  feet),  and  with  no  pretensions 
to  beauty,  her  manner  and  movement  were 
singularly  unembarrassed,  modest,  graceful, 
and  dignified,  while  her  distinct  and  per- 
fectly modulated  elocution  thrilled  her 
auditors.  '  She  not  merely  filled  her  chair,' 
said  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  '  she  filled 
the  room.'  Throughout  the  ceremony  she 
conducted  herself  as  though  she  had'  long 
been  familiar  with  her  part  in  it  (cf.  POOLE, 
Life  of  Stratford  Canning,  1888,  ii.  45 ; 
Croker  Papers,  ii.  359;  ASHLEY,  Life  of 
Palmerston,  i.  340). 

The  admirable  impression  she  created  on 
this  her  first  public  appearance  as  queen 
was  fully  confirmed  in  the  weeks  that  fol- 
lowed. Next  day  she  drove  to  St.  James's 
Palace  to  attend  the  formal  proclamation  of 
her  accession  to  the  throne.  While  the 
heralds  recited  their  announcement  she 
stood  in  full  view  of  the  public  between 


Lord  Melbourne  and  Lord  Lansdowne,  at 
the  open  window  of  the  privy  council 
chamber,  looking  on  the  quadrangle  nearest 
Theprocia-  Marlborough  House.  The  crowd 
mation.  cneered  vociferously,  and  promi- 
nent in  the  throng  was  Daniel 
O'Connell,  who  waved  his  hat  with  con- 
spicuous energy.  '  At  the  sound  of  the  first 
shouts  the  colour  faded  from  the  queen's 
cheeks,'  wrote  Lord  Albemarle,  her  first 
master  of  the  horse,  who  was  also  an  on- 
looker, 'and  her  eyes  filled  with  tears. 
The  emotion  thus  called  forth  imparted  an 
additional  charm  to  the  winning  courtesy 
with  which  the  girl-sovereign  accepted  the 
proffered  homage'  (ALBEMARLE,  Fifty  Years 
of  my  Life,  p.  378). 

After  the  proclamation  the  queen  saw 
Lord  Hill,  the  commander-in-chief,  the  lord- 
chancellor,  and  other  great  officers  of  state. 
At  noon  her  second  council  was  held  at  St. 
James's  Palace,  and  all  the  cabinet  ministers 
were  present.  Later  in  the  day  the  procla- 
mation was  repeated  at  Trafalgar  Square, 
Temple  Bar,  Wood  Street,  and  the  Royal 
Exchange. 

Although    the    queen    signed  the  privy 

council  register  at  her  first  council  in  the 

name  of  Victoria  only,  in  all  the  official 

documents  which  were  prepared 

SveS6  ^  on  the  first  dav  of  her  reign  her 
name  figured  with  the  prefix  of 
Alexandrina.  In  the  proclamation  she  was 
called  '  Her  Royal  Majesty  Alexandrina 
Victoria,  Queen  of  the  United  Kingdom.' 
But,  despite  the  sentiment  that  had  been 
excited  against  the  name  Victoria,  it  was 
contrary  to  her  wish  to  be  known  by  any 
other.  Papers  omitting  the  prefix  'Alex- 
andrina '  were  hastily  substituted  for  those  in 
which  that  prefix  had  been  introduced,  and 
from  the  second  day  of  the  new  reign  the 
sovereign  was  known  solely  as  Queen  Victoria. 
Thenceforth  that  name  was  accepted  without 
cavil  as  of  the  worthiest  English  significance. 
It  has  since  spread  far  among  her  subjects. 
It  was  conferred  on  one  of  the  most  pro- 
sperous colon  ies  of  the  British  empire  in  1 851 , 
and  since  on  many  smaller  settlements  or 
cities,  while  few  municipalities  in  the  United 
Kingdom  or  the  empire  nave  failed  to  employ 
it  in  the  nomenclature  of  streets,  parks, 
railway-stations,  or  places  of  public  assembly. 
Abroad,  and  even  in  some  well-informed 
quarters  at  home,  surprise  was  manifested  at 
the  tranquillity  with  which  the 
sentiment  nation  saw  the  change  of  monarch 
regarding  effected.  But  the  general  enthti- 
her-  siasm  that  Queen  Victoria's  acces- 

sion evoked  was  partly  due  to  the  contrast 
she  presented  with  those  who  had  lately  oc- 


Victoria 


400 


Victoria 


cupied  the  throne.  Since  the  century  began 
there  had  been  three  kings  of  England — 
men  all  advanced  in  years — of  whom  the 
first  was  an  imbecile,  the  second  a  profli- 
gate, and  the  third  little  better  than  a 
buffoon.  The  principle  of  monarchy  was  an 
article  of  faith  with  the  British  people  which 
the  personal  unfitness  of  the  monarch  seemed 
unable  to  touch.  But  the  substitution  for 
kings  whose  characters  could  not  inspire  re- 
spect of  an  innocent  girl,  with  what  pro- 
mised to  be  a  long  and  virtuous  life  before 
her,  evoked  at  the  outset  in  the  large  mass 
of  the  people  a  new  sentiment — a  sentiment 
of  chivalric  devotion  to  the  monarchy  which 
gave  it  new  stability  and  rendered  revolution 
impossible.  Although  the  play  of  party  poli- 
tics failed  to  render  the  sentiment  universal, 
and  some  actions  of  the  queen  in  the  early  and 
late  years  of  the  reign  severely  tried  it,  it  was 
a  plant  that,  once  taking  root,  did  not  readily 
decay.  Politicians — of  the  high  rank  of  Lord 
Palmerston,  the  foreign  secretary  in  the 
whig  ministry,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  leader  of 
the  tories  in  the  House  of  Commons — de- 
plored the  young  queen's  inexperience  and 
ignorance  of  the  world ;  but  such  defects  were 
more  specious  than  real  in  a  constitutional 
monarch,  and,  as  far  as  they  were  disad- 
vantageous, were  capable  of  remedy  by  time. 
Sydney  Smith  echoed  the  national  feeling 
when,  preaching  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  on 
the  first  Sunday  of  her  reign,  he  described 
the  new  sovereign  as  '  a  patriot  queen,'  who 
might  be  expected  to  live  to  a  ripe  old  age 
and  to  contribute  to  the  happiness  and  pro- 
sperity of  her  people.  '  We  have  had  glorious 
female  reigns,'  said  Lord  John  Russell,  the 
home  secretary  under  Melbourne,  a  few  weeks 
later.  '  Those  of  Elizabeth  and  Anne  led  us 
to  great  victories.  Let  us  now  hope  that 
we  are  going  to  have  a  female  reign  illus- 
trious in  its  deeds  of  peace — an  Elizabeth 
without  her  tyranny,  an  Anne  without  her 
weakness'  (WALPOLE,  Life  of  Lord  John 
Russell,  i.  284). 

Owing  to  her  sex,  some  changes  in  the 
position  and  duties  of  a  British  sovereign 
were  inevitable.  The  Salic  law  rendered 
her  incompetent  to  succeed  to  the  throne  of 
Hanover,  which  British  sovereigns  had  filled 
since  George  the  elector  of  Hanover  became 
George  I  of  England  in  1714.  Hanover 
had  been  elevated  from  an  electorate  to  a 
The  queen  kingdom  by  the  congress  of 
and  Han-  Vienna  in  1814,  and  the  king- 
dom now  passed  to  the  queen's 
uncle,  the  next  heir  after  her  to  the  Eng- 
lish throne,  Ernest,  duke  of  Cumberland. 
The  dissolution  of  the  union  between  Eng- 
land and  Hanover  was  acquiesced  in  readily 


by  both  countries.  They  had  long  drifted 
apart  in  political  sentiments  and  aspirations. 
The  new  king  of  Hanover  was  altogether  out 
of  sympathy  with  his  royal  niece.  He  proved 
an  illiberal  and  reactionary  ruler ;  but  she, 
in  whom  domestic  feeling  was  always  strong, 
took  a  lively  interest  in  the  fortunes  of  his 
family,  and  showed  especial  kindness  to  them 
in  the  trials  that  awaited  them.  At  home 
the  main  alteration  in  her  duty  as  sovereign 
related  to  the  criminal  law.  Death  was  the 
punishment  accorded  to  every  manner  of 
felony  until  William  IV's  parliament  hu- 
manely reduced  the  number  of  capital  offences 
to  four  or  five,  and  it  had  been  the  custom 
of  the  sovereign  personally  to  revise  the  nu- 
merous capital  sentences  pronounced  in  Lon- 
don at  the  Old  Bailey.  At  the  close  of  each 
session  these  were  reported  to  the  sovereign 
by  the  recorder  for  final  judgment.  A  girl 
was  obviously  unfitted  to  perform  this  re- 
The  queen  pugnant  task.  Accordingly  the 
and  the  queen  was  promptly  relieved  of  it 
criminal  law.  fcy  ^  Of  parliament  (7  William  IV 

and  1  Viet.  cap.  77).  Outside  London  the 
order  of  the  court  to  the  sheriff  had  long  been 
sufficient  to  insure  the  execution  of  the  death 
penalty.  To  that  practice  London  now  con- 
formed, while  the  home  secretary  dealt  hence- 
forth by  his  sole  authority  with  petitions 
affecting  offenders  capitally  convicted,  and 
was  alone  responsible  for  the  grant  of  par- 
dons, reprieves,  or  respites.  Whenever  capi- 
tal sentences  were  modified  by  the  home 
secretary,  he  made  a  report  to  that  effect  to 
the  queen,  and  occasionally  it  evoked  com- 
ment from  her ;  but  his  decision  was  always- 
acted  on  as  soon  as  it  was  formed.  Thus, 
although  the  statute  of  1837  formally  re- 
served 'the  royal  prerogative  of  mercy,'  the 
accession  of  a  woman  to  the  throne  had  the 
paradoxical  effect  of  practically  annulling  all 
that  survived  of  it. 

But,  while  the  queen  was  not  called  on  to 
do  every  thing  that  her  predecessors  had  done, 
she  studied  with  ardour  the  routine  duties 
of  her  station  and  was  immersed  from  the 
moment  of  her  accession  in  pressing  busi- 
ness. The  prime  minister,  Melbourne,  ap- 
proached his  task  of  giving  her  political  in- 
LordMel-  struction  with  exceptional  tact 
bourne's  and  consideration,  and  she  proved 
on  the  whole  an  apt  pupil.  Mel- 
bourne was  the  leader  of  the  whig 
party,  whose  constitutional  principles  denied 
the  sovereign  any  independence ;  but  it  was 
with  the  whigsthat  her  father  had  associated 
himself,  and  association  with  them  was  per- 
sonally congenial  to  her.  None  the  less,  she 
was  of  an  imperious,  self-reliant,  and  some- 
what wilful  disposition ;  she  was  naturally 


instruc- 
tion. 


Victoria 


401 


Victoria 


proud  of  her  elevation  and  of  the  dignified 
responsibilities  which  nominally  adhered  to 
the  crown.  While,  therefore,  accepting  with- 
out demur  Melbourne's  theories  of  the  depen- 
dent place  of  a  sovereign  in  a  constitutional 
monarchy,  she  soon  set  her  own  interpretation 
on  their  practical  working.  She  was  wise 
enough  at  the  outset  to  recognise  her  inex- 
perience, and  she  knew  instinctively  the  need 
of  trusting  those  who  were  older  and  better 
versed  in  affairs  than  herself.  But  she  never 
admitted  her  subjection  to  her  ministers. 
From  almost  the  first  to  the  last  day  of  her 
reign  she  did  not  hesitate  closely  to  interro- 
gate them,  to  ask  for  time  for  consideration 
before  accepting  their  decisions,  and  to  ex- 
press her  own  wishes  and  views  frankly  and 
ingenuously  in  all  affairs  of  government  that 
came  before  her.  After  giving  voice  to  her 
opinion,  she  left  the  final  choice  of  action 
or  policy  to  her  official  advisers'  discretion  ; 
but  if  she  disapproved  of  their  choice,  or  it 
failed  of  its  effect,  she  exercised  unsparingly 
the  right  of  private  rebuke. 

The  first  duty  of  her  ministers  and  herself 
was  to  create  a  royal  household.  The  prin- 
ciples to  be  followed  differed  from  those 
which  had  recently  prevailed.  It  was 
The  forma-  necessary  for  a  female  sovereign 
tion  of  her  to  have  women  and  not  men  as 
her  personal  attendants.  She 
deprecated  an  establishment  on  the  enor- 
mous scale  that  was  adopted  by  the  last 
female  sovereign  in  England — Queen  Anne. 
A  mistress  of  the  robes,  six  ladies-in-wait- 
ing, and  six  women  of  the  bedchamber  she 
regarded  as  adequate.  Her  uncle  Leopold 
wisely  urged  her  to  ignore  political  con- 
siderations in  choosing  her  attendants.  But 
she  was  without  personal  friends  of  the  rank 
needed  for  the  household  offices,  and  she  ac- 
cepted Lord  Melbourne's  injudicious  advice 
to  choose  their  first  holders  exclusively  from 
the  wives  and  daughters  of  the  whig  mini- 
sters. She  asked  the  Marchioness  of  Lans- 
downe  to  become  mistress  of  the  robes,  and 
although  her  health  did  not  permit  her  to 
accept  that  post,  she  agreed  to  act  as  first 
lady-in-waiting.  The  higher  household 
dignity  was  filled  (1  July  1837)  by  the 
Duchess  of  Sutherland,  who  was  soon  one 
of  the  queen's  most  intimate  associates. 
Others  of  her  first  ladies-in-waiting  were  the 
Marchioness  of  Normanby  and  Lady  Tavi- 
stock.  The  Countess  of  Rosebery  was  in- 
vited, but  declined  to  join  them.  In  accord- 
ance with  better  established  precedent,  the 
gentlemen  of  her  household  were  also  chosen 
from  orthodox  supporters  of  the  whig  mini- 
stry. The  queen  only  asserted  herself  by 
requesting  that  Sir  John  Conroy,  the  master 

VOL.  in.— SUP. 


of  her  mother's  and  her  own  household,  whom 
she  never  liked,  should  retire  from  her  ser- 
vice ;  she  gave  him  a  pension  of  3,000/.  a 
year,  but  refused  his  request  for  an  order 
and  an  Irish  peerage.  Graver  perplexities 
attached  to  the  question  of  the  appointment 
of  a  private  secretary  to  the  new  sovereign. 
Although  former  occupants  of  the  throne 
had  found  such  an  officer  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  the  due  performance  of  their  duties, 
the  ministers  feared  the  influence  that  one 

The  private  occupying  SO  confidential  a  re- 
secretary-  lation  with  a  young  untried 

girl  might  gain  over  her.  With 
admirable  self-denial  Melbourne  solved  the 
difficulty  by  taking  on  himself  the  work  of 
her  private  secretary  for  all  public  business. 
As  both  her  prime  minister  and  private 
secretary  it  was  thus  necessary  for  him  to 
be  always  with  the  court.  For  the  first  tw» 
years  of  her  reign  he  was  her  constant  com- 
panion, spending  most  of  the  morning  at 
work  with  her,  riding  with  her  of  an  after- 
noon, and  dining  with  her  of  an  evening. 
The  paternal  care  which  he  bestowed  on  her 
was  acknowledged  with  gratitude  by  politi- 
cal friends  and  foes. 

Melbourne's  acceptance  of  the  office  of 
private  secretary  best  guaranteed  the  queen's 
course  against  pitfalls  which  might  have  in- 
volved disaster.  Members  of  the  family 
circle  in  which  she  had  grown  up  claimed 
the  right  and  duty  of  taking  part  in  her 
guidance  when  she  began  the  labour  of  her 

life,  and,  owing  to  their  foreigm 
Foreign  birth,  it  was  in  her  own  interest 
iers*  that  their  influence  should  be  per- 
manently counterbalanced  by  native  coun- 
sel. King  Leopold,  the  queen's  foster-father, 
who  had  hitherto  controlled  her  career,  and 
remained  a  trusted  adviser  till  his  death,  had, 
as  soon  as  she  reached  her  majority,  sent  his 
confidential  friend  and  former  secretary, 
Baron  Stockmar,  to  direct  her  political  edu- 
cation. The  baron  remained  in  continu- 
ous attendance  on  her,  without  official  re- 
cognition, for  the  first  fifteen  months  of  her 
reign,  and  when  the  question  of  a  choice  of 
private  secretary  was  first  raised,  the  queen 
expressed  an  infelicitous  anxiety  to  appoint 
him.  A  native  of  Coburg,  who  originally 
came  to  England  with  Leopold  in  1816  as  his 
medical  attendant,  Stockmar  was  now  fifty 
years  old.  Sincerely  devoted  to  his  master 
and  to  the  Saxe-Coburg  family,  he  sought 
no  personal  advantage  from  his  association 
with  them.  Even  Lord  Palmerston,  who 
bore  him  no  affection,  admitted  that  he  was 
the  most  disinterested  man  he  ever  met. 
Intelligently  read  in  English  history,  h 
studied  with  zeal  the  theory  of  the  Bntiak 

D  D 


Victoria 


402 


Victoria 


constitution.  There  was  genuine  virtue  in 
the  substance  of  his  reiterated  advice  that 
the  queen  should  endeavour  to  maintain 
a  position  above  party  and  above  intrigue. 
But,  although  sagacious,  Stockmar  was  a 
pedantic  and  a  sententious  critic  of  English 
politics,  and  cherished  some  perilous  here- 
sies. The  internal  working  of  the  British 
government  was  never  quite  understood  by 
him.  His  opinion  that  the  sovereign  was 
no  '  nodding  mandarin '  was  arguable,  but 
his  contention  that  a  monarch,  if  of  com- 
petent ability,  might  act  as  his  own  minister 
was  wholly  fallacious.  The  constant  inter- 
course which  he  sought  with  Melbourne 
and  other  ministers  was  consequently  felt 
by  them  to  be  embarrassing,  and  to  be  dis- 
advantageous to  the  queen.  An  impression 
got  abroad  that  he  exerted  on  her  a  mys- 
terious anti-national  influence  behind  the 
throne.  Abercromby,  leader  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  threatened  in  very  early  days 
to  bring  the  subject  to  the  notice  of  parlia- 
ment. But  when  it  was  rumoured  that 
Stockmar  was  acting  as  the  queen's  private 
secretary,  Melbourne  circulated  a  peremp- 
tory denial,  and  public  attention  was  for  the 
time  diverted.  The  queen's  openly  displayed 
fidelity  to  her  old  governess,  the  Baroness 
Lehzen,  did  not  tend  to  dissipate  the  sus- 
picion that  she  was  in  the  hands  of  foreign 
advisers.  But  the  baroness's  relations  with 
her  mistress  were  above  reproach  and  did 
credit  to  both.  She  had  acted  as  her  old 
pupil's  secretary  in  private  matters  before 
she  came  to  the  throne,  and  she  continued 
to  perform  the  same  functions  after  the 
queen's  accession.  But  public  affairs  were 
never  brought  by  the  queen  to  her  cogni- 
sance, and  the  baroness  loyally  accepted 
the  situation.  With  the  Duchess  of  Kent, 
who  continued  to  reside  with  her  daughter, 
although  she  was  now  given  a  separate  suite 
of  apartments,  the  queen's  relation  was  no 
less  discreet — far  more  discreet  than  the 
duchess  approved.  She  was  excluded  from 
all  share  in  public  business — an  exclusion  in 
•which  she  did  not  readily  acquiesce.  For  a 
long  time  she  treated  her  daughter's  emanci- 
pation from  her  direction  as  a  personal  griev- 
ance (GEEVILLE).  There  was  never  any 
ground  for  the  insinuation  which  Lord 
Brougham  conveyed  when  he  spoke  in  the 
House  of  Lords  of  the  Duchess  of  Kent  as 
'  the  queen-mother.'  Melbourne  protested 
with  just  indignation  against  applying  such 
a  misnomer  to  '  the  mother  of  the  queen,' 
who  was  wholly  outside  the  political  sphere. 
Public  ceremonials  meanwhile  claimed 
much  of  the  queen's  attention.  On  27  June 
she  held  her  first  levee  at  Kensington  to 


receive  the  credentials  of  the  ambassadors 
and  envoys.     She  was  dressed  in  black,  but, 

as  sovereign  of  the  order  of  the 
Public  n  ,,    .,      ,    .,,.      ,     . 

ceremonials.  Uarter,  wore  all  its  brilliant  in- 
signia— ribbon,  star,  and  a  band 
bearing  the  motto,  in  place  of  the  garter, 
buckled  on  the  left  arm  (BTTNSEN,  ii.  273). 
There  followed  a  long  series  of  deputations 
from  public  bodies,  bearing  addresses  of 
condolence  and  congratulation,  to  all  of 
which  she  replied  with  characteristic  com- 
posure. On  17  July  she  went  in  state  to 
dissolve  parliament  in  accordance  with  the 
law  which  required  a  general  election  to 
take  place  immediately  on  the  demise  of  the 
crown.  For  the  first  time  she  appeared  in 
apparel  of  state — a  mantle  of  crimson  velvet 
lined  with  ermine,  an  ermine  cape,  a  dress 
of  white  satin  embroidered  with  gold,  a  tiara 
and  stomacher  of  diamonds,  and  the  insignia 
of  the  garter.  She  read  the  speech  with 
splendid  effect.  Fanny  Kemble,  who  was 
present,  wrote :  '  The  queen's  voice  was  ex- 
quisite. .  .  .  The  enunciation  was  as  perfect 
as  the  intonation  was  melodious,  and  I  think 
it  is  impossible  to  hear  a  more  excellent  utter- 
ance than  that  of  the  queen's  English  by  the 
English  queen.'  A  more  disinterested  visitor, 
the  American  orator,  Charles  Sumner,  used 
very  similar  language :  '  Her  voice  was  sweet 
and  finely  modulated.  ...  I  think  I  have 
never  heard  anything  better  read  in  my  life 
than  her  speech.'  On  19  July  the  queen  held 
her  first  levee  at  St.  James's  Palace,  and 
next  day  her  first  drawing-room.  On  both 
occasions  the  attendance  was  enormous. 

A  few  days  before  (13  July)  the  queen 
left  the  home  of  her  girlhood  at  Ken- 
Removal  to  sington  for  Buckingham  Palace, 
Buckingham  the  new  official  residence  in  Lon- 
Palace.  ,jon  appointed  for  the  sovereign. 
The  building  had  been  begun  by  the  archi- 
tect John  Nash  for  George  IV,  but  was  not 
completed  until  William  IV  became  king. 
He,  however,  disliked  it,  and  preferred  1 
remain  at  St.  James's  Palace.  Ko  monarch 
occupied  Buckingham  Palace  before  Queen 
Victoria,  for  whom  it  was  for  the  first  time 
put  in  order.  A  contemporary  wag  in  the 
'  Times  '  declared  it  was  the  cheapest  house 
ever  built,  having  been  built  for  one  sove- 
reign and  furnished  for  another.  But  t 
inconvenience  with  which  William  IV 
credited  it  proved  real,  and  it  underwent 
radical  alterations  and  additions  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  queen  and  Prince  Albert  before 
it  was  deemed  to  be  adapted  for  its  purpose. 
An  east  front  was  erected  to  form  a  qua- 
drangle ;  the  ground  behind  the  house,  t 
the  extent  of  forty  acres,  was  laid  out  as  a 
pleasure-garden;  a  conservatory  was  con- 


Victoria 


403 


Victoria 


verted  into  a  chapel,  and  a  ballroom  was 
added  as  late  as  1856.  One  of  the  first 
entertainments  which  were  given  at  Buck- 
ingham Palace  was  a  grand  concert  on 
17  Aug.  1837,  under  the  direction  of  Signor 
Costa.  In  honour  of  the  occasion  the 
queen  ordered  the  court  to  go  out  of  mourn- 
ing for  the  day.  The  vocalists  were 
Madame  Grisi,  Madame  Albertazzi,  Signor 
Lablache,  and  Signor  Tamburini.  The 
queen's  first  official  appearance  in  public 
out  of  doors  took  place  on  21  Aug.,  when 
she  opened  the  new  gate  of  Hyde  Park 
on  the  Bayswater  Road,  and  conferred  on 
it  the  name  of  Victoria.  On  22  Aug.  she 
drove  to  Windsor  to  assume  residence  at 
the  castle  for  the  first  time.  On  28  Sept. 
she  had  her  earliest  experience  of  a  military 
review,  when  the  guards  in  Windsor  garri- 
son marched  before  her  in  the  Home  Park. 
After  remaining  at  Windsor  till  4  Oct.  she 
made  acquaintance  with  the  third  and  last 
of  the  royal  palaces  then  in  existence,  the 
pretentious  Pavilion  at  Brighton,  which 
George  IV  had  erected  in  a  foolish  freak  of 
fancy.  Lord  John  Russell,  the  home  secre- 
tary, together  with  his  wife,  stayed  with  her 
there.  On  4  Nov.  she  returned  to  Bucking- 
ham Palace. 

The  queen  took  a  girlish  delight  in  the 
sense  of  proprietorship:  she  actively  di- 
rected her  domestic  establishments,  and 
the  mode  of  life  she  adopted  in 
e'  her  palaces  was  of  her  own  de- 
vising. She  exercised  a  constant  and  wide 
hospitality  which  had  been  long  unknown 
in  the  royal  circle.  The  entertainments 
were  somewhat  formal  and  monotonous ; 
but,  although  she  was  zealous  for  rules  of 
etiquette,  she  was  never  indisposed  to  modify 
them  if  she  was  thereby  the  better  able  to 
indulge  the  kindly  feeling  that  she  invariably 
extended  to  her  guests.  Most  of  her  morn- 
ings were  spent  at  work  with  Melbourne. 
In  the  early  afternoon  when  at  Windsor  she 
rode  in  the  park  or  neighbouring  country 
with  a  large  cavalcade  often  numbering 
thirty  persons.  Later  she  romped  with 
children,  some  of  whom  she  usually  con- 
trived to  include  among  her  guests,  or 
played  at  ball  or  battledore  and  shuttlecock 
with  ladies  of  the  court — a  practice  which 
she  continued  till  middle  age — or  practised 
singing  and  pianoforte  playing.  Dining  at 
half-past  seven,  she  usually  devoted  the 
evening  to  round  games  of  cards,  chess,  or 
draughts,  while  the  Duchess  of  Kent  played 
whist.  One  of  her  innovations  was  the  in- 
stitution of  a  court  band,  which  played  music 
during  and  after  dinner.  When  she  was 
settled  at  Buckingham  Palace  she  gave  a 


small  dance  every  Monday.  She  found 
time  for  a  little  serious  historical  reading, 
one  of  the  earliest  books  through  which  she 
plodded  as  queen  being  Coxe's  '  Life  of  Sir 
Robert  Walpole '  (LADY  LYTTELTON),  and 
for  the  first  time  in  her  life  she  attempted 
novel-reading,  making  trial  of  three  books 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Fenimore  Cooper,  and 
Bulwer  Lytton  respectively  (BuxsEX,  i. 
296).  A  little  later  she  struggled  with 
Hallam's  'Constitutional  History'  and  St. 
Simon's  '  Memoirs.' 

Relatives  from  the  continent  of  Europe 
were  in  the  first  days  of  her  reign  very  fre- 
quent guests.  With  them  she  always 
seemed  most  at  ease,  and  she  showed  them 
marked  attention.  Vacant  garters  were 
bestowed  on  two  of  her  German  kinsmen, 
who  came  on  early  visits  to  her — the  first 
on  her  half-brother,  the  Prince  of  Leiningen, 
in  July  1837,  the  next  on  her  uncle.  Prince 
Albert's  father,  in  the  year  following.  The 
king  of  the  Belgians  and  his  gentle  Queen 
Louise  spent  three  weeks  with  her  at 
Windsor  (August-September  1837),  and  the 
visit  was  repeated  for  years  every  autumn. 
Her  first  cousin  Victoria,  daughter  of  Duke 
Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who  in  1840 
married  the  Due  de  Nemours,  was  also 
often  with  her,  and  shared  in  her  afternoon 
.  games.  But  she  was  not  at  the 

her'kinsfoik.  same  time  neglectful  of  her  kins- 
folk at  home.  Nothing  could 
exceed  the  tenderness  with  which  she 
treated  the  Dowager  Queen  Adelaide.  <  >n 
the  day  of  her  accession  she  wrote  a  letter 
of  condolence,  addressing  it  to  '  the  Queen ' 
and  not  to  'the  Dowager  Queen,'  for  fear 
of  adding  to  her  grief.  A  very  few  days 
later,  before  the  late  king's  funeral,  ute 
visited  the  widowed  lady  at  Windsor,  and 
she  forbade,  of  her  own  motion,  the  lifting 
of  the  royal  standard,  then  at  half-mast, 
to  mast-high,  as  was  customary  on  the 
arrival  of  the  sovereign.  When  Queen 
Adelaide  removed  from  Windsor  Castle 
ultimately  to  settle  at  Marlborough  I  i 
her  royal  niece  bade  her  take  from  the  castle 
any  furniture  that  her  residence  there  had 
especially  endeared  to  her,  and  until  the  old 
queen's  death  the  young  queen  never  relaxed 
any  of  her  attentions.  To  all  her  uncles  and 
aunts  she  showed  like  consideration.  She 
corresponded  with  them,  entertained  them, 
visited  them,  read  to  them,  sang  to  them ;  and 
she  bore  with  little  murmuring  her  urn-It •-' 
displays  of  ill-temper.  The  Duchess  of 
Cambridge,  the  last  survivor  of  that  genera- 
tion, died  as  late  as  1889,  and  no  cares  of 
family  or  state  were  ever  permitted  by  the 
aueen  to  interfere  with  the  due  rendering  of 

DD2 


Victoria 


404 


Victoria 


those  acts  of  personal  devotion  to  which  the 
aged  duchess  had  been  accustomed.  Even 
to  the  welfare  of  the  FitzClarences — Wil- 
liam IV's  illegitimate  children  by  Mrs. 
Jordan — she  was  not  indifferent,  and  often 
exerted  her  influence  in  their  interests.  At 
the  same  time  domestic  sentiment  was  rarely 
suffered  to  affect  court  etiquette.  At  her 
own  table  she  deemed  it  politic  to  give,  for  the 
first  time,  precedence  1o  foreign  ambassadors 
—even  to  the  American  envoy,  Mr.  Stephen- 
son—  over  all  guests  of  whatever  rank,  ex- 
cepting only  Lord  Melbourne,  who  always 
sat  at  her  left  hand.  For  years  she  declined 
to  alter  the  practice  in  favour  of  the  royal 
dukes  and  duchesses,  but  ultimately  made 
some  exceptions. 

Meanwhile  the  first  general  election  of 
the  new  reign  had  taken  place,  and  the 
The  general  battle  of  the  rival  parties  mainly 
election  of  raged  round  the  position  and 
1837.  prospects  of  the  queen.  The 

tories,  who  were  the  attacking  force,  bitterly 
complained  that  Melbourne  and  the  whigs 
in  power  identified  her  with  themselves,  and 
used  her  and  her  name  as  party  weapons  of 
offence.  Lord  John  Russell,  in  a  letter  to 
Lord  Mulgrave,  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
had  written  of  her  sympathy  with  the  whig 
policy  in  Ireland.  Croker,  a  tory  spokesman, 
in  an  article  in  the  '  Quarterly  Review ' 
(July  1837),  denounced  the  policy  of  sur- 
rounding her  with  female  relatives  of  the 
whig  leaders.  Sir  Robert  Peel  argued  that 
the  monarchy  was  endangered  by  the  rigour 
with  which  she  was  ruled  by  Melbourne, 
the  chief  of  one  political  party.  Release  of 
the  sovereign  from  whig  tyranny  conse- 
quently became  a  tory  cry,  and  it  gave  rise 
to  the  epigram : 

'  The  Queen  is  with  us,'  Whigs  insulting  say; 
'  For  when  she  found  us  in  she  let  xis  stay.' 
It  may  be  so,  but  give  me  leave  to  doubt 
How  long  she'll  keep  you  when  she  finds  you  out. 

(Annual  Register,  1837,  p.  239). 

Whig  wire-pullers,  on  the  other  hand, 
made  the  most  of  the  recent  conduct  of  the 
next  heir  to  the  throne,  the  new  king  of  Han- 
over, the  queen's  uncle  Ernest,  who  had 
signalised  his  accession  by  revoking  consti- 
tutional government  in  his  dominions.  They 
spread  a  report  that  the  new  king  of 
Hanover  was  plotting  to  dethrone  his  niece 
in  order  to  destroy  constitutional  govern- 
ment in  England  as  well  as  in  Hanover,  and 
a  cartoon  was  issued  entitled  '  The  Contrast,' 
which  represented  side  by  side  portraits  of 
the  queen  and  her  uncle,  the  queen  being 
depicted  as  a  charming  ingenue,  and  her 
uncle  as  a  grey-haired  beetle-browed  villain. 


The  final  result  of  the  elections  was  not  satis- 
factory to  either  side.  The  tories  gained  on 
the  balance  thirty-seven  seats,  and  thus  re>- 
duced  their  opponents'  majority;  but  in  the 
new  House  of  Commons  the  whigs  still  led 
by  thirty-eight,  and  Melbourne  and  his  col- 
leagues retained  office. 

Before  the  new  parliament  opened,  the 
queen  made  a  formal  progress  through  Lon- 
Attbe  don,  SoinS  from  Buckingham 

uuiidhaii       Palace  to  the  Guildhall  to  dine 

9>aXov.ei837.     in    State    with    the    lord    maJ°r- 

Her  passage  through  the  streets 
evoked  an  imposing  demonstration  of  lovalty. 
Fifty-eight  carriages  formed  the  procession, 
in  which  rode  many  of  the  foreign  ambassa- 
dors. The  lord  mayor,  Sir  John  Cowan,, 
with  the  sheriffs,  George  Carroll  and  Moses- 
Montefiore,  and  members  of  the  corporation 
of  London,  received  the  queen  at  Temple 
Bar.  The  banquet  lasted  from  3.30  in  the 
afternoon  till  8.30  in  the  eA'ening,  when 
the  city  was  ablaze  with  illuminations.  A 
medal  was  struck  from  a  design  by  William 
Wyon,  and  the  queen's  arrival  at  Temple  Bar 
was  pictured  in  a  bas-relief  on  the  monument 
that  now  marks  the  site  of  the  old  gate. 

On  20  Nov.  the  queen  opened  her  first 
parliament,  reading  her  own  speech,  as  was 
her  custom  until  her  widowhood  whenever 
she  attended  in  person.  The  opening  busi- 
ness of  the  session  was  a  settlement  of  the 
royal  civil  list.  Financially  the 
queen's  position  since  her  acces- 
sion had  been  a  source  of  anxiety. 
She  inherited  nothing,  and  the  crown  had 
lost  the  royal  revenues  of  Hanover.  She 
had  complained  to  Melbourne  of  her  lack  of 
money  for  immediate  private  expenses.  He 
had  done  little  but  listen  sympathetically, 
but  Messrs.  Coutts,  who  had  been  bankers 
to  various  members  of  the  royal  family, 
came  to  her  rescue  with  temporary  advances. 
The  main  question  for  the  government  to 
consider  was  not  merely  the  amount  of  the 
income  necessary  to  maintain  the  throne  in 
fitting  dignity,  but  the  proportion  of  that  in- 
come which  might  be  prudently  derived  from 
the  hereditary  revenues  of  the  crown,  i.e.  re- 
venues from  the  crown  lands.  In  return  for 
a  fixed  annuity  George  III  had  surrendered 
a  large  portion  of  these  revenues,  and 
George  IV  yielded  a  further  portion,  while 
William  IV  surrendered  all  but  those  pro- 
ceeding from  the  duchies  of  Cornwall  and 
Lancaster,  which  were  held  to  belong  to  a 
different  category.  At  the  same  time  it  was 
arranged,  on  the  accession  of  William  IV, 
that  the  general  expenses  of  civil  govern- 
ment, which  had  been  previously  defrayed  out 
of  the  king's  civil  list,  should  henceforth  be 


The  civil 


Victoria 


405 


Victoria 


discharged  by  the  consolidated  fund,  and 
that  of  the  income  allotted  to  King  William 
only  a  very  small  proportion  should  be  ap- 
plied to  aught  outside  his  household  and 
personal  expenses;  the  sole  external  calls 
were  75,000/.  for  pensions  and  10,000/.  for 
the  secret  service  fund.  On  these  condi- 
tions King  William  was  content  to  accept 
460,(XXV.  instead  of  850,OOOJ.  which  had 
been  paid  his  predecessor,  while  an  annuity 
of  50,000/.  was  bestowed  on  his  queen  con- 
sort .  His  net  personal  parliamentary  income 
(excluding  pensions  and  the  secret  service 
fund)  was  thus  375,000/.,  with  some  25,000£ 
from  the  duchies  of  Lancaster  and  Cornwall. 
Radical  members  of  parliament  now  urged 
Melbourne  to  bring  the  whole  of  the  crown 
lands  under  parliamentary  control,  to  deprive 
the  crown  of  the  control  and  income  of  the 
duchies  of  Lancaster  and  Cornwall,  and  to 
supply  the  sovereign  with  a  revenue  which 
should  be  exclusively  applied  to  her  own 
purposes,  and  not  to  any  part  of  the  civil 
government.  Treasury  officials  drew  out 
a  scheme  with  these  ends  in  view,  but 
Melbourne  rejected  most  of  it  from  a  fear  of 
rousing  against  his  somewhat  unstable  go- 
vernment the  cry  of  tampering  with  the 
royal  prerogative.  In  the  result  the  pre- 
cedent of  William  IVs  case  was  followed, 
with  certain  modifications.  The  queen  re- 
signed all  the  hereditary  revenues  of  the 
crown,  but  was  left  in  possession  of  the 
revenues  of  the  duchies  of  Lancaster  and 
Cornwall,  of  which  the  latter  was  the  lawful 
appanage  of  the  heir-apparent.  The  duchy 
of  Cornwall  therefore  ceased  to  be  the 
sovereign's  property  as  soon  as  a  lawful  heir 
to  the  throne  was  born.  It  and  the  duchy 
of  Lancaster  produced  during  the  first  years 
of  the  reign  about  27,500/.  annually,  but 
the  revenues  from  both  rose  rapidly,  and 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  which  was  a  perma- 
nent source  of  income  to  the  queen,  ulti- 
mately produced  above  60,000/.  a  year.  (The 
duchy  of  Cornwall,  which  passed  to  the 
prince  of  Wales  at  his  birth  in  1841,  ulti- 
mately produced  more  than  66,000/.)  Parlia- 
ment now  granted  her,  apart  from  these 
hereditary  revenues,  an  annuity  of  385,000/., 
being  10,OOOA  in  excess  of  the  net  personal 
income  granted  by  parliament  to  her  prede- 
cessor. Of  this  sum  60,000/.  was  appro- 
priated to  her  privy  purse,  131,260/.  to  the 
salaries  of  the  household,  172,500Z.  to  the 
expenses  of  the  household,  13,200/.  to  the 
royal  bounty,  while  8,040/.  was  unappro- 
priated. The  annual  payment  from  the 
•civil  list  of  75,000/.  in  pensions  and  of 
10,000/.  secret  service  money  was  cancelled, 
but  permission  was  given  the  crown  to  create 


'  civil  list '  pensions  to  the  amount  of  1.200/. 
annually,  a  sum  which  the  treasury  under- 
took to  defray  independently  of  the  royal  in- 
come ;  this  arrangement  ultimately  meant  the 
yearly  expenditure  of  some  23,000/.,  but 
the  pensions  were  only  nominally  associated 
with  the  sovereign's  expenditure.  Repairs  to 
the  sovereign's  official  residences  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  royal  yachts  were  also 
provided  for  by  the  treasury  apart  from  the 
civil  list  revenues.  Joseph  Hume,  on  the 
third  reading  of  the  civil  list  bill,  moved  a 
reduction  of  50,000/.,  which  was  rejected  by 
199  votes  against  19.  Benjamin  Hawes 
vainly  moved  a  reduction  of  10,000/.,  which 
was  supported  by  41  members  and  opposed 
by  173.  Lord  Brougham  severely  criticised 
the  settlement  on  the  second  reading  of  the 
bill  in  the  House  of  Lords.  He  made  search- 
ing inquiries  respecting  the  incomes  from  the 
crown  duchies,  and  objected  to  the  arrange- 
ment being  made  for  the  queen's  life. 
Although  numerous  additional  grants,  ap- 
proaching a  total  of  200,000/.  a  year,  were 
afterwards  allotted  to  the  queen  a  children, 
the  annual  sum  allowed  her  by  parliament 
on  her  accession  was  never  altered  during 
her  reign  of  nearly  sixty-four  years,  and 
proved  amply  sufficient  for  all  her  needs. 
At  the  same  time  as  the  civil  list  bill  passed 
through  parliament,  the  queen's  mother,  at 
the  sovereign's  instance,  was  granted  an 
annuity  of  30,000/. ;  she  formerly  received 
22,000/.  a  year,  of  which  10,000/.  was  appro- 
priated to  the  care  of  her  daughter  while 
princess.  On  23  Dec.  1837  the  queen  went 
to  parliament  to  return  thanks  in  person  for 
what  had  been  done.  Christmas  was  spent 
at  Buckingham  Palace,  and  next  day  the 
court  withdrew  to  Windsor. 

The  liberal  allowance  enabled  the  queen 
to  fulfil  at  once  her  resolve  to  pay  on  her 
The  queen  father's  debts.  By  the  autumn 
pays  her  of  next  year  she  had  transferred 
dabtsr  *  to  tne  ^ate  Cuke's  creditors  from 
her  privy  purse  nearly  50,000/., 
and  on  7  Oct.  1839  she  received  their  formal 
thanks.  Meanwhile  the  queen's  sympathy 
with  her  ministers  increased.  Through 
1838-9  she  followed  their  parliamentary 
movements  with  keen  anxiety  lest  their 
narrow  majority  might  prove  inadequate 
to  maintain  them  in  office.  Disturbances 
in  Canada  during  the  early  months  of  1838 
roused  differences  of  opinion  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  which  imperilled  their  position, 
but  the  crisis  passed.  'The  queen  is  as 
steady  to  us  as  ever,'  wrote  Palmerston 
on  14  April  1838,  'and  was  in  the  depth  of 
despair  when  she  thought  we  were  iu  danger 
of  being  turned  out.  She  keeps  well  in 


Victoria 


406 


Victoria 


health,  and  even  in  London  takes  long  rides 
into  the  country,  which  have  done  her  great 
good'  (ASHLEY,  Life  of  Palmerston,  i.  344). 
Under  Melbourne's  guidance,  and  in  agree- 
ment with  her  own  wish,  she  daily  perused 
masses  of  despatches  and  correspondence 
with  exemplary  diligence. 

Outside  politics  her  chief  interest  lay  in 
the  preparations  that  were  in  progress  for  | 
her  coronation  and  for  the  festivities  accom-  j 
panying    it.       Three    state    balls — one    on 
18  June,  the  day  of  Waterloo,  a  choice  of 
date  which  offended  the  French — two  levees, 
a  drawing-room,   a    state    concert,  a   first 
state    visit    to    Ascot,    and   attendance   at  I 
Eton  '  montem '  immediately  preceded  the  j 
Tjje  elaborate  ceremonial,  which  took 

coronation,  place  on  28  June  1838,  eight  ; 
28  June  1838.  ^&^s  after  the  anniversary  of  her  : 
accession.  The  ministers  resolved  to  endow 
it  with  exceptional  splendour.  For  the  ex- 
penses of  William  IV's  coronation  50,000/. 
had  been  allowed.  No  less  a  sum  than 
200,000/.  was  voted  by  parliament  for  the 
expenses  of  Queen  Victoria's  coronation. 
Westminster  Abbey  was  elaborately  deco- 
rated in  crimson  and  gold.  The  royal  pro- 
cession to  the  abbey  was  revived  for  the  tirst 
time  since  the  coronation  of  George  III  in 
1761,  and  four  hundred  thousand  persons 
came  to  London  to  witness  it,  many  bivouack- 
ing in  the  streets  the  night  before.  At 
10  A.M.  on  the  appointed  day,  in  magnificent 
•weather,  the  queen  left  Buckingham  Palace 
in  full  panoply  of  state,  passing  up  Constitu- 
tion Hill,  along  Piccadilly,  down  St.  James's 
Street,  and  across  Trafalgar  Square,  which 
had  just  been  laid  out  in  Nelson's  memory. 
The  abbey  was  reached  by  way  of  Parliament 
Street  at  11.30.  Among  foreign  visitors, 
who  went  thither  in  advance  of  the  queen, 
was  Marshal  Soult,  the  representative  of 
France,  whom  the  crowds  received  with 
hardly  less  enthusiasm  than  her  majesty.  The 
great  company  of  her  German  relatives  in- 
cluded her  uncle  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg 
and  her  half-brother  and  half-sister  of  Leinin- 
gen.  When  the  queen  entered  the  abbey, 
'  with  eight  ladies  all  in  white,  floating 
about  her  like  a  silvery  cloud,  she  paused,  as  if 
for  breath,  and  clasped  her  hands '  (STANLEY). 
A  ray  of  sunlight  fell  on  her  head  as  she 
knelt  to  receive  the  crown,  and  the  Duchess 
of  Kent  burst  into  tears.  The  brilliance 
of  the  scene  impressed  every  one,  but  there 
were  some  drawbacks.  Harriet  Martineau, 
who  was  present,  wrote:  'The  brightness, 
vastness,  and  dreamy  magnificence  produced 
a  strange  effect  of  exhaustion  and  sleepiness.' 
The  queen,  too,  suffered  not  only  from  natural 
emotion  and  fatigue,  but  from  the  hesitation 


of  the  officiating  clergy  as  to  the  exact  part 
she  was  to  play  in  many  parts  of  the  long 
ritual,  and  from  the  insufficient  training  that 
had  been  accorded  her.  'Pray  tell  me 
what  I  am  to  do,  for  they  [i.e.  the  clergy] 
don't  know,'  she  said  at  one  solemn  point  to 
a  lay  official  who  stood  near  her.  She 
complained  that  the  orb  which  was  unex- 
pectedly put  into  her  hand  was  too  heavy 
for  her  to  hold ;  and  when  the  ruby  ring, 
which  had  been  made  for  her  little  finger, 
was  forced  by  the  archbishop  onto  her  fourth, 
she  nearly  cried  out  with  the  pain.  For 
the  first  time  at  a  coronation,  the  commons 
were  allowed  to  acclaim  her  after  the  peers. 
The  latter  had  enjoyed  the  privilege  from 
time  immemorial.  The  commons  now  cheered 
their  sovereign  nine  times  (Gent.  Mag. 
1838,  ii.  198);  but  Dean  Stanley,  who, 
then  a  boy,  sat  in  a  gallery,  thought  all 
the  responses  and  acclamations  were  feebly 
given.  Towards  the  close  of  the  ceremony  a 
singular  accident  befell  Lord  Rolle,  a  peer, 
eighty  years  old,  as  he  was  endeavouring  to 
offer  his  homage.  He  '  fell  down  as  he  was 
getting  up  the  steps  of  the  throne.'  The 
queen's  '  first  impulse  was  to  rise,  and  when 
afterwards  he  came  again  to  do  homage  she 
said, "  May  I  not  get  up  and  meet  him  ?  "  and 
then  rose  from  the  throne  and  advanced  down 
one  or  two  of  the  steps  to  prevent  his  coming 
up,  an  act  of  graciousness  and  kindness 
which  made  a  great  sensation  '  (GKEVILLE, 
2nd  ser.  i.  107).  While  the  peers  were 
doing  homage,  the  lord- chamberlain  and  his 
officers  flung  medals,  specially  designed  by 
Pistrucci,  for  the  spectators  to  scramble  for, 
and  the  confusion  was  not  dignified.  At 
length  the  ceremonial,  which  lasted  more 
than  five  hours,  ended,  and  at  a  quarter 
past  four  the  queen  returned  to  Buckingham 
Palace.  She  then  wore  her  crown  and  all 
her  apparel  of  state,  but  she  looked  to  spec- 
tators pale  and  tremulous.  Carlyl^,  who 
was  in  the  throng,  breathed  a  blessing  on  , 
her :  '  Poor  little  queen ! '  he  added, '  she  is  at 
an  age  at  which  a  girl  can  hardly  be  trusted 
to  choose  a  bonnet  for  herself ;  yet  a  task  is 
laid  upon  her  from  which  an  archangel  might 
shrink.'  But  despite  her  zeal  to  fulfil  the 
responsibilities  of  her  station,  she  still  had 
much  of  the  child's  lightness  and  simplicity 
of  heart.  On  returning  to  the  palace  she 
hastily  doffed  her  splendours  in  order  to 
give  her  pet  spaniel,  Dash,  its  afternoon 
bath  (LESLIE).  She  then  dined  quietly  with 
her  relatives  who  were  her  guests,  and 
after  sending  a  message  of  inquiry  to  the  un- 
fortunate Lord  Eolle,  concluded  the  day  by 
witnessing  from  the  roof  of  the  palace  the 
public  illuminations  and  fireworks  in  the 


Victoria 


407 


Victoria 


Green  and  Hyde  Parks.  Next  morning  a 
great  '  coronation  '  fair  was  opened  by  per- 
mission of  the  government  for  four  days  in 
Hyde  Park ;  and  on  the  second  day  the 
queen  paid  it  a  long  visit.  The  coronation 
festivities  concluded  with  a  review  by  her  of 
five  thousand  men  in  Hyde  Park  (9  July), 
when  she  again  shared  the  popular  applause 
with  Marshal  Soult.  A  month  later  (16  Aug.) 
she  prorogued  parliament  in  person,  and, 
after  listening  to  the  usual  harangue  on 
the  work  of  the  session  from  the  speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  read  her  speech  with 
customary  clearness. 

A  few  months  later  the  queen  was  to 
realise  that  her  popularity  was  not  invulner- 
able, and  that,  despite  Melbourne's  parental 
care,  her  position  was  fraught  with  difficulty 
and  danger,  with  which  she  was  as  yet  hardly 
fitted  to  cope.  With  both  the  crises  through 
which  the  queen  and  her  court  passed  in 
the  first  half  of  1839,  her  youth  and  inex- 
perience prevented  her  from  dealing  satis- 
factorily. In  January  1839  Lady  Flora 
The  episode  Hastings>  daughter  of  the  Marquis 
of  Lady  of  Hastings,  was  lady-in-waiting 
to  the  Duchess  of  Kent  at  Bucking- 
flgs>  ham  Palace.  On  account  of  her 
appearance,  she  was  most  improperly  sus- 
pected by  some  of  the  queen's  attendants 
of  immoral  conduct.  Neither  the  queen  nor 
her  mother  put  any  faith  in  the  imputation, 
but  Lady  Tavistock  informed  Melbourne  of 
the  matter,  and  the  queen  assented  to  his 
proposal  that  the  unfortunate  lady  should 
be  subjected  by  the  royal  physician,  Sir 
James  Clark,  to  a  medical  examination. 
Clark  afterwards  signed  a  certificate  deny- 
ing all  allegations  against  Lady  Flora 
(17  Feb.  1839).  The  incident  was  soon 
noised  abroad.  The  lady's  family  appealed 
directly  to  the  queen  to  make  fitting  repara- 
tion. Lady  Flora's  brother,  the  Marquis  of 
Hastings,  obtained  an  interview  with  her. 
Lady  Flora's  mother  wrote  her  passionate 
letters  and  begged  for  the  dismissal  of  Sir 
James  Clark.  The  queen  made  no  reply. 
Melbourne  stated  that  she  had  seized  the 
earliest  opportunity  of  personally  acknow- 
ledging to  Lady  Flora  the  unhappy  error, 
but  that  it  was  not  intended  to  take  any 
other  step.  Lady  Hastings  published  her 
correspondence  with  the  queen  and  Mel- 
bourne in  the  'Morning  Post,'  and  Clark 
circulated  a  defence  of  his  own  conduct 
A  general  feeling  of  disgust  was  roused,  and 
the  reputation  of  the  court  suffered,  espe- 
cially with  the  conservative  section  of  the 
nobility  to  which  the  Hastings  family  be- 
longed. The  situation  was  rendered  worse 
by  the  tragic  ending  of  the  episode.  Lady 


Flora  was  suffering  from  a  fatal  internal 
disease — the  enlargement  of  the  liver.  On 
4  July  she  was  announced  to  be  dying  at 
Buckingham  Palace.  A  royal  banquet  which 
was  to  take  place  that  evening  was  counter- 
manded (MALMESBUBY'S  Memoirs,  p.  77). 
The  lady  died  next  day.  The  queen  was 
gravely  perturbed.  Society  was  depressed 
and  shocked.  The  blunder  which  the  queen's 
advisers  had  committed  was  bad  enough  to 
warrant  an  unmistakable  expression  of  her 
personal  regret,  and  her  innocent  supineness, 
for  which  the  blame  was  currently  laid  on 
the  Baroness  Lehzen,  was  a  calamity. 

The  second  court  crisis  of  1839  was  due 
to  a  precisely  opposite  cause — to  the  queen's 
Her  first  peremptory  exercise  of  her  per- 
ministeriai  sonal  authority  without  consult- 
18398' May  m&  anv  one>  During  the  session 
of  1839  the  whig  ministry  finally 
lost  its  hold  on  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  recent  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in 
Jamaica  had  led  the  planters  into  rebellion, 
and  the  government  was  driven  to  the  dis- 
agreeable necessity  of  inviting  parliament 
to  suspend  the  constitution.  The  proposal 
was  carried  by  a  majority  of  only  five  (7  May). 
Melbourne  felt  the  position  to  be  hopeless, 
and  placed  the  resignation  of  himself  and 
his  colleagues  in  the  queen's  hands.  The 
queen  was  deeply  distressed.  When  Lord 
John,  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
visited  her  to  discuss  the  situation,  she 
burst  into  tears.  But  she  soon  nerved 
herself  fully  to  exert  for  the  first  time  the 
sovereign's  power  of  choosing  a  successor 
to  the  outgoing  prime  minister.  Her  grief 
at  parting  with  Melbourne  was  quickly 
checked.  She  asked  him  for  no  advice,  but, 
after  consulting  Lord  Spencer,  she  sent 
for  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  startled  him 
by  her  self-possession  (8  May).  He  declined 
her  offer  to  form  a  ministry  on  the  ground 
of  his  age  and  of  the  desirability  of  the  prime 
minister  being  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Accordingly  she  summoned  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
the  leader  of  the  conservative  opposition  in 
the  lower  house.  She  feared  his  coldness 
and  severity  of  manner,  but  her  personal 
demeanour  at  their  first  interview  was  dig- 
nified, although  very  frank.  She  deprecated 
a  dissolution  of  parliament  at  so  early  a  date 
in  the  life  of  the  existing  parliament.  Peel 
vaguely  expressed  sympathy  with  her  view, 
but  declined  to  pledge  himself  not  to  advise 
a  dissolution.  He,  however,  accepted  with- 
out demur  her  commission  to  form  the 
government,  and,  on  leaving  her,  set  about 
selecting  members  of  the  cabinet.  There  was 
already  a  strong  feeling  among  the  conser- 
vatives that  the  queen,  who  had  hitherto 


Victoria 


408 


Victoria 


shrunk  from  association  with  conservatives, 
was  hedged  in  on  all  sides  of  her  household 
by  the  female  relatives  of  her  whig  ministers. 
Peel,  in  consultation  with  his  friends,  de- 
eided  that  the  ladies  holding  the  higher  posts 
T,._.  in  the  household  must  be  dis- 

i      •  i*  •  •      * 

»u<i  her  placed  it  conservative  ministers 
ludii's  of  the  were  to  receive  adequate  support 

bedchamber.     .  -A-     ,      ,    rr. 

irom  the  crown.  He  had  no  in- 
tention of  interfering  with  the  subordinate 
effices,  but  deemed  it  essential  to  remove 
some  at  least  of  the  ladies  from  such 
yosts  as  those  of  mistress  of  the  robes  or 
of  lady-in-waiting.  Peel  formed  a  high 
conception  of  his  responsibility,  and  was 
•willing  to  consult  the  queen's  wishes 
in  filling  all  appointments  that  might  fall 
•vacant.  Unfortunately  he  did  not  define  at 
the  outset  the  precise  posts  or  the  number 
ef  them  which  were  affected  by  his  pro- 
posals. The  subject  was  broached  in  a 
personal  interview  (9  May).  The  queen 
feared  that  she  was  to  be  deprived  of  the 
companionship  of  her  closest  friends,  and  sus- 
pected— quite  incorrectly — that  the  Baroness 
Lehzen  was  aimed  at.  She  declined  point 
blank  to  entertain  any  suggestion  of  change 
in  the  female  constitution  of  her  household. 
After  Peel  left  her  she  wrote  to  Melbourne 
that  they  wanted  to  deprive  her  of  her 
ladies;  they  would  rob  her  next  of  her 
dressers  and  housemaids ;  they  thought  to 
treat  her  as  a  girl ;  she  would  show  them 
»he  was  queen  of  England.  Finally  she 
requested  her  old  minister  to  draft  a  reply 
of  refusal  to  Peel's  demands.  Melbourne 
expressed  no  opinion,  but  did  as  he  was 
asked.  The  queen's  letter  to  Peel  ran : 
«  Buckingham  Palace,  May  10,  1839.— The 
Queen,  having  considered  the  proposal  made 
to  her  yesterday  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  to  re- 
move the  ladies  of  her  bedchamber,  cannot 
consent  to  adopt  a  course  which  she  con- 
eeives  to  be  contrary  to  usage,  and  which  is 
repugnant  to  her  feelings.'  Peel  answered 
that  he  feared  there  was  some  misunder- 
standing, and  declined  to  proceed  to  the 
formation  of  a  government. 

Peel's  decision  was  received  by  the  queen 
•with  immense  relief,  which  she  made  no 
endeavour  to  conceal  at  a  state  ball  that 
took  place  the  same  evening.  With  every 
sign  of  satisfaction  she  appealed  to  Mel- 
bourne to  resume  power.  Although  her 
action  was  her  own,  Melbourne  had  given  it 
a  tacit  approval  by  not  resisting  it,  when  she 
first  informed  him  of  her  intention.  The 
eld  cabinet  met  on  11  May;  some  members 
argued  for  advising  the  queen  to  withdraw 
from  the  attitude  that  she  had  assumed. 
But  Lord  Spencer  insisted  that  as  gentlemen 


they  must  stand  by  her.  Palmerston  de- 
clared that  her  youth  and  isolation  should 
have  protected  her  from  the  odious  condi- 
tions that  Peel  sought  to  impose.  At  length 
the  good-natured  Melbourne  acquiesced  in 
that  opinion,  and  the  whigs  returned  to  office. 
The  episode  formed  the  topic  of  animated 
debate  in  both  houses  of  parliament.  Peel 
defended  his  action,  which  Lord  John  Russell 
lamely  endeavoured  to  prove  to  be  without 
precedent.  Melbourne  thoroughly  identified 
himself  with  the  queen,  and  was  severely 
handled  from  different  points  of  view  by  both 
the  Duke  of  Wellington  and  Lord  Brougham. 
In  point  of  fact  Peel's  conduct  was  amply 
warranted,  and  subsequently  Melbourne, 
Lord  John  Russell,  and  the  queen  herself 
admitted  as  much.  In  1853  she 
n  confided  to  Lord  John  that  she 
had  taken  no  advice  in  the  matter. 
'  No/  she  said,  '  it  was  entirely  my  own  fool- 
ishness ! '  Melbourne  afterwards  remarked 
characteristically  :  '  You  should  take  care 
to  give  people  who  are  cross  time  to  come 
round.  Peel's  fault  in  that  business,  when 
he  failed  to  form  a  government,  was  not 
giving  the  queen  time  to  come  round.' 

The  momentary  effect  of  the  queen's  act 
was  to  extend  by  more  than  two  years  the 
duration  of  Melbourne's  ministry,  and  to 
embitter  the  personal  hostility  of  the  tories 
towards  her.  James  Bradshaw,  the  tory 
M.P.  for  Canterbury,  made  in  July  so  violent 
an  attack  upon  her  at  a  conservative  meeting 
that  the  whig  M.P.  for  Cockermouth,  Ed- 
ward Horsman,  challenged  him  to  a  duel, 
which  was  duly  fought.  But  the  permanent 
outcome  of  the  crisis  was  to  the  good.  The 
queen  never  repeated  her  obduracy,  and  al- 
though she  often  asserted  her  authority  and 
betrayed  her  personal  predilection  when  a 
new  ministry  was  in  course  of  creation,  the 
nineteen  changes  of  government  that  fol- 
lowed during  her  reign  were  effected  with 
comparatively  little  friction.  The  '  house- 
hold '  difficulty  never  recurred.  Ladies-in- 
waiting  at  once  ceased  to  be  drawn  from 
the  families  of  any  one  political  party,  and 
as  early  as  July  1839  the  queen  invited 
Lady  Sandwich,  the  wife  of  a  tory  peer,  to 
join  the  household.  It  became  the  settled 
practice  for  the  office  of  mistress  of  the  robes 
alone  to  bear  a  political  complexion,  and 
for  its  holder  to  retire  from  office  with  the 
party  to  which  she  owed  her  appointment. 
Increase  of  years  and  the  good  counsel  of 
a  wise  husband  were  to  teach  the  queen  to 
exercise  with  greater  tact  that  habit  of 
command  which  was  natural  to  her,  and  to 
bring  under  firmer  control  the  impatienc 
and  quickness  of  her  temper. 


Victoria 


409 


Victoria 


Absorption  in  the  sovereign's  work,  the 
elation   of    spirit   which  accompanied    the 
major    part     of    her    new    ex- 
periences,   the  change  from  de- 
pendence to  independence  in  her 
private  affairs,  put  marriage  out  of  her  mind 
during  the  first  two  years  of  her  reign.     But 
King  Leopold  had  no  intention  of  quietly 
allowing  his  choice  of  her  cousin  Albert  for 
her  husband  to  be  thwarted.     Early  in  1838 
he  reminded  her  of  the   suggestion.     She 
replied  that  she  and  the  prince,  who  was  of 
her  own  age,  were  too  young  to  think  of 
marriage  yet,  and  she  claimed  permission  to 
defer  a  decision  till  the  end  of  three  years. 
King    Leopold    summoned    Prince    Albert 
to   Brussels   in   March  and   explained   the 
situation.     Albert  assented  with  some  hesi- 
tation to  the  queen's  proposal  of  delay.     He 
assumed   that  in  her  proud   elevation  she 
would  ultimately  seek  in  marriage  a  partner 
of  more  exalted  rank  than  ayoungerson  of  a 
poor  and  undistinguished  German  duke.  But 
btockmar  was  as  zealous  in  Albert's  cause 
as  his  uncle  Leopold.    He  had  left  the  queen's 
side  at  the  end  of  1838  for  the  first  time  since 
her  accession,  and  accompanied  Prince  Albert 
on  a  tour  in  Italy  with  a  view  to  keeping 
him  faithful  to  the  plan  and  to  instructing 
him  betimes,  in  case  of  need,  in  the  duties 
of  the  consort  of  a  reigning  English  monarch. 
Among  the  English  courtiers  doubts  of  the 
success  of  the  innocent  conspiracy  were  freely 
entertained.     Such  members  of  the  large 
Coburg  family  as  visited  the  queen  at  this 
period  were   too   '  deutsch '    in  manner  to 
recommend    themselves    to    her     English 
attendants  (LADY  LYTTELTOX).   '  After  being 
used  to  agreeable  and  well-informed  English- 
men, I  fear  she  will  not  easily  find  a  foreign 
prince  to  her  liking,' Lord  Palmerston  wrote 
in    April    1838.      Several    names    besides 
Prince  Albert's  were,  too,  freely  canvassed 
as   those  of   suitable    candidates    for    her 
hand  (cf.   Stafford  House  Letters,  p.  223). 
Another  first  cousin,  Prince  George  of  Cam- 
bridge (now  Duke  of  Cambridge),  was  often 
in    her    society.      The    Due    de    Nemours 
(brother  of  the  queen  of  the  Belgians  and 
son  of  Louis  Philippe)  and  a  prince  of  the 
Prussian  reigning  family  were  believed  to 
possess  attractions,  both  in  her  sight  and  in 
that  of  some  of  her  advisers.     In  May  l^-'i!) 
she  entertained  at  Windsor  the  tsarevitch  j 
of  Russia  (afterwards   Tsar  Alexander  II)  | 
and  Prince  William  Henry,  younger  son  of 
King  William  II  of  the  Netherlands ;  and 
both  the  young  men  were  reported  to  aspire 
to  her  hand. 

The  social  and  political  embarrassments 
of  the  first  half  of  1839  gave  the  queen  a 


sense  of  isolation,  which  rendered  the  pro- 
spect of  marriage  more  congenial  to  her 
Engagement  than  it  was  before.  At  the 

Albert106  8ame  time  8he  8uffered  much 
is  Oct'.  1839.  aQnoyance  from  a  number  of 
'  offers  of  marriage  made  to  her 
by  weak-minded  subjects,  several  of  whom 
forced  themselves  personally  on  her  notice 
when  she  was  riding  out,  or  even  gained 
entrance  to  her  palaces.  King  Leopold, 
who  was  her  guest  at  Windsor  in  Sep- 
tember 1839,  was  not  slow  to  use  the 
opportunity.  He  arranged  that  Prince 
Albert  and  his  elder  brother  Ernest  should 
stay  at  the  English  court  next  month. 
Nothing  was  said  to  the  queen  of  the  objects 
of  the  mission.  On  10  Oct.  the  young  men 
arrived  at  Windsor,  bearing  a  letter  from 
King  Leopold  commending  them  to  her 
notice.  Many  guests  were  there,  besides 
Lord  Melbourne.  For  four  days  the  princes 
joined  the  queen  and  her  crowded  retinue 
in  the  ordinary  routine  of  afternoon  rides, 
evening  banquets,  and  dances,  but  during 
the  entertainments  she  contrived  to  have 
much  talk  with  Albert,  and  suddenly  a 
genuine  and  overpowering  affection  between 
them  declared  itself.  On  15  Oct.  she  sum- 
moned the  prince  to  her  room,  and,  taking 
full  advantage  of  her  royal  station,  offered 
him  marriage.  It  was  '  a  nervous  thing ' 
to  do,  she  afterwards  told  her  aunt,  the 
Duchess  of  Gloucester;  but,  she  added,  it 
would  not  have  been  possible  for  him  to 
propose  to  the  queen  of  England  (Peel 
Papers,  ii.  414).  Melbourne,  who  took  the 
wise  view  that  in  the  choice  of  a  husband 
it  was  best  for  the  queen  to  please  herself, 
thought  Prince  Albert  too  young  and  un- 
trained for  the  position,  but  hoped  for  the 
best  and  was  warm  in  his  congratulations. 

The  queen  sent  the  information  at  once  to 
King  Leopold,  but  the  public  announce- 
ment was  delayed  for  more  than  a  month. 
D  ur  ing  that  period  the  queen  and  her  affianced 
lover  were  rarely  separated  either  in  public 
or  private.  The  prince  was  conspicuously 
at  her  side  at  a  review  of  the  rifle  brigade 
which  she  held  in  the  Home  Park  on  1  Nov. 
On  the  14th  the  visit  of  Albert  and  bis 
brother  came  to  an  end.  Next  day  the 
queen  wrote  with  delightful  naivete  to  all 
members  of  the  royal  family  announcing  her 
engagement.  Sir  Robert  Peel  saw  the  com- 
munication she  sent  to  Queen  Adelaide,  and, 
although  he  regarded  the  match  with  little 
enthusiasm,  said  she  was  '  as  full  of  love  as 
Juliet'  (Croker  Papers).  On  20  Nov.  she 
left  Windsor  for  Buckingham  Palace,  where 
on  23  Nov.  she  made  the  official  declaration, 
which  Melbourne  had  drawn  up,  to  an  ex- 


Victoria 


410 


Victoria 


traordinary  meeting  of  the  privy  council. 
No  less  than  eighty-three  members  were 
present.  The  queen  wore  on  her  arm  a 
bracelet  enclosing  the  prince's  miniature ; 
although  her  hand  shook,  she  read  her  short 
and  simple  speech  without  hesitation,  and 
accepted  the  congratulations  of  her  coun- 
cillors with  composure. 

The  news  was  received  by  the  public  with 
mixed  feeling.  Daniel  O'Connell,  when  he 
spoke  of  it  at  a  meeting  at  Ban- 
don,  gave  vent  to  ludicrous  hyper- 
boles of  joy.  But  there  were 
ominous  murmurs  amid  the  popular  applause. 
Little  was  definitely  known  of  the  prince, 
excepting  that  he  was  German  and  very 
young.  The  tories  took  for  granted  that  he 
was  of  '  liberal '  opinions — an  assumption 
which  did  not  please  them — and  while  some 
agreed  that  he  owed  his  good  fortune  to  his 
distaste  for  affairs  of  state  and  his  fondness 
for  empty  amusement,  others  credited  him 
with  perilously  stirring  ambitions  (Peel 
Papers,  ii.  408-9).  Although  it  was  noto- 
rious that  the  Saxe-Coburg  house  was 
staunchly  Lutheran,  two  of  its  members, 
King  Leopold  and  Prince  Ferdinand,  had 
lately  married  catholics,  and  a  foolish 
rumour  circulated  that  Albert  was  a  papist. 
At  foreign  courts,  and  even  in  his  own 
domestic  circle,  it  was  felt  that  the  prize 
the  prince  had  won  was  above  his  station. 
The  queen,  who  saw  the  situation  only 
through  the  haze  of  true  womanly  affection, 
deplored  the  sacrifice  of  family  and  country 
which  she  regarded  the  prince  as  making 
for  her  sake.  She  pressed  her  ministers  to 
secure  for  him  wellnigh  every  honour  that 
she  enjoyed,  in  order  to  compensate  him 
for  his  expatriation.  Like  Queen  Mary, 
she  entreated  that  her  husband  should  be 
created  a  king  consort.  The  ministers 
pointed  out  that  Prince  Albert's  rank,  as 
well  as  his  household  and  emoluments,  must 
correspond  with  those  accorded  the  last 
prince  consort.  Prince  George  of  Denmark, 
and  she  was  galled  by  the  comparison  of  her 
lover  with  '  the  stupid  and  insignificant 
husband  of  Queen  Anne,'  as  she  called  him. 
The  final  decision  rested  with  parliament, 
and  Melbourne  made  no  effort  to  force  its 
hand.  The  session  opened  on  16  Jan.  1840, 
and  the  queen,  in  the  speech  which  she  read 
from  the  throne,  spoke  of  her  approaching 
marriage.  Melbourne  found  himself  in  a 
critical  situation.  While  the  queen  de- 
manded a  far  higher  status  for  her  future  hus- 
band than  precedent  warranted,  a  majority 
in  both  houses  of  parliament  showed  signs 
of  a  resolve  to  grant  far  less.  Stockmar, 
who  had  resumed  residence  with  the  queen 


in  order  to  watch  the  position  of  affairs  and 
give  her  private  advice,  wisely  recommended 
a  consultation  between  whigs  and  tories  so 
as  to  avoid  public  disputes,  but  he  gained 
no  hearing.  The  ministers  proposed  to 
grant  Prince  Albert  an  annuity  of  50,0001., ' 
the  sum  granted  to  the  queen  consorts  of 
George  II,  George  III,  and  William  IV. 
Joseph  Hume  moved  an  amendment  to 
reduce  the  sum  to  21,0001.  on  his  favourite 
ground  of  economy.  This  was  negatived  by 
305  to  38 ;  but  Colonel  Sibthorp,  a  tory  of 
a  very  pronounced  kind,  who  echoed  the 
general  sentiment  of  dissatisfaction,  moved 
another  amendment  to  reduce  the  sum  to 
30,000/.  He  received  exceptionally  power- 
ful support.  Sir  Robert  Peel  spoke  in  his 
Attacks  ou  favour.  Sir  James  Graham  denied 
prince  by  that  the  parallel  with  the  posi- 
ent-  tion  of  the  queen  consorts  could 
be  sustained ;  the  independent  status  of  the 
queen  consort,  he  said,  not  very  logically,  • 
was  recognised  by  the  constitution,  but  the 
prince  consort  stood  in  no  need  of  a  separate 
establishment.  On  a  division  the  reduc- 
tion was  carried  by  the  large  majority  of 
104,  the  votes  being  262  to  158.  Sir  Robert 
Peel  and  his  friends  made  emphatic  pro- 
tests against  insinuations  of  disloyalty,  and 
denied  that  the  tories  were  '  acting  from  a 
spiteful  recollection  of  the  events  of  last 
May.'  Lord  John  Russell  insisted  that  the 
vote  was  an  insult  to  the  sovereign.  Colonel 
Sibthorp  further  proposed  in  committee 
that,  should  the  prince  survive  the  queen,  he 
should  forfeit  the  annuity  if  he  remarried  a 
catholic,  or  failed  to  reside  in  the  United 
Kingdom  for  at  least  six  months  a  year. 
This  motion  was  disavowed  by  Peel,  who 
agreed  that  it  implied  a  want  of  confidence 
in  the  prince,  and  it  was  rejected.  But  the 
whole  proceedings  deeply  incensed  the  queen, 
and  King  Leopold  wrote  that  the  action  of 
the  commons  was  intolerable. 

The  House  of  Lords  was  in  no  more 
amiable  mood.  The  Duke  of  Wellington 
carried  an  amendment  to  the  address  cen- 
suring ministers  for  having  failed  to  make  a 
public  declaration  that  the  prince  was  a 
protestant  and  able  to  take  the  holy  com- 
munion in  the  form  prescribed  by  the  church 
of  England — a  point  on  which  Stockmar 
had  already  given  the  ministers  satisfactory 
assurances  in  private.  When,  on  "27  Jan., 
the  bill  for  the  naturalisation  of  the  prince 
was  introduced  into  the  upper  chamber,  it 
contained  a  clause  giving  him  precedence 
next  after  the  queen.  The  royal  dukes  of 
Sussex  and  Cambridge  had  agreed  to  accept 
a  position  below  the  queen's  husband;  but 
the  king  of  Hanover,  who  was  still  Duke  of 


Victoria 


411 


Victoria 


Cumberland,  bluntly  declined  to  give  way 
to  any '  paper  royal  highness ; '  and  his  protest 
found  much  sympathy  in  the  lords.  Mel- 
bourne argued  that  he  was  following  the 
precedent  set  in  the  case  of  Philip  and  Mary, 
but  was  willing  to  modify  the  clause  so  as 
to  give  the  heir-apparent,  when  he  should 
arrive,  precedence  of  his  father.  The  con- 
cession was  deemed  inadequate,  and  the 
clause  was  withdrawn.  Thereupon  the  natu- 
ralisation bill  passed  without  further  oppo- 
sition. Subsequently  Greville,  the  clerk  of 
the  council,  issued  a  paper  proving  that  the 
queen  could  grant  her  husband  by  royal 
warrant  what  precedence  she  chose  without 
any  appeal  to  parliament,  and  she  acted  ac- 
cordingly, giving  him  the  next  place  to  her. 
But,  to  the  queen's  chagrin,  foreign  courts 
declined  to  recognise  in  him  any  rank  above 
that  of  his  hereditary  honours.  Another  diffi- 
culty arose  with  regard  to  the  choice  of  his 
personal  attendants.  It  was  deemed  inadvis- 
able to  allow  him  to  appoint  a  private  secre- 
tary for  himself.  A  German  was  not  reckoned 
fit  for  the  post.  Melbourne  nominated  his 
own  private  secretary,  George  Anson. 

Meanwhile  the   marriage  was  fixed  for 
10  Feb.     Before  the  parliamentary  wrangle 

ended,  Lord  Torrington  and 
icn^ebfmo.  Colonel  Grey  had  been  sent  to 

Coburg  to  invest  the  prince  with 
the  insignia  of  the  Garter,  and  to  conduct 
him  to  England.  On  28  Jan.  the  prince 
with  his  father  and  brother  left  Coburg. 
At  Brussels  he  met  his  uncle  Leopold.  On 
7  Feb.  he  was  at  Dover.  Next  day  he  was 
received  with  much  enthusiasm  in  London, 
and  on  reaching  Buckingham  Palace  the 
oaths  of  naturalisation  were  administered 
to  him  by  the  lord  chancellor.  On  the  10th 
the  wedding  took  place  in  the  chapel  ot 
St.  James's  Palace,  and  after  an  elaborate 
breakfast  at  Buckingham  Palace  the  bride 
and  bridegroom  drove  to  Windsor  amid 
vociferous  acclamations.  Two  days  later 
they  were  visited  by  the  Duchess  of  Kent, 
the  Duke  of  Coburg,  and  others,  and  on 
14  Feb.  returned  to  London.  On  19  Feb. 
the  queen  held  a  levee,  and  the  prince  stood 
at  her  left  hand. 

Ill 

With  her    marriage   a   new   era  in  the 
queen's  life  and  reign  began.     From  a  per- 
sonal point   of  view  the   union 
Albert's  cha-  realised  the  highest  ideal  of  which 
racterand      matrimony  is  capable.  The  queen's 

the  qT£n?n    love  for  ner  hust>and  was  with- 
out  alloy,  and  invested  him  in 
her  sight  with  every  perfection.     He,  on  his 
part,  reciprocated  her  affection,  and  he  made 


her  happiness  the  main  object  of  his  life. ' 
Intellectually  and  morally  he  was  worthy 
of  his  position.  He  was  admirably  educated  ; 
his  interests  were  wide ;  he  was  devoted  to 
art,  science,  and  literature;  his  life  was 
scrupulously  well  ordered;  he  was  saga- 
cious, philanthropic,  conscientious,  and  un- 
selfish. His  example  and  influence  gave 
new  weight  and  stability  to  the  queen's  cha- 
racter and  temperament,  and  her  knowledge 
and  experience  grew.  But  outside  the  do- 
mestic circle  the  prince  was  not  liked.  He 
was  cold  and  distant  in  manner,  and  his 
bearing,  both  mental  and  physical,  was  held 
to  be  characteristically  German.  It  was 
out  of  harmony  with  the  habitual  ease  and 
levity  of  the  English  aristocracy.  He  had 
no  active  sense  of  humour,  no  enthusiasm 
for  field  sports,  no  vices ;  he  abhorred  late 
hours,  and  did  not  conceal  his  disdain  for 
many  of  the  recreations  in  which  the  Eng- 
lish leisured  classes  indulged.  His  public 
position  was  at  the  same  time  ill- defined. 
There  was  a  jealous  fear  that  his  private 
influence  with  the  queen  and  his  foreign 
prejudices  might  affect  her  public  action. 
Resentment  at  any  possible  interference  by 
him  in  affairs  of  state  quickly  spread  abroad. 
Although  Melbourne  gave  the  queen  per- 
mission to  show  him  official  papers,  he  was 
during  the  first  two  years  of  his  settle- 
ment in  England  excluded  from  her  inter- 
views with  ministers.  He  felt  his  position 
to  be  one  of  humiliation.  He  was  '  the 
husband,  not  the  master  of  the  house,'  he 
wrote  in  May  1840  to  his  friend,  Prince 
William  of  Lowenstein. 

It  was  never  with  the  queen's  concurrence 
that  he  filled  a  rank  in  her  household 
subordinate  to  herself.  On  28  Dec.  1841 
she  wrote  in  her  journal :  '  He  ought  to  be, 
and  is  above  me  in  everything  really,  and 
therefore  I  wish  that  he  should  be  equal  in 
rank  with  me.'  As  his  abilities  came  to  be 
recognised  by  ministers,  they  gradually 
yielded  to  her  persuasion  to  take  him  fully 
into  their  counsels.  He  was  allowed  to  act 
as  her  private  secretary.  The  cares  of  ma- 
ternity were  soon  to  distract  her  on  occasion 
from  'the  details  of  public  duty,  and  her 
dependence  on  her  husband  in  all  relations 
naturally  increased.  Ultimately  Prince  Al- 
bert assumed  in  behalf  of  his  wife  in  reality, 
although  not  in  form,  most  of  her  respon- 
sibilities, and  his  share  in  the  rule  of  the 
country  through  most  of  the  twenty-one  years 
of  their  married  life  is  indistinguishable 
from  hers.  '  Lord  Melbourne  was  very  use- 
ful to  me,'  she  said  many  years  afterwards 
'but  I  can  never  be  sufficiently  thankful 
that  I  passed  safely  through  those  two  years 


Victoria 


412 


Victoria 


to  my  marriage.  Then  I  was  in  a  safe  haven, 
and  there  I  remained  for  twenty[-one]  years,' 
(PBOTHERO,  Life  of  Dean  Stanley,  ii.  127). 

As  soon  as  the  prince  finally  settled  down 
to  his  new  life  he  regarded  it  as  his  duty  (as 
The  prince's  ^e  'WTO^e  m  1850  to  the  Duke  of 
public  Wellington)  to '  fill  up  every  gap 

position.  which,  as  a  woman,  she  would 
naturally  leave  in  the  exercise  of  her  regal 
functions,  continually  and  anxiously  to  watch 
every  part  of  the  public  business,  in  order 
to  be  able  to  advise  and  assist  her  at  any 
moment,  in  any  of  the  multifarious  and 
difficult  questions  or  duties  brought  before 
her,  sometimes  international,  sometimes  poli- 
tical, or  social,  or  personal.'  He  claimed  to 
be  of  right  '  the  natural  head  of  her  family, 
superintendent  of  her  household,  manager 
of  her  private  affairs,  sole  confidential  ad- 
viser in  politics,  and  only  assistant  in  the 
communications  with  the  officers  of  the 
government.'  At  the  same  time  he  was,  he 
pointed  out,  '  the  husband  of  the  queen,  the 
tutor  of  the  royal  children,  the  private  se- 
cretary of  the  sovereign,  and  her  permanent 
jninister.'  The  defect  and  danger  of  such  a 
claim  lay,  according  to  the  constitution  of 
the  country,  in  the  fact  that  the  prince  was 
under  no  parliamentary  control,  and  his 
description  of  himself  as  the  queen's  '  per- 
manent minister 'was  inexact.  Substantially, 
however,  the  statement  truthfully  repre- 
sented the  prince's  functions  and  occupation 
during  his  career  as  Queen  Victoria's  consort. 
But  a  large  section  of  the  public  never  will- 
ingly acquiesced  in  his  exercise  of  so  much 
activity  and  authority.  Until  his  death  he 
had  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  a  galling  and 
unceasing  public  criticism,  and  the  queen, 
despite  her  wealth  of  domestic  happiness, 
•was  rarely  free  from  the  sense  of  discomfort 
and  anxiety  which  was  bred  of  a  conscious- 
ness that  many  of  her  subjects  viewed  her 
husband  with  dislike  or  suspicion.  But 
from  1841  to  1861,  the  date  of  his  death, 
the  fact  is  unassailable  that  Prince  Albert 
had  as  good  a  right  as  the  queen  to  be 
regarded  as  the  ruler  of  the  British  realm. 

On  the  queen's  marriage  the  Duchess  of 
Kent  at  once  removed  from  the  royal  palace, 
and  the  Baroness  Lehzen  soon 
afterwards  retired  from  the  queen's 
service.  These  changes  in  the 
royal  household  disposed  of  checks  which 
might  have  seriously  limited  the  develop- 
ment of  Prince  Albert's  influence.  The 
supersession  of  both  mother  and  gouver- 
nante  was  effected  without  friction.  The 
curmudgeonly  king  of  Hanover  declined 
the  queen's  request  to  give  up  to  the  Duchess 
of  Kent  his  apartments  in  St.  James's 


Palace  which  he  never  occupied,  and  there- 
upon the  queen  rented  for  her  mother  In- 
gestre  House,  Belgrave  Square,  at  2,000/.  a 
year ;  but  on  the  death  of  the  Princess 
Augusta  in  September,  Clarence  House,  St. 
James's  Palace,  was  made  over  to  her,  to- 
gether with  Frogmore  Lodge  at  Windsor. 
Hardly  a  day  passed  without  the  exchange 
of  visits.  As  a  rule,  the  duchess  both  lunched 
and  dined  with  her  daughter.  The  Baroness 
Lehzen  left  England  in  October  1842  for 
her  native  country  of  Hanover,  finally 
settling  with  a  sister  at  Biickeburg  (cf. 
BLOOMFIELD,  Reminiscences,  i.  215).  For 
many  years  the  queen  found  time  to  write 
her  a  letter  once  a  week,  an  interval  which 
was  subsequently  lengthened  to  a  month  at 
the  baroness's  own  considerate  request ;  the 
correspondence  was  maintained  until  the 
baroness's  death  in  1870.  Stockmar  alone 
of  the  queen's  early  confidential  attendants 
retained  his  position  after  her  marriage ; 
until  1857  he  spent  the  autumn,  winter,  and 
spring  of  each  year  with  the  queen  and 
Prince  Albert,  and  occupied  rooms  in  their 
palaces.  On  every  domestic  or  public  ques- 
tion that  arose  both  the  queen  and  prince 
looked  to  him  for  private  guidance. 

Amid  the  festivities  which  celebrated  the 
early  days  of  married  life  general  alarm  was 

caused  by  an  attack  on  the  queen's 
attempt  on  ^e-  The  outrage  had  no  political 
the  queen's  significance,  and  served  to  increase 
l£o10Jime  her  popularity.  On  10  June  a 

brainless  potboy,  Edward  Oxford, 
fired  two  shots  at  her  from  a  pistol  as  she  was 
driving  through  the  Green  Park  from  Bucking- 
ham Palace  to  Hyde  Park  Corner.  She  was 
unhurt,  and  to  all  appearance  unmoved,  and 
after  making  a  call  at  her  mother's  house  to 
assure  her  of  her  safety,  she  continued  her 
customary  drive  in  Hyde  Park.  The  lad 
was  arrested  and  was  mercifully  pronounced 
to  be  insane.  Addresses  of  congratulation 
were  presented  by  both  houses  of  parliament. 
On  12  June  1840 — two  days  after  the  inci- 
dent— a  concert  was  given  at  Buckingham 
Palace  under  Costa's  direction,  and  the  queen 
herself  took  part  in  no  less  than  five  num- 
bers, singing  in  a  duet  with  Prince  Albert, 
and  in  a  trio  with  Signors  Rubini  and 
Lablache,  and  in  three  choruses.  A  week 
or  two  later  a  magnificent  reception  was 
accorded  her  at  Ascot.  Next  month  the 
approaching  birth  of  an  heir  to  the  throne 
was  announced,  and,  in  accordance  with  the 
queen's  wish,  a  bill  was  passed  constituting 
Prince  Albert  regent  in  case  of  her  death, 
provided  that  he  did  not  remarry  a  catholic 
and  that  he  resided  in  the  country.  Prince 
Albert,  by  the  advice  of  Stockmar,  and  with 


Victoria 


413 


Victoria 


the  full  concurrence  of  Melbourne,  had 
already  given  proofs  of  an  anxiety  to  relieve 
the  strained  relations  between  the  court  and 
the  tories.  Their  leaders  had  been  enter- 
tained by  the  queen,  and  she  had  shown 
them  marked  civility.  With  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  every  eflbrt  was  made  to  main- 
tain cordial  relations,  and  he  reciprocated 
the  advances  with  alacrity.  The  Duke  of 
Sussex,  whose  critical  attitude  to  the  queen 
still  caused  her  discomfort,  was  partially 
conciliated  by  the  bestowal  of  the  title  of 
Duchess  of  Inverness  on  his  morganatic 
wife,  and  in  April,  when  the  queen  and 
Prince  Albert  attended  a  great  ball  at 
Lansdowne  House,  she  permitted  the  new 
duchess  to  sup  at  the  royal  table.  The 
pacific  atmosphere  which  was  thus  engen- 
dered had  the  agreeable  effect  of  stifling 
opposition  to  the  nomination  of  Prince 
Albert  to  the  regency.  In  the  House  of 
Lords  the  Duke  of  Sussex  alone  resisted  it 
on  the  ground  that  the  rights  of  '  the 
family '  were  ignored.  On  11  Aug.,  when 
the  queen  prorogued  parliament  in  person, 
the  prince  sat  in  an  arm-chair  next  the 
throne,  and,  although  objection  was  feared, 
none  was  raised.  His  predominance  was 
treated  as  inevitable.  On  28  Aug.  he 
received  the  freedom  of  the  city.  On  11 
Sept.  he  was  admitted  to  the  privy  council. 
On  5  Feb.  1841  the  queen  ordered  his 
name  to  be  inserted  in  the  liturgy. 

Meanwhile,  on  21  Nov.,  the  queen's  first 
child,  a  daughter,  was  born  at  Buckingham 
Birth  of  Palace.  Her  recovery  from  the 
princess  confinement  was  rapid,  and  she 
removed  to  Windsor  for  the 
Christmas  holidays.  On  10  Feb.,  the  anni- 
versary of  her  marriage,  the  child,  the  prin- 
cess royal  of  England,  was  baptised  at 
Buckingham  Palace  in  the  names  of  Vic- 
toria Adelaide  Mary  Louisa.  The  sponsors 
were  the  prince's  father,  the  queen's  mother, 
and  her  uncle  Leopold,  besides  the  Dowager 
Queen  Adelaide,  the  Duchess  of  Gloucester, 
and  the  Duke  of  Sussex.  The  Duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg  was  unable  to  attend  in  person, 
and  the  queen  by  her  own  motion  chose  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  to  represent  him.  The 
last  trace  of  animosity  in  regard  to  Welling- 
ton on  account  of  his  open  objections  to  the 
queen's  marriage  was  now  removed.  '  He 
is,'  the  queen  wrote  in  her  journal,  '  the  best 
friend  we  have.' 

Meanwhile  politics  were  casting  clouds 
on  the  joys  of  domestic  life.  The  queen 
was  to  suffer,  for  the  first  of  many  times, 
that  conflict  of  feeling  between  her  private 
obligations  to  her  foreign  kindred  and  her 
public  obligations  to  her  country,  which, 


despite  an  instinctive  repugnance  to  un- 
worthy concessions  in  the  sphere  of  foreign 
diplomacy,  was  liable  to  involve  her  in 
difficulties  with  her  advisers.  Under  Prince 
Albert's  guidance  and  in  accordance  with 
her  own  predisposition,  the  queen  regarded 
foreign  affairs  as  peculiarly  within  the  sove- 
reign's province,  and  the  prince,  who  with 
Melbourne's  assent  now  enjoyed  access  to 
foreign  despatches,  claimed  in  behalf  of  the 
queen  the  full  right  to  a  voice  in  consulta- 
tion before  any  action  was  taken  by  the 
government  abroad.  Palmerston,  the  mas- 
Paimerston  terful  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  the  was  reluctant  to  recognise  the 
existence  outside  parliament  of 
any  check  on  his  independence.  This  atti- 
tude at  once  caused  vexation  in  the  royal 
circle,  and  after  prolonged  heartburnings 
ultimately  led  to  an  open  rupture.  The 
immediate  cause  of  divergence  between  the 
queen  and  her  foreign  minister  was  due 
to  affairs  in  the  east  of  Europe,  which 
threatened  a  breach  in  the  friendly  relations 
of  France  and  England.  Egypt  under 
her  viceroy,  Mehemet  Ali,  was  seeking  to 
cast  off  her  allegiance  to  the  sultan  of 
Turkey.  France  encouraged  the  act  of  re- 
bellion, while  England  and  the  rest  of  the 
great  powers  took  Turkey  under  their  pro- 
tection. The  queen  and  Prince  Albert 
loathed  the  prospect  of  war  with  France, 
Political  "with  whose  sovereign,  Louis 
crisis  with  Philippe,  they  had,  through  re- 
France,  peated  intermarriages,  close  do- 
mestic relations ;  and  the  added  likelihood 
that  the  dominions  of  her  uncle  and  political 
ally,  King  Leopold,  would,  in  case  of  war 
between  England  and  France,  be  invaded 
by  a  French  army  filled  the  queen  with 
alarm.  Divisions  in  the  cabinet  encouraged 
resolute  intervention  on  her  part.  In  op- 
position to  Lord  John  Russell's  views, 
Palmerston,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  de- 
cided that  the  best  way  of  dissipating  all 
risk  of  French  predominance  m  Egypt 
was  to  crush  Mehemet  Ali  at  once  by  force 
of  English  arms.  The  queen  entreated 
Melbourne  to  reconcile  his  divided  col- 
leagues, to  use  his  influence  against  Pal- 
merston, and  to  seek  a  pacific  settlement 
with  France.  But  Palmerston  stood  firm. 
By  his  orders  the  British  fleet  forced 
M"ehemet  Ali  to  return  to  his  allegiance  to 
the  sultan  (November  1840).  The  minister'* 
victory  was  more  complete  than  he  antici- 
pated. Louis  Philippe,  to  the  general  sur- 
prise, proved  too  pusillanimous  to  lake  the 
offensive  in  behalf  of  his  friend  in  Egypt,and 
he  finally  joined  the  concert  of  the  powers, 
who  in  July  1841  pledged  themselves  by 


Victoria 


414 


Victoria 


treaty  to  maintain  Turkey  and  Egypt  in 
statu  quo.  The  incident  evoked  in  the  French 
king,  in  his  ministers,  and  in  King  Leo- 
pold a  feeling  of  bitterness  against  Palmer- 
ston  which  found  a  ready  echo  in  the  minds 
of  Queen  Victoria  and  the  prince. 

Before  this  foreign  crisis  terminated,  the 
retirement  of  Melbourne's  ministry,  which 
the  queen  had  long  dreaded,  took  place. 
The  prospect  of  parting  with  Melbourne, 
her  tried  councillor,  caused  her  pain.  But, 
in  anticipation  of  the  event,  hints  had  been 
given  at  Prince  Albert's  instance  by  the 
court  officials  to  the  tory  leaders  that  the 
queen  would  interpose  no  obstacle  to  a 
change  of  government  when  it  became  in- 
evitable, and  would  not  resist  such  recon- 
struction of  her  household  as 
Ti£££L  mi£ht  be  needful.  The  blow  fell 
in  May.  The  whig  ministers  in- 
troduced a  budget  which  tended  towards 
free  trade,  and  on  their  proposal  to  reduce 
the  duty  on  sugar  they  were  defeated  by  a 
majority  of  36.  Sir  Robert  Peel  thereupon 
carried  a  vote  of  confidence  against  them  by 
one  vote.  Moved  by  the  queen's  feelings, 
Melbourne,  instead  of  resigning,  appealed  to 
the  country.  Parliament  was  dissolved  on 
29  June. 

In  June,  amid  the  political  excitement, 
the  queen  paid  a  visit  to  Archbishop  Har- 
court  at  Nuneham,  and  thence  she  and  Prince 
Albert  proceeded  to  Oxford  to  attend  com- 
memoration. The  Duke  of  Wellington,  the 
chancellor  of  the  university,  presided,  and 
conferred  on  the  prince  an  honorary  degree. 
The  queen  was  disturbed  by  the  hisses  which 
were  levelled  at  the  whig  ministers  who 
were  present,  but  she  was  not  the  less  willing 
on  that  account  to  give  further  proof  of  her 
attachment  to  them,  and  she  seized  the 
opportunity  to  pay  a  series  of  visits  among 
the  whig  nobility.  After  spending  a  day  or 
two  with  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  at  Chats- 
worth,  the  royal  party  next  month  were 
entertained  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford  at 
Woburn  Abbey  and  by  Lord  Cowper,  Mel- 
bourne's nephew,  at  Panshanger.  From 
Panshanger  they  went  to  lunch  with  Mel- 
bourne himself  at  his  country  residence, 
Brocket  Park.  The  general  election  was 
proceeding  at  the  time,  and  the  whigs  made 
the  most  out  of  the  queen's  known  sympathy 
with  them  and  of  her  alleged  antipathy  to 
their  opponents.  But,  to  the  queen's  dis- 
may, a  large  tory  majority  was  returned. 

The  new  parliament  assembled  on  19  Aug. 
1841.  For  the  first  time  in  her  reign  the 
queen  was  absent  and  her  speech  was  read 
by  the  lord  chancellor,  an  indication  that  the 
constitution  of  the  House  of  Commons  was 


not  to  her  liking.  Melbourne's  ministry  re- 
mained in  office  till  the  last  possible  mo- 
Second  ment,  but  on  28  Aug.  a  vote  of 
general  confidence  was  refused  it  by  both 
houses  of  parliament ;  the  same 
evening  Melbourne  saw  the  queen  at  Wind- 
sor and  resigned  his  trust.  She  accepted 
his  resignation  in  a  spirit  of  deep  dejection, 
which  he  helped  to  dissipate  by  an  assur- 
ance of  the  high  opinion  he  had  formed 
of  her  husband.  In  conformity  with  his 
advice  she  at  once  summoned  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  and  although  she  spoke  freely  to  him 
Acceptance  of  her  grie^  jn  separating  from 
of  Peel's  her  late  ministers,  she  quickly 
ministry.  recovered  her  composure  and  dis- 
cussed the  business  in  hand  with  a  correct- 
ness of  manner  which  aroused  in  Peel  enthu- 
siastic admiration.  He  promised  to  consult 
her  comfort  in  all  household  appointments. 
The  Duchess  of  Buccleuch  replaced  the 
Duchess  of  Sutherland  as  mistress  of  the 
robes,  and  the  Duchess  of  Bedford  and  Lady 
Normanby  voluntarily  made  way  for  other 
ladies-in-waiting.  By  September  the  new 
government  was  fully  constituted,  and  the 
queen  had  the  tact  to  treat  her  new  ministers 
with  much  amiability.  Peel  adapted  him- 
self to  the  situation  with  complete  success. 
He  and  the  queen  were  soon  the  best  of 
friends.  Accepting  Melbourne's  hint,  he 
fully  yet  briefly  explained  to  her  every 
detail  of  affairs.  He  strictly  obeyed  her 
request  to  send  regularly  and  promptly  a 
daily  report  of  proceedings  of  interest  that 
took  place  in  both  the  houses  of  parliament. 
Melbourne  was  thenceforth  an  occasional 
and  always  an  honoured  guest  at  court,  but 
the  queen  accustomed  herself  without  delay 
to  seek  political  guidance  exclusively  from 
Peel. 

The  queen's  absence  at  the  prorogation  of 
parliament  on  7  Oct.,  after  a  short  autumn 
Birth  of  session,  was  due  to  personal  affairs 
prince  of  and  to  no  want  of  confidence  in 
Wales.  ker  new  advisers.  On  9  Nov. 

1841  her  second  child,  a  son  and  heir,  was 
born  at  Buckingham  Palace.  The  confine- 
ment was  imminent  for  several  weeks,  and, 
though  she  hesitated  to  appear  in  public, 
she,  with  characteristic  spirit,  continued  '  to 
write  notes,  sign  her  name,  and  declare  her 
pleasure  up  to  the  last  moment,  as  if  nothing 
serious  were  at  hand '  (Sir  James  Graham, 
ap.  Croker  Papers,  ii.  408).  Sir  Robert  Peel 
had  accepted  an  invitation  to  dine  with  her 
on  the  night  of  the  child's  birth.  Much 
public  and  private  rejoicing  followed  the 
arrival  of  an  heir  to  the  throne.  Christmas 
festivities  were  kept  with  great  brilliance 
at  Windsor,  and  on  10  Jan.  the  christening 


Victoria 


415 


Victoria 


took  place  in  St.  George's  Chapel  with  ex- 
ceptional pomp.  Vague  political  reasons 
induced  the  government  to  invite  Frederick 
William,  king  of  Prussia,  to  be  the  chief 
sponsor ;  the  others  were  the  Duke  of  Cam- 
bridge, Princess  Sophia,  and  three  members 
of  the  Saxe-Coburg  family.  To  the  king  of 
Prussia,  who  stayed  with  her  from  22  Jan. 
to  4  Feb.,  the  queen  paid  every  honour 
(BuxsEN,  ii.  7).  Subsequently  he  took 
advantage  of  the  good  personal  relations  he 
had  formed  with  the  queen  to  correspond 
with  her  confidentially  on  political  affairs. 
Adverse  criticism  was  excited  by  the  be- 
stowal on  the  prince  of  Wales  of  the  title 
of  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  by  the  quartering  of 
the  arms  of  Saxony  on  his  shield  with  those 
of  England.  Such  procedure  was  regretted 
as  a  concession  by  the  queen  to  her  husband's 
German  predilections.  On  3  Feb.  1842, 
when  the  queen  opened  parliament  and  the 
king  of  Prussia  accompanied  her,  there  was 
no  great  display  of  popular  loyalty  (FANNY 
KEMBLE'S  Records,  ii.  181),  but  she  im- 
pressed her  auditors  by  referring  in  the 
speech  from  the  throne  to  the  birth  of  her 
son  as  '  an  event  which  has  completed  the 
measure  of  my  domestic  happiness.'  When 
a  week  later  she  went  with  her  young  family 
to  stay  a  month  at  the  Pavilion  at  Brighton, 
her  presence  excited  more  public  demonstra- 
tion of  goodwill  than  was  convenient  (LADY 
BLOOMFIELD'S  Reminiscences),  and  the  queen 
and  Prince  Albert,  conceiving  a  dislike  for 
the  place,  soon  sought  a  more  sequestered 
seaside  retreat. 

The  season  of  1842  combined  agreeable 
with  distasteful  incidents.  The  first  of  a 
brilliant  series  of  fancy  dress  balls  took  place 
to  the  queen's  great  contentment  at  Bucking- 
ham Palace  on  12  May ;  the  prince  appeared 
as  Edward  III  and  the  queen  as  Queen 
Philippa.  Some  feeling  was  shown  in 
France  at  what  was  foolishly  viewed  as  the 
celebration  of  ancient  victories  won  by  the 
English  over  French  arms.  The  entertain- 
ment was  charitably  designed  to  give  work 
to  the  Spitalfields  Aveavers,  who  were  then 
in  distress.  A  fortnight  later  the  queen 
and  court  went  in  state  to  a  ball  at  Covent 
Garden  theatre,  which  was  organised  in  the 
interest  of  the  same  sufferers. 

In  June  the  queen  had  her  first  experience 
of  railway  travelling,  an  event  of  no  little 
The  queen  interest  to  herself  and  of  no  little 
travels  by  encouragement  to  the  pioneers  of 
a  mechanical  invention  which 
was  to  revolutionise  the  social  economy  of 
the  country.  She  went  by  rail  from  Wind- 
sor to  Paddington.  Court  etiquette  re- 
quired that  the  master  of  the  horse  and  the 


coachmen  under  his  control  should  actively 
direct  the  queen's  travels  by  land,  and  it 
was  difficult  to  adapt  the  old  forms  to  the 
new  conditions  of  locomotion.  The  queen, 
who  thoroughly  enjoyed  the  experiment, 
thenceforth  utilised  to  the  fullest  extent 
the  growing  railway  systems  of  the  king- 
dom. 

Unhappily  two  further  senseless  attempts 
on  her  life,  which  took  place  at  the  same 
icond  and    t^me>  marred  her  sense  of  security, 
third  at-        and    rendered    new    preventive 

iffe0"  legislation  essential.  In  her  atti- 
tude to  the  first  attempt  the 
queen  and  Prince  Albert  showed  a  courage 
which  bordered  on  imprudence.  On  Sunday, 
29  May,  Prince  Albert  noticed  that  a  man 
pointed  a  pistol  at  the  queen  as  she  drove 
past  him  in  her  carriage  through  the  Green 
Park.  She  and  the  prince  resolved  to  pass 
the  same  spot  on  the  following  afternoon  in 
order  to  secure  the  arrest  of  the  assailant. 
The  bold  device  succeeded.  '  She  would 
much  rather,'  she  said,  '  run  the  immediate 
risk  at  any  time  than  have  the  presentiment 
of  danger  constantly  hovering  over  her.'  The 
man,  whose  name  was  found  to  be  John 
Francis,  fired  at  her,  happily  without  result, 
and,  being  captured,  was  condemned  to  death, 
a  sentence  which  was  commuted  to  trans- 
portation for  life.  On  the  evening  following 
the  outrage  the  queen  visited  the  operate  hear 
the  '  Prophete,'  and  was  cheered  rapturously. 
But  the  danger  was  not  past.  On  3  July, 
when  the  queen  was  driving  in  the  Mall 
with  the  king  of  the  Belgians,  who  hap- 
pened to  be  her  guest,  a  crippled  lad,  John 
William  Bean,  sought  in  an  aimless,  half- 
hearted way  to  emulate  the  misdeeds  of 
Francis  and  Oxford.  Such  contemptible 
outrages  could,  according  to  the  existing  law, 
be  treated  solely  as  acts  of  high  treason. 
Now  Peel  hastily  passed  through  parliament 
a'  bill  for  providingfor  the  further  protection 
and  security  of  her  majesty's  person,'  the 
terms  of  which  made  the  offence  to  attempt 
to  hurt  the  queen  a  misdemeanour  punish- 
able by  either  transportation  for  seven  years 
or  imprisonment  for  three  with  personal 
chastisement. 

In  the  autumn  Peel  organised  for  the 
queen  a  holiday  in  Scotland.  Chartist  riots 
were  distracting  the  country,  but 
SlcoViand.  Peel  and  Sir  James  Graham,  the 
home  secretary,  believed  that  th« 
expedition  might  be  safely  and  wisely  made. 
It  was  the  first  visit  that  the  queen  paid 
to  North  Britain,  and  it  inspired  her  with 
a  lifelong  regard  for  it  and  its  inhabitants. 
The  first  portion  of  the  journey,  from 
Windsor  to  Paddington,  was  again  made 


Victoria 


416 


Victoria 


by  rail.  At  Woolwich  the  royal  party 
embarked  on  the  Itoyal  George  yacht  on 
29  Aug.,  and  on  1  Sept.  they  arrived  at 
Granton  pier.  There  Sir  Robert  Peel,  at 
the  queen's  request,  met  them.  Passing 
through  Edinburgh  they  stayed  with  the 
Duke  of  Buccleuch  at  Dalkeith,  where  on 
5  Sept.  the  queen  held  a  drawing-room  and 
received  addresses.  Next  day  they  left  for 
the  highlands,  and,  after  paying  a  visit  to 
Lord  Mansfield  at  Scone,  were  accorded  a 
princely  reception  by  Lord  Breadalbane  at 
Taymouth.  A  brief  stay  with  Lord  Wil- 
loughby  at  Drummond  Castle  was  followed 
by  their  return  to  Dalkeith,  and  they  left 
Scotland  by  sea  on  the  15th.  Not  only  was 
the  queen  enchanted  with  the  scenery 
through  which  she  passed,  but  the  historic 
associations,  especially  those  connected  Avith 
Mary  Stuart  and  her  son,  deeply  interested 
her,  and  she  read  on  the  voyage  with  a  new 
zest  Sir  Walter  Scott's  poems,  '  The  Lady  of 
the  Lake '  and  '  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Min- 
strel' (Leaves from  the  Queen's  Journal,  1877, 
pp.  1-28).  Before  embarking  she  instructed 
Lord  Aberdeen  to  write  to  the  lord  advocate 
an  expression  of  her  regret  that  her  visit 
was  so  brief,  and  of  her  admiration  of  the 
devotion  and  enthusiasm  which  her  Scottish 
subjects  had  '  evinced  in  every  quarter  and 
by  all  ranks '  (GREVILLE,  Memoirs).  On 
17  Sept.  she  was  again  at  Windsor.  In 
November  the  Duke  of  Wellington  placed 
Walmer  Castle  at  her  disposal,  and  she  and 
her  family  were  there  from  10  Nov.  to 
3  Dec. 

With  Peel  the  queen's  relations  steadily 
improved.  On  6  April  1842  Peel  described 
his  own  position  thus  :  '  My  re- 
audPeef.n  lations  with  her  majesty  are 
most  satisfactory.  The  queen  has 
acted  towards  me  not  merely  (as  every  one 
who  knew  her  majesty's  character  must  have 
anticipated)  with  perfect  fidelity  and  honour, 
but  with  great  kindness  and  consideration. 
There  is  every  facility  for  the  despatch  of 
public  business,  a  scrupulous  and  most 
punctual  discharge  of  every  public  duty,  and 
an  exact  understanding  of  the  relation  of  a 
constitutional  sovereign  to  her  advisers' 
(Peel  Papers,  ii.  544).  In  January  1843 
the  queen  was  deeply  concerned  at  the 
assassination  of  Peel's  secretary,  Edward 
Drummond,  in  mistake  for  himself,  and  she 
shrewdly  denounced  in  private  the  verdict 
of  insanity  which  the  jury  brought  in 
against  the  assassin  at  his  trial  (MARTIN, 
i.  27  ;  Peel  Papers,  ii.  553). 

Among  Peel's  colleagues,  Lord  Aberdeen, 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  came  after  Peel 
himself  into  closest  personal  relations  with 


the  queen  and  the  prince,  and  with  him  she 
found  herself  in  hardly  less  complete  accord. 
The  queen  At  the  same  time  she  never  con- 
ami  Aber-  cealed  her  wish  to  bring  the 
foreign  office  under  the  active  in- 
fluence of  the  crown.  She  bade  Aberdeen 
observe  'the  rule  that  all  drafts  not  mere 
matters  of  course  should  be  sent  to  her  before 
the  despatches  had  left  the  office.'  Aberdeen 
guardedly  replied  that  '  this  should  be  done 
in  all  cases  in  which  the  exigencies  of  the 
situation  did  not  require  another  course.' 
She  prudently  accepted  the  reservation,  but 
Lord  Aberdeen's  general  policy  developed  no 
principle  from  which  the  queen  or  the  prince 
dissented,  and  the  harmony  of  their  rela- 
tions was  undisturbed  (WALPOLE,  Life  of 
Lord  John  Russell,  ii.  54). 

Peel  greatly  strengthened  his  position  by 
a  full  acknowledgment  of  Prince  Albert  s 
position.  lie  permitted  the  prince  to  attend 
the  audiences  of  ministers  with  the  queen. 
He  nominated  him  president  of  a  royal  com- 
mission to  promote  the  fine  arts  of  the  United 
princ  Kingdom  in  connection  with  the 

Albert's  rebuilding  of  the  houses  of  parlia- 
growiug  ment,  and  he  encouraged  the 
ac*'  prince  to  reform  the  confused 
administration  of  the  royal  palaces.  The 
prince's  authority  consequently  increased. 
From  1843  onwards  the  queen,  in  announcing 
her  decision  on  public  questions  to  her 
ministers,  substituted  for  the  singular  per- 
sonal pronoun  '  I '  the  plural  '  we,'  and 
thus  entirely  identified  her  husband's  judg- 
ment with  her  own.  The  growth  of  his- 
authority  was  indicated  in  the  spring  of 
1843  by  his  holding  levees  in  the  queen's 
behalf  in  her  absence — an  apparent  as- 
sumption of  power  which  was  ill  received. 

Domestic  incidents  occupied  much  of  the 
queen's  attention,  and  compelled  the  occa- 
Domestic  sional  delegation  of  some  of  her 
incidents.  duties.  The  death  of  the  Duke 
1843-  of  Sussex  on  21  April  1843  pre- 

ceded by  four  days  the  birth  of  a  third  child, 
the  Princess  Alice.  In  order  to  conciliate 
her  unfriendly  uncle,  the  king  of  Hanover, 
the  queen  asked  him  to  be  a  sponsor,  together 
with  the  queen's  half-sister,  Countess  Feodore, 
Prince  Albert's  brother,  and  Princess  Sophia. 
With  characteristic  awkwardness  the  king  of 
Hanover  arrived  too  late  for  the  christening 

June).  A  large  family  gathering  followed 
in  July,when  the  queen's  first  cousin  Augusta, 
Ider  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Cambridge, 
married  at  Buckingham  Palace  (28  July) 
Friedrich,  hereditary  grand  duke  of  Meck- 
.enburg-Strelitz.  In  August  two  of  Louis 
Philippe's  sons,  the  Prince  de  Joinville  and 
the  Due  d'Aumale,  were  the  queen's  guests. 


Victoria 


417 


Victoria 


A  month  later,  after  proroguing  parlia- 

ment in  person  (24  Aug.),   and  making  a 

short  yachting  tour  on  the  south  coast,  the 

queen  carried  out   an  intention  that   had 

long  been  present  in  her  mind  of  paying  a 

visit  to  the  king  of  the  French, 

^Lsifto          with  whose  family  her  own  was 

by  marriage  so  closely  connected. 

Mttppe. 


toric  interest.  In  the  first  place  it  was  the 
first  occasion  on  which  the  queen  had  trodden 
foreign  soil.  In  the  second  place  it  was  the 
first  occasion  on  which  an  English  sove- 
reign had  visited  a  French  sovereign  since 
Henry  VIII  appeared  on  the  Field  of  the 
Cloth  of  Gold  at  the  invitation  of  Francis  I 
in  1520.  In  the  third  place  it  was  the  first 
time  for  nearly  a  century  that  an  English 
monarch  had  left  his  dominions,  and  the 
old  procedure  of  nominating  a  regent 
or  lords-justices  in  his  absence  was  now 
first  dropped.  Although  the  expedition 
was  the  outcome  of  domestic  sentiment 
rather  than  of  political  design,  Peel  and 
Aberdeen  encouraged  it  in  the  belief  that 
the  maintenance  of  good  personal  relations 
between  the  English  sovereign  and  her 
continental  colleagues  was  a  guarantee  of 
peace  and  goodwill  among  the  nations  —  a 
view  which  Lord  Brougham  also  held 
«trongly.  Louis  Philippe  and  his  queen 
were  staying  at  the  Chateau  d'Eu,  a  private 
domain  near  Treport.  The  queen,  accom- 
panied by  Lord  Aberdeen,  arrived  there  on 
2  Sept.  in  her  new  yacht  Victoria  and 
Albert,  which  had  been  launched  on  25  April, 
and  of  which  Lord  Adolphus  FitzClarence, 
a  natural  son  of  William  IV,  had  been  ap- 
pointed captain.  Her  host  met  the  queen 
in  his  barge  off  the  coast,  and  a  magnificent 
reception  was  accorded  her.  The  happy 
domestic  life  of  the  French  royal  family 
strongly  impressed  her.  She  greeted  with 
enthusiasm,  among  the  French  king's  guests, 
the  French  musician  Auber,  with  whose 
works  she  was  very  well  acquainted,  and 
she  was  charmed  by  two  fetes  ckampetres 
and  a  military  review.  Lord  Aberdeen  and 
M.  Guizot,  Louis  Philippe's  minister,  dis- 
cussed political  questions  with  the  utmost 
cordiality,  and  although  their  conversations 
led  later  to  misunderstanding,  everything 
passed  off  at  the  moment  most  agreeably. 
The  visit  lasted  five  days,  from  2  to  7  Sept., 
and  the  queen's  spirit  fell  when  it  was  over. 
On  leaving  Treport  the  queen  spent  another 
iour  days  with  her  children  at  Brighton,  and 
paid  her  last  visit  to  George  IV's  inconvenient 
Pavilion.  But  her  foreign  tour  was  not  yet 
ended.  From  Brighton  she  sailed  in  her 
yacht  to  Ostend,  to  pay  a  long  promised 
VOL.  in.  —  SUP. 


bridgem" 


visit  to  her  uncle,  the  king  of  the  Belgians, 
at  the  palace  of  Laeken,  near  Brussels.     '  It 

Thequeenin  T*  such  W  forme,'  she  wrote 
Belgium.  atter  parting  with  him,  '  to  be 
once  again  under  the  roof  of  one 
who  has  ever  been  a  father  to  me.'  Char- 
lotte Bronte,  who  was  in  Brussels,  saw  her 
'laughing  and  talking  very  gaily'  when 
driving  through  the  Rue  Royale,  and  noticed 
how  plainly  and  unpretentiously  she  was 
dressed  (GASKELL,  Life  of  Charlotte  Bronte, 
1900,  p.  270).  Her  vivacity  brought  un- 
wonted sunshine  to  King  Leopold's  habitually 
sombre  court.  She  reached  Woolwich,  on 
her  return  from  Antwerp,  on  21  Sept. 

The  concluding  months  of  the  year  (1843) 
were  agreeably  spent  in  visits  at  home.  In 
October  she  went  by  road  to  pay  a  first  visit 
to  Cambridge.  She  stayed,  according  to 
prescriptive  right,  at  the  lodge  of 
Trinity  College,  where  she  held  a 
levee.  Prince  Albert  received  a 
doctor's  degree,  and  the  undergraduates 
offered  her  a  thoroughly  enthusiastic  re- 
ception. Next  month  she  gave  public 
proof  of  her  regard  for  Peel  by  visiting  him 
at  Drayton  Manor  (28  Nov.  to 
MtaS"0*  1  Dec.)  Thence  she  passed  to 
Chatsworth,  where,  to  her  grati- 
fication, Melbourne  and  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington were  fellow-guests.  The  presence 
of  Lord  and  Lady  Palmerston  was  less 
congenial.  At  a  great  ball  one  evening 
her  partners  included  Lord  Morpeth  and 
Lord  Leveson  (better  known  later  as  Earl 
Granville),  who  was  afterwards  to  be  one  of 
her  most  trusted  ministers.  Another  night 
there  were  a  vast  series  of  illuminations  in 
the  grounds,  of  whicli  all  traces  were  cleared 
away  before  the  morning  by  two  hundred 
men,  working  under  the  direction  of  the 
duke's  gardener,  (Sir)  Joseph  Paxton.  The 
royal  progress  was  continued  to  Belvoir 
Castle,  the  home  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland, 
where  she  again  met  Peel  and  Wellington, 
and  it  was  not  till  7  Dec.  that  she  returned 
to  Windsor. 

On  29  Jan.  1844  Prince  Albert's  father 
died,  and  in  the  spring  he  paid  a  visit  to  his 
native  land  (28  March-11  April).  It  was 
the  first  time  the  queen  had  been  separated 
from  her  husband,  and  in  his  absence  the 
king  and  queen  of  the  Belgians  came  over 
to  console  her.  On  1  June  two  other 
continental  sovereigns  arrived  in  the 
country  to  pay  her  their  respects,  the  king  of 
Visit  of  T*ar  Saxony  and  the  Tsar  Nicholas  I 
Nicholas  i,  of  Russia.  To  the  tsar,  who  came 
1844.  uninvited  at  very  short  notice, 

it  was  needful  to  pay  elaborate  attentions. 
His  father  had  been  the  queen's  godfather, 

B  E 


Victoria 


418 


Victoria 


Political 

affairs. 


and  political  interests  made  the  strengthen- 
ing of  the  personal  tie  desirable.  He  attended 
a  great  review  at  Windsor  Park  with  the 
queen,  and  went  with  her  to  Ascot  and  to 
tne  opera.  At  a  grand  concert  given  in  his 
honour  at  Buckingham  Palace,  Joseph 
Joachim,  then  on  a  visit  to  England  as  a 
boy,  was  engaged  to  perform.  A  rough  sol- 
dier in  appearance  and  manner,  the  tsar 
treated  his  hostess  with  a  courtesy  which 
seemed  to  her  pathetic,  and,  although  pre- 
occupied by  public  aft'airs,  civilly  ignored 
all  likelihood  of  a  divergence  of  political 
interests  between  England  and  his  own 
country. 

At  the  time  domestic  politics  were  agitat- 
ing the  queen.  The  spread  of  disaffection 
in  Ireland  during  the  repeal  agitation  dis- 
tressed her,  and  her  name  was  made  more 
prominent  in  the  controversy  than 
was  prudent.  The  Irish  lord 
chancellor,  Sir  Edward  Sugden, 
publicly  asserted  that  the  queen  was  perso- 
nally determined  to  prevent  repeal  (May 
1843).  The  repeal  leader  O'Connell,  a  warm 
admirer  of  the  queen,  promptly  denied 
the  statement.  Peel  mildly  reprimanded 
Sugden,  but  truth  forced  him  to  admit  that 
the  queen  '  would  do  all  in  her  power  to 
maintain  the  union  as  the  bond  of  connec- 
tion between  the  two  countries '  (Peel  Papers, 
iii.  52).  The  obstructive  policy  of  the  opposi- 
tion in  parliament  at  the  same  time  caused 
her  concern.  She  wrote  to  Peel  on  15  Aug. 
of  '  her  indignation  at  the  very  unjustifiable 
manner  in  which  the  minority  were  obstruct- 
ing the  order  of  business  ; '  she  hoped  that 
every  attempt  would  be  made  '  to  put  an 
end  to  what  is  really  indecent  conduct,'  and 
that  Sir  Robert  Peel  would  '  make  no  kind 
of  concession  to  these  gentlemen  which  could 
encourage  them  to  go  on  in  the  same  way ' 
(ib.  iii.  568).  Worse  followed  in  the  month 
of  the  tsar's  visit.  On  14  June  the  government 
were  defeated  on  a  proposal  to  reduce  the 
sugar  duties.  To  the  queen's  consternation, 
Peel  expressed  an  intention  of  resigning  at 
once.  Happily,  four  days  later  a  vote  of 
confidence  was  carried  and  the  crisis  passed. 
The  queen  wrote  at  once  to  express  her 
relief  (18  June).  '  Last  night,'  she  said, 
'  every  one  thought  that  the  government 
would  be  beat,  and  therefore  the  surprise  was 
the  more  unexpected  and  gratifying'  (ib.  iii. 
153).  Foreign  affairs,  too,  despite  the  hos- 
pitalities of  the  English  court  to  royal  visitors, 
were  threatening.  The  jealousy  between 
the  English  and  French  peoples  might  be 
restrained,  but  could  not  be  stifled,  by  the 
friendliness  subsisting  between  the  courts, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  1843  the  maltreat- 


ment by  French  officials  of  an  English  con- 
sul, George  Pritchard,  in  the  island  of  Tahiti, 
which  the  French  had  lately  occupied, 
caused  in  England  an  explosion  of  popular 
wrath  with  France,  which  the  queen  and  her 
government  at  one  time  feared  must  end  in 
war. 

Amid  these  excitements  a  second  son, 
Prince  Alfred,  was  born  to  the  queen  at 
Birth  of  Windsor  on  6  Aug.,  and  at  the 
Prince  end  of  the  month  she  entertained 

another  royal  personage  from 
Germany,  the  prince  of  Prussia,  brother  of 
the  king,  and  eventually  first  emperor  of 
Germany.  There  sprang  up  between  her  and 
her  new  guest  a  warm  friendship  which  lasted 
for  more  than  forty  years.  A  peaceful  au-» 
tumn  holiday  was  again  spent  in  Scotland, 
whither  they  proceeded  by  sea  from  Wool- 
wich to  Dundee.  Thence  they  drove  to 
Blair  Athol  to  visit  Lord  and  Lady  Glen- 
lyon,  afterwards  Duke  and  Duchess  of 
Athol.  Prince  Albert  engaged  in  deer- 
stalking, and  the  queen  did  much  sketching. 
They  thoroughly  enjoyed  '  the  life  of  quiet 
and  liberty,'  and  with  regret  disembarked  at 
Woolwich  on  3  Oct.  to  face  anew  official 
anxieties  (Journal,  pp.  29-42). 

Five  days  later  Louis  Philippe  returned 
the  queen's  visit,  and  thus  for  the  first  time 
Louis  a  French  monarch  voluntarily 

Philippe's      landed  on  English  shores.     The 
visit.  Tahiti  quarrel  had  been  composed, 

and  the  interchange  of  hospitable  amenities 
was  unclouded.  On  9  Oct.  the  king  was  in-  , 
vested  with  the  order  of  the  Garter.  On  the 
14th  the  visit  ended,  and  the  queen  and  Prince 
Albert  accompanied  their  visitor  to  Ports- 
mouth, though  the  stormy  weather  ulti- 
mately compelled  him  to  proceed  to  Dover 
to  take  the  short  sea  trip  to  Calais.  Another 
elaborate  ceremony  at  home  attested  the 
queen's  popularity,  which  she  liked  to  trace 
to  public  sympathy  with  her  happy  domestic 
life.  She  went  in  state  to  the  city,  28  Oct., 
to  open  the  new  Royal  Exchange.  An  elabo- 
rate coloured  panoramic  plate  of  the  proces- 
sion which  was  published  at  the  time  is  now 
rare.  Of  her  reception  Peel  wrote  to  Sir  Henry 
Hardinge  (6  Nov.  1844)  :  '  As  usual  she  had 
a  fine  day,  and  uninterrupted  success.  It  was 
a  glorious  spectacle.  But  she  saw  a  sight 
which  few  sovereigns  have  ever  seen,  and 
perhaps  none  may  see  again,  a  million  human 
faces  with  a  smile  on  each.  She  did  not 
hear  one  discordant  sound'  (Peel  Papers, 
iii.  264).  On  12  Nov.  the  radical  town  of 
Northampton  gave  her  a  hardly  less  enthu- 
siastic greeting  when  she  passed  through 
it  on  her  way  to  visit  the  Marquis  of  Exe- 
ter at  Burghley  House.  Other  noble  hosts 


Victoria 


419 


Victoria 


of  the  period  included  the  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham at  Stowe  (14-16  Jan.  1845),  and  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  at  Strathfieldsaye 
(20-22  Jan.) 

When  the  queen  read  her  speech  at  the 
opening  of  parliament,  4  Feb.  1845,  she 
referred  with  great  satisfaction  to  the  visits 
of  the  Tsar  Nicholas  and  the  king  of  the 
French,  and  Peel  took  an  early  opportunity 
of  pointing  out  that  the  munificent  recep- 
tions accorded  those  sovereigns  and  other 
royal  visitors  were  paid  for  by  the  queen 
out  of  her  personal  income  without  incurring 
any  debt.  The  session  was  largely  occupied 
with  the  affairs  of  Ireland  and  the  proposal 
of  the  government  to  endow  the  catholic 
priests'  training  college  at  Maynooth.  The 
queen  encouraged  Peel  to  press  on  with  the 
measure,  which  she  regarded  as  a  tolerant 
concession  to  the  dominant  religion  in  Ire- 
land. But  it  roused  much  protestant  bigotry, 
which  excited  the  queen's  disdain.  On 
15  April  1845  she  wrote  to  Peel :  '  It  is 
not  honourable  to  protestantism  to  see  the 
bad  and  violent  and  bigoted  passions  dis- 
played at  this  moment.' 

Another  bal  costume  at  Buckingham  Palace 
on  6  June,  when  the  period  chosen  for 
illustration  was  the  reign  of  George  II, 
was  the  chief  court  entertainment  of  the 
year  ;  and  in  the  same  month  (21  June) 
there  was  a  review  of  the  fleet,  which  was 
assembled  at  Spithead  in  greater  strength 
than  was  known  before.  Next  month  the 
queen  received  the  king  of  the  Netherlands 
at  Osborne. 

Again  in  the  autumn  the  queen  left  Eng- 
land for  a  month's  foreign  travel,  and  Lord 
Queen's  first  Aberdeen  again  bore  the  royal 
party  company.  The  chief  object 
iny-  of  the  journey  was  to  visit  Coburg 
and  the  scenes  of  Prince  Albert's  youth,  but 
a  subsidiary  object  was  to  pay  on  their 
outward  road  a  return  visit  to  the  king  of 
Prussia.  Landing  at  Antwerp  (6  Aug.), 
they  were  met  at  Alalines  by  the  king  and 
queen  of  the  Belgians,  and  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  by  the  king  of  Prussia ;  thence 
they  journeyed  through  Cologne  to  the 
king  of  Prussia's  palace  at  Briihl.  They 
visited  Bonn  to  attend  the  unveiling  of  the 
statue  of  Beethoven,  and  a  great  Beethoven 
festival  concert,  while  at  a  concert  at 
Briihl,  which  Meyerbeer  conducted,  the 
artists  included  Jenny  Lind,  Liszt,  and 
Vieuxtemps.  The  regal  entertainment  was 
continued  at  the  king  s  castle  of  Stolzenfels, 
near  Coblenz  on  the  Rhine,  which  they  left 
on  16  Aug.  The  visit  was  not  wholly  with- 
out painful  incident.  The  question  of  the 


the  queen  annoyance.     Archduke  Frederick 

of  Austria,  who  was  also  a  guest,  claimed 

and,  to  the  queen's  chagrin,  was  awarded 

precedence  of  the   prince.     The  refusal  of 

court  officials  to  give  her  husband  at  Stol- 

zenfels in   1845  the  place  of  honour  next 

herself  led  her  to   refuse  for  many  years 

offers  of  hospitality  from  the  Prussian  court. 

On  19  Aug.  the  queen  finally  reached  the 

palace  of  Rosenau,  Prince  Albert's  birth- 

place, and  thence  they  passed  through  Co- 

burg,  finally  making  their  way  to   Gotha. 

There  the   queen  was  gratified  by  a  visit 

from  her  old  governess  Lehzen,  and  many 

pleasant  excursions  were  made  in  the  Thu- 

ringian  forest.      On  3  Sept.  they  left  for 

Frankfort,  stopping  a  night  at  Weimar  on 

the  way.     They  reached  Antwerp  on  the 

6th,  but  on  their  way  to  Osborne  they  paid 

a  flying  visit  to  Treport.     The  state  of  the 

tide  did  not  allow  them  to  land  from  the 

yacht,  and  Louis  Philippe's  homely  wit  sug- 

gested a  debarkation  in  bathing  machines. 

Next  day  (9  Sept.)  they  settled  once  again 

at  Osborne.    Writing  thence  (14  Sept.  1845) 

to  her  aunt,  the  Duchess  of  Gloucester,  she 

said  :  '  I  am  enchanted  with  Germany,  and 

in  particular  with  dear  Coburg  and  Gotha 

which  I  left  with  the  very  greatest  regret. 

The    realisation    of   this    delightful    visit, 

which  I  had  wished  for  so  many  years,  will 

be  constant  and  lasting  satisfaction  to  me. 

To  her  uncle  Leopold  she  wrote  to  the  same 

effect. 

Before  the  close  of  1845  the  queen  was 
involved  in  the  always  dreaded  anxiety  of 
The  queen     a  ministerial  crisis.    The  potato 
and  the         crop  had  completely  failed  in  Ire- 
harvest  in  England 


corn  laws.  jan  an(j  the 
and  Scotland  was  very  bad.  Great  distress 
was  certain  throughout  the  United  King- 
dom during  the  winter.  Thereupon  Peel 
made  up  his  mind  that  the  situation  de- 
manded the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws  —  a  step 
which  he  and  his  party  were  pledged  to 
oppose.  His  colleagues  were  startled  by  his 
change  of  view,  many  threatened  resistance, 


but    all    except    Lord 
agreed  to  stand  by  him 


Stanley  ultimately 
The  rank  and  file  of 


the  party  showed  fewer  signs  of  complacence. 
The  queen  was  gravely  disturbed,  but 
straightway  threw  the  whole  weight  of  her 
influence  into  the  prime  ministers  scale. 
On  28  Nov.  1845,  after  expressing  her 
sorrow  at  the  differences  of  opinion  in  the 
cabinet,  she  wrote  without  hesitation  : 
«  The  queen  thinks  the  time  is  come  when  a 
removal  of  the  restrictions  on  the  importa- 
tion of  food  cannot  be  successfully  resisted. 
Should  this  be  Sir  Robert's  own  opinion, 


vv*c'      |J  u  1. 1J.  I  u.  J.      UMjAUOUU*  J-  U.C      U  UCOUJ.V/U,      \s*-      H**v         P*^**VI  -  -         .   -    . 

prince's  rank  amid  the  great  company  caused  J  the  queen  very  much  hopes  that 


Victoria 


420 


Victoria 


colleagues  will  prevent  liiin  from  doing  what 
it  is  right  to  do  '  (Peel  Papers,  iii.  237-8). 

But  Peel,  although  greatly  heartened  by 
the  queen's  support,  deemed  it  just  both  to 
his  supporters  and  to  his  opponents  to  let 
the  opposite  party,  which  had  lately  advo- 
cated the  reform,  carry  it  out.  On  5  Dec. 
1845  he  resigned.  The  queen  was  as  loth 
to  part  with  him  as  she  had  formerly  been 
to  part  with  Melbourne,  but  prepared 
herself  to  exercise,  according  to  her  wont, 
all  the  influence  that  was  possible  to  her  in 
the  formation  of  a  new  government.  By 
Peel's  desire  she  sent  for  Lord  John  Russell, 
who  was  at  the  moment  at  Edinburgh,  and 
did  not  reach  Windsor  till  the  llth.  In 
the  meantime  she  asked  Melbourne  to  come 
and  give  her  counsel,  but  his  health  was 
failing,  and  on  every  ground  prudence  urged 
him  to  refuse  interference.  The  queen's 
chief  fear  of  a  whig  cabinet  was  due  to  her 
and  her  foreign  kinsmen's  distrust  of  Pal- 
merston  as  foreign  minister.  No  whig 
ministry  could  exclude  him,  but  she  promptly 
requested  Lord  John  to  give  him  the  colonial 
Negotiations  office-  Lo^  John  demurred,  and 
with  Lord  asked  for  time  before  proceeding 
John  Russell,  further.  In  the  extremity  of  her 
fear  she  begged  Lord  Aberdeen  to  support 
her  objections  to  Palmerston ;  but  since  it 
was  notorious  in  political  circles  that  Pal- 
merston would  accept  no  post  but  that  of 
foreign  secretary,  Aberdeen  could  give  her 
little  comfort.  He  merely  advised  her  to 
impress  Palmerston  with  her  desire  of  peace 
with  France,  and  to  bid  him  consult  her 
regularly  on  matters  of  foreign  policy.  On 
13  Dec.  the  queen  had  a  second  interview 
at  Windsor  with  Lord  John,  who  was  now 
accompanied  by  the  veteran  whig  leader, 
Lord  Lansdowne.  Prince  Albert  sat  beside 
her,  and  she  let  her  visitors  understand  that 
she  spoke  for  him  as  well  as  for  herself. 
Lord  John  asked  her  to  obtain  assurances 
from  Peel  that  the  dissentient  members  of 
his  cabinet  were  not  in  a  position  to  form  a 
new  government,  and  to  secure  for  him,  if  he 
undertook  to  repeal  the  corn  laws,  the  full 
support  of  Peel  and  his  followers.  Peel 
gave  her  a  guarded  answer,  which  dissatisfied 
Lord  John,  who  urged  her  to  obtain  more 
specific  promise  of  co-operation.  The  queen, 
although  she  deemed  the  request  unreason- 
able, politely  appealed  anew  to  Peel  without 
result.  At  length,  on  18  Dec.,  Lord  John 
accepted  her  command  to  form  a  govern- 
ment. But  his  difficulties  were  only  begun. 
There  were  members  of  his  party  who  dis- 
trusted Palmerston  as  thoroughly  as  the 
queen.  Lord  Grey  declined  to  join  the 
government  if  Palmerston  took  the  foreign 


office,  and  demanded  a  place  in  the  cabinet 
for  Cobden.  Lord  John  felt  unable  either 
to  accept  Lord  Grey's  proposal  or  to  forego 
his  presence  in  the  administration;  and 
greatly  to  the  queen's  surprise  he,  on  29  Dec., 
suddenly  informed  her  that  he  was  unable 
to  serve  her.  For  a  moment  it  looked  as  if 
she  were  to  be  left  without  any  government, 
but  she  turned  once  more  to  Peel,  who,  at  her 
earnest  request,  resumed  power.  To  this  re- 
sult she  had  passively  contributed  throughout 
the  intricate  negotiation,  and  it  was  com- 
pletely satisfactory  to  her.  The  next  day, 
30  Dec.,  she  wrote :  '  The  queen  cannot 
sufficiently  express  how  much  we  feel  Sir 
Robert  Peel's  high-minded  conduct,  courage, 
and  loyalty,  which  can  only  add  to  the 
queen's  confidence  in  him.' 

Thenceforth  the  queen  identified  herself 
almost  recklessly  with  Peel's  policy  of  repeal. 
Melbourne,  when  dining  at  Windsor,  told 
her  that  Peel's  conduct  was  '  damned  dis- 
honest,' but  she  declined  to  discuss  the 
The  queen's  topic.  She  lost  no  opportunity 
support  of  of  urging  Peel  to  persevere.  On 
Peel-  12Jan.l846shewroteofhersatis- 

faction  at  learning  of  the  drastic  character 
of  his  proposed  measures,  '  feeling  certain,' 
she  added,  '  that  what  was  so  just  and  wise 
must  succeed.'  On  27  Jan.  Prince  Albert 
attended  the  House  of  Commons  to  hear 
Peel  announce  his  plan  of  abolishing  the 
corn  laws  in  the  course  of  three  years. 
Strong  objection  was  raised  to  the  prince's 
presence  by  protectionists,  who  argued  that 
it  showed  partisanship  on  the  part  of  the 
crown.  The  queen  ridiculed  the  protest, 
but  the  prince  never  went  to  the  lower  house 
again.  On  4  Feb.  she  told  Peel  that  he 
would  be  rewarded  with  the  gratitude  of 
the  country,  which  '  would  make  up  for  the 
abuse  he  has  to  endure  from  so  many  of  his 
party.'  She  expressed  sympathy  with  him 
in  his  loss  of  the  support  of  Gladstone  and 
Lord  Lincoln,  who  had  accepted  his  policy, 
but  had  withdrawn  from  the  House  of  Com- 
mons because,  as  parliamentary  nominees  of 
the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  who  was  a  staunch 
protectionist,  they  could  not  honourably 
vote  against  his  opinions.  The  queen  pressed 
Peel  to  secure  other  seats  for  them.  On 
18  Feb.  she  not  only  wrote  to  congratulate 
Peel  on  his  speech  in  introducing  the  bill,  but 
forwarded  to  him  a  letter  from  the  Dowager 
Queen  Adelaide  which  expressed  an  equally 
flattering  opinion.  Every  speech  during  the 
corn-law  debates  she  read  with  minute 
attention,  and  she  closely  studied  the  division 
lists. 

The  birth  of  the  Princess  Helena  on  25  May 
was  not  suffered  to  distract  the  royal  atten- 


Victoria 


421 


Victoria 


tion,  and  the  queen  watched  with  delight 
the  safe  passage  of  the  bill  through  both 
houses  of  parliament.  The  sequel,  however, 
disconcerted  her.  On  26  June,  the  night 
that  the  corn-law  bill  passed  its  third  read- 
ing in  the  Lords,  the  protectionists  and 
whigs  voted  together  against  the  govern- 
ment on  the  second  reading  of  a  coercion 
bill  for  Ireland,  and  Peel  was  defeated  by 
seventy-three.  His  resignation  followed  of 
necessity,  and,  at  a  moment  when  his  ser- 
vices seemed  most  valuable  to  her,  the  queen 
saw  herself  deprived  of  them,  as  it  proved 
for  ever.  She  wrote  of  '  her  deep  concern ' 
at  parting  with  him.  '  In  whatever  position 
Sir  Robert  Peel  may  be,'  she  concluded, '  we 
shall  ever  look  on  him  as  a  kind  and  true 
friend.'  Hardly  less  did  she  regret  the  re- 
tirement of  Lord  Aberdeen.  '  We  felt  so  safe 
with  them,'  she  wrote  of  the  two  men  to  her 
uncle  Leopold,  who  agreed  that  Peel,  almost 
alone  among  contemporary  English  states- 
men, could  be  trusted  '  never  to  let  monarchy 
be  robbed  of  the  little  strength  and  power 
it  still  may  possess'  (Peel  Papers,  iii.  172). 

At  the  queen's  request  Lord  John  Russell 
formed  a  new  government,  and  with  mis- 
Lord  John's  givings  the  queen  agreed  to 
first  minis-  Palmerston  s  return  to  the  foreign 
iweJuly  office.  The  ministry  lasted  nearly 
five  years.  Lord  John,  although 
awkward  and  unattractive  in  manner,  and 
wedded  to  a  narrow  view  of  the  queen's 
constitutional  powers,  did  much  to  conciliate 
the  royal  favour.  Closer  acquaintance  im- 
proved his  relations  with  the  queen,  and  she 
marked  the  increase  of  cordiality  by  giving 
him  for  life  Pembroke  Lodge  in  Richmond 
Park  in  March  1847,  on  the  death  of  the  Earl 
of  Erroll,  husband  of  a  natural  daughter  of 
William  IV.  Some  of  Lord  John's  colleagues 
greatly  interested  the  queen.  Lord  Claren- 
don, who  was  at  first  president  of  the 
board  of  trade,  and  in  1847  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  gained  her  entire  confidence  and 
became  an  intimate  friend.  She  liked,  too, 
Sir  George  Grey,  the  home  secretary,  and  she 
admired  the  conversation  of  Macaulay,  the 
paymaster-general,  after  he  had  overcome  a 
feeling  of  shyness  in  meeting  her.  On  9  March 
1850,  when  Macaulay  dined  at  Buckingham 
Palace,  le  talked  freely  of  his  'History.' 
The  queen  owned  that  she  had  nothing  to 
say  for  her  poor  ancestor,  James  II.  '  Not 
your  majesty's  ancestor,  your  majesty's  pre- 
decessor,' Macaulay  returned;  and  the  re- 
mark, which  was  intended  as  a 
ajfcou'rt'7  compliment,  was  well  received 
(TREVELYAN'S  Life  of  Macaulay, 
pp.  537-8).  On  14  Jan.  1851,  when  he 
stayed  at  Windsor,  he  'made  her  laugh 


heartily,'  he  said.  « She  talked  on  for  some 
time  most  courteously  and  pleasantly.  No- 
thing could  be  more  sensible  than  her  re- 
marks on  German  affairs '  (ibid.  p.  549).  But, 
on  the  whole,  the  queen's  relations  with  her 
third  ministry  were  less  amicable  than  witk 
her  first  or  second,  owing  to  the  unaccommo- 
dating temper  of  the  most  prominent  mem- 
ber of  it — Palmerston,  the  foreign  secretary. 
Between  him  and  the  crown  a  constant 
struggle  was  in  progress  for  the  effective 
supervision  of  foreign  affairs.  The  consti- 
tution did  not  define  the  distribution  of 
control  between  monarch  and  minister  over 
that  or  any  other  department  of  the  state. 
The  minister  had  it  in  his  power  to  work 
quite  independently  of  the  crown,  and  it 
practically  lay  with  him  to  admit  or  reject 
a  claim  on  the  crown's  part  to  suggest  even 
points  of  procedure,  still  less  points  of  policy. 
For  the  crown  to  challenge  the  fact  in  deal- 
ing with  a  strong-willed  and  popular  mini- 
ster was  to  invite,  as  the  queen  and  prince 
were  to  find,  a  tormenting  sense  of  im- 
potence. 

At  the  outset  monarch  and  minister  found 
themselves  in  agreement.  Although  Palmer- 
ston realised  anticipations  by  em- 
SSrSSS!*  Boiling  France  and  England, 
the  breach  was  deemed,  in  the 
peculiar  circumstances,  inevitable  even  by 
the  queen  and  the  prince.  A  difference  had 
for  some  years  existed  between  the  two 
countries  in  regard  to  the  affairs  of  Spain. 
The  Spanish  throne  was  occupied  by  a  child 
of  sixteen  (Queen  Isabella),  whose  position 
sufficiently  resembled  that  of  the  queen  of 
England  at  her  accession  to  excite  at  the 
English  court  interest  in  her  future.  It  was 
the  known  ambition  of  Louis  Philippe  or  of 
his  ministers  to  bring  the  Spanish  kingdom 
under  French  sway.  English  politicians  of 
all  parties  were  agreed,  however,  that  an  ex- 
tension of  French  influence  in  the  Spanish 
peninsula  was  undesirable.  Perfectly  con- 
scious of  the  strength  with  which  this  view 
was  held,  Louis  Philippe  prudently  an- 
nounced in  1843  that  his  younger  son,  the 
Due  de  Montpensier,  was  to  be  affianced,  not 
to  the  little  Spanish  queen  herself,  but  to 
her  younger  sister.  Lord  Aberdeen  saw  no 
objection  to  such  a  match  provided  that 
the  marriage  should  be  delayed  till  the 
Spanish  queen  had  herself  both  married  and 
had  issue,  and  that  no  member  of  the  French 
Bourbon  house  should  become  the  royal  con- 
sort of  Spain.  During  each  of  the  visits  of 
Queen  Victoria  to  the  Chateau  d'Eu  the  kin* 
of  the  French  gave  her  a  distinct  verbal 
assent  to  these  conditions.  The  Spanisk 
queen  had  many  suitors,  but  she  was  alow 


Victoria 


422 


Victoria 


Prince 
Albert  and 
Prince 
Leopold  of 
Saxe- 
Coburg. 


in  making  a  choice,  and  her  hesitation  kept 
the  Spanish  question  open. 

Unluckily  for  the  good  relations  of  France 
and  England,  the  personal  position  of  Prince 
Albert  in  England  and  his  relations  with 
Germany  introduced  a  curious  complication 
into  the  process  of  selecting  a  consort  for  the 
Spanish  queen.  Christina,  the  mother  of 
the  Spanish  queen,  had  no  wish  to  facilitate 
French  ambition.  AVith  a  view 
to  foiling  it  she  urged  her  daugh- 
ter to  follow  the  example  alike 
of  the  English  queen  and  of  the 
queen  of  Portugal,  and  marry 
into  the  Saxe-Coburg  family.  In 
1841,  when  the  notion  was  first  put  forward, 
Prince  Albert's  elder  brother  Ernest,  who 
was  as  yet  unmarried,  was  suggested  as  a 
desirable  suitor ;  but  on  his  marriage  to  an- 
other in  1842,  Queen  Christina  designated 
for  her  son-in-law  Ernest  and  Albert's  first 
cousin,  Prince  Leopold,  whose  brother  was 
already  prince  consort  of  Portugal.  Prince 
Albert,  who  had  entertained  the  young  man 
at  Windsor,  was  consulted.  He  felt  that 
his  cousin  should  not  be  lightly  deprived  of 
the  opportunity  of  securing  a  throne,  but  re- 
cognised a  delicacy  in  urging  English  states- 
men to  serve  Saxe-Coburg  interests.  France 
showed  at  once  passionate  hostility  to  the 
scheme,  and  at  the  instance  of  Guizot,  who 
brusquely  declared  that  he  would  at  all 
hazards  preserve  Spain  from  England's  and 
Portugal's  fate  of  a  Saxe-Coburg  ruler,  the 
Saxe-Coburg  suit  was  before  1844  avowedly 
dropped  by  consent.  On  2  May  1846  it  was 
covertly  revived  by  Queen  Christina.  That 
lady  wrote  to  Duke  Ernest  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
who  was  on  a  visit  to  his  relatives  in  Portu- 
gal, bidding  him  seek  the  personal  aid  of  , 
Queen  Victoria  in  marrying  her  daughter  to  j 
Prince  Leopold.  With  the  embarrassing  j 
ignorance  which  prevailed  in  continental 
courts  of  English  constitutional  usages, 
Queen  Christina  desired  her  letter  to  reach 
Queen  Victoria's  hand  alone,  and  not  that  of 
any  of  her  ministers.  Duke  Ernest  forwarded 
it  to  King  Leopold,  who  communicated  it  to 
his  niece.  Both  Duke  Ernest  and  King  Leo- 
pold came  to  England  in  August,  and  they 
discussed  the  Saxe-Coburg  aspect  of  the 
question  with  the  queen  and  Prince  Albert. 
Reluctantly  a  decision  adverse  to  the  Saxe- 
Coburg  prince  was  reached,  on  the  ground 
that  both  English  and  French  ministers  had 
virtually  rejected  him.  Duke  Ernest  at  once 
wrote  to  that  effect  to  the  Queen-mother 
Christina,  and  advised  the  young  queen  to 
marry  a  Spanish  prince  (DtrKB  ERNEST  OF 
SA.XE-COBUB&,  Memoirs,  i.  190  seq.)  At  the 
same  moment  Palmerston  returned  to  the 


foreign  office,  and  in  a  despatch  to  the  Spanish 
government  which  he  wrote  in  haste  and 
with  half  knowledge  of  the  result  of  the 
recent  Saxe-Coburg  conclave,  he  pressed  the 
Spanish  queen  to  choose  without  delay  one 
of  three  suitors,  among  whom  he  included 
Prince  Leopold.  The  despatch  was  commu- 
nicated to  the  French  ministers,  who  saw 
in  Palmerston's  resuscitation  of  the  Saxe- 
Coburg  offer  of  marriage  a  special  grievance 
against  the  English  court.  Retaliation  was 
at  once  attempted.  Without  seeking  further 
negotiations,  the  French  ministers  arranged 
at  Madrid  that  the  young  queen  should 
marry  at  once,  that  the  bridegroom  should 
be  a  Spanish  suitor,  the  Duke  of  Cadiz,  and 
that  on  the  same  day  the  Due  de  Mont- 
pensier  should  marry  her  younger  sister. 
On  8  Sept.  the  queen  of  the  French,  in  a 
private  letter  to  Queen  Victoria,  announced 
the  approaching  marriage  of  her  son,  Mont- 
pensier.  The  queen,  in  reply  (10  Sept.), 
expressed  surprise  and  regret.  Louis 
Philippe  sent  an  apologetic  explanation  to 
his  daughter,  the  queen  of  the  Belgians,  who 
forwarded  it  to  Queen  Victoria.  She  replied 
that  Louis  Philippe  had  broken  his  word. 

Bitter  charges  of  breach  of  faith  abounded 
on  both  sides,  and  the  war  of  vituperation 
involved  not  merely  both  countries  but  both 
courts.  The  sinister  rumour  ran  in  Eng- 
land that  the  French  ministers  knew  the 
Duke  of  Cadiz  to  be  unfit  for  matrimony,  and 
had  selected  him  as  husband  of  the  Spanish 
queen  so  that  the  succession  to  the  Spanish 
crown  might  be  secured  to  the  offspring  of 
Montpensier.  In  any  case,  that  hope  was 
thwarted;  for  although  the  marriage  of  the 
Spanish  queen  Isabella  proved  unhappy,  she 
was  mother  of  five  children,  who  were  os- 
tensibly born  in  wedlock.  The  indignation 
of  the  queen  and  Prince  Albert  was  intensi- 
fied by  the  contempt  which  was  showered  in 
France  on  the  Saxe-Coburg  family,  and  the 
efforts  of  Louis  Philippe  and  his  family 
at  a  domestic  reconciliation  proved  vain. 

Palmerston,  after  his  wont,  conducted  the 
official  negotiation  without  any  endeavour 
to  respect  the  views  of  the  queen  or  Prince 
Albert.  In  one  despatch  to  Sir  Henry 
Bulwer,  the  English  minister  at  Madrid,  he 
reinserted,  to  the  queen's  annoyance,  a  para- 
graph which  Prince  Albert  had 
.  Dieted  in  the  first  draft  touch- 
ing  the  relation  of  the  issue  ot 
the  Due  de  Montpensier  to  the  Spanish  suc- 
cession. King  Leopold  held  Palmerston  re- 
sponsible for  the  whole  imbroglio  (DuKE 
ERNEST,  i.  199).  But  the  queen's  public 
and  private  sentiments  were  in  this  case 
identical  with  those  of  Palmerston  and  ot'the 


Victoria 


423 


Victoria 


English  public,  and,  in  the  absence  of  any 
genuine  difference  of  opinion,  the  minister's 
independent  action  won  from  the  queen  re- 
luctant acquiescence.  The  English  govern- 
ment formally  protested  against  the  two  j 
Spanish  marriages,  but  they  duly  took  place  ' 
on  10  Oct.,  despite  English  execrations,  i 
'  There  is  but  one  voice  here  on  the  subject,' 
the  queen  wrote  (13  Oct.)  to  King  Leopold, 
'  and  I  am,  alas  !  unable  to  say  a  word  in 
defence  of  one  [i.e.  Louis  Philippe]  whom  I 
had  esteemed  and  respected.  You  may 
imagine  what  the  whole  of  this  makes  me 
suffer.  .  .  .  You  cannot  represent  too  strongly 
to  the  king  and  queen  [of  the  French]  my 
indignation,  and  my  sorrow,  at  what  has 
been  done'  (MARTIN).  Then  the  hubbub, 
which  seemed  to  threaten  war,  gradually 
subsided.  The  effect  of  the  incident  on 
English  prestige  proved  small,  but  it  cost  i 
Louis  Philippe  the  moral  support  of  England, 
and  his  tottering  throne  fell  an  easy  prey  to 
revolution. 

At  the    opening   of    1847   the    political 
horizon    was   clouded  on   every   side,  but 
despite  the  political  anxieties   at  home- —  , 
threats  of  civil  war  in  Ireland,  and  so  great  ' 
a  rise  in  the  price  of  wheat  in  England  that 
the  queen  diminished  the  supply  of  bread  to  I 
her  own  household — the  '  season '  of  that  j 
year  was   exceptionally  lively.     Numerous  | 
foreign  visitors  were  entertained,  including 
the  Grand  Duke  Constantine  of  Russia,  the  i 
Tsar  Nicholas's  son,  Prince  Oscar  of  Sweden, 
and  many  German  princes.     On  15  June  a  j 
state  visit  was  paid  to  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  ! 
in  the  Haymarket,  during  the  first  season  of 
Jenny  Liud,  who  appeared  as  Norma  in  Bel- 
lini's opera.     The  queen  applauded  eagerly 
(HOLLAND  and  ROCKSTRO,*  Jenny  Lind,   ii. 
113  seq.),  and  wrote  to  her  uncle  Leopold  : 
'  Jenny  Lind  is  quite  a  remarkable  pheno- 
menon.'    In  the  spring  the  queen  had  been 
much  gratified  by   the   election   of  Prince 
Albert  as  chancellor  of  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity.    The  choice  was  not  made  without  a 
contest — '  the  unseemly  contest '  the  queen 
called  it — and  the  prince  won  by  a  majority 
of  only  117   votes  over  those   cast  for  his 
opponent,  the  Earl  of  Powis.   But  the  queen 
wisely  concentrated  her   attention  on  the 
At  Cam-        result,  which  she  felt  to   be  no 
bridge,  July  gift  of  hers,  but  an  honour  that 
the  prince  had  earned   indepen- 
dently. In  July  she  accompanied  him  to  the 
Cambridge  commencement,  over  which  he 
presided  as  chancellor.     From   Tottenham 
she  travelled  on  the  Eastern  Counties  rail- 
way, under  the  personal   guidance  of  the 
railway  king,  George  Hudson.     On  5  July 
1847  she  received  from  her  husband  in  his 


official  capacity,  in  the  hall  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, an  address  of  welcome.  In  reply  she 
congratulated  the  university  on  their  wise 
selection  of  a  chancellor  (Life  of  Wilberforce, 
i.  398 ;  DEAN  MERIVALE,  Letters ;  COOPER, 
Annals  of  Cambridge).  Melbourne  and 
three  German  princes,  who  were  royal  guests 
—Prince  Waldemar  of  Prussia,  Prince 
Peter  of  Oldenburg,  and  the  hereditary 
Grand  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar — received 
honorary  degrees  from  Prince  Albert's  hands. 
An  installation  ode  was  written  by  Words- 
worth and  set  to  music  by  T.  A.  Walmisley. 
On  the  evening  of  the  6th  there  was  a  levee 
at  the  lodge  of  Trinity  College,  and  next 
morning  the  queen  attended  a  public  break- 
fast in  Nevill's  Court. 

For  the  third  time  the  queen  spent  her 
autumn  holiday  in  Scotland,  where  she  had 
taken  a  highland  residence  at  Ardverikie,  a 
lodge  on  Loch  Laggan,  in  the  occupation 
of  the  Marquis  of  Abercorn.  They  travelled 
thither  by  the  west  coast  from  the  Isle  of 
Wight  in  the  yacht  Victoria  and  Albert 
(11-14  Aug.)  Spending  at  the  outset  a 
night  on  the  Scilly  Isles,  they  made  for  the 
Third  visit  Menai  Straits,  where  they  trans- 
to  Scotland,  ferred  themselves  to  the  yacht 
1847.  Fairy.  Passing  up  the  Clyde  they 

visited  Loch  Fyne.  On  the  18th  they 
arrived  at  Inveraray  Castle,  and  afterwards 
reached  their  destination  by  way  of  Fort 
William.  Palmerston  was  for  the  most  part 
the  minister  in  attendance,  and,  amid  the 
deerstalking,  walks,  and  drives,  there  was 
much  political  discussion  between  him  and 
Prince  Albert.  The  sojourn  lasted  three 
weeks,  till  17  Sept.,  and  on  the  return 
journey  the  royal  party  went  by  sea  only  as 
far  as  Fleetwood,  proceeding  by  rail  from 
Liverpool  to  London  (Journal,  pp.  43-61). 

Meanwhile  a  general  election  had  taken 
place  in  August  without  involving  any  change 
of  ministry.  In  the  new  parliament,  which 
was  opened  by  commission  on  18  Nov.  1847, 
the  liberals  obtained  a  working  majority 
numbering  325  to  226  protectionists  and 
105  conservative  free  traders  or  Peelites. 
Public  affairs,  especially  abroad,  abounded 
in  causes  of  alarm  for  the  queen.  1848,  the 
year  of  revolution  in  Europe, 
Pbfflppe'i  passed  off  without  serious  dis- 
dethrone-  turbance  in  England,  but  the 
meut.  queen's  equanimity  was  rudely 

shaken  by  rebellions  in  foreign  lands.  The 
dethronement  of  Louis  Philippe  in  February 
shocked  her.  Ignoring  recent  political  dif- 
ferences, she  thought  only  of  his  distress. 
When  his  sons  and  daughters  hurried  to 
England,  nothing  for  a  time  was  known  of 
the  fate  of  Louis  and  his  queen.  On 


Victoria 


424 


Victoria 


2  March  they  arrived  in  disguise  at  New- 
haven,  and  Louis  immediately  wrote  to  the 
queen,  throwing  himself  on  her  protection. 
She  obtained  her  uncle  Leopold's  consent  to 
offer  them  his  own  royal  residence  at  Clare- 
mont.  There  Prince  Albert  at  once  visited 
them.  To  all  members  of  the  French  royal 
family  the  queen  showed  henceforth  unremit- 
ting attention.  To  the  Due  de  Nemours  she 
allotted  another  royal  residence  at  Bushey. 
She  frequently  entertained  him  and  his 
brothers,  and  always  treated  them  with  the 
respect  which  was  due  to  members  of  reign- 
ing families.  But  it  was  not  only  in  France 
that  the  revolution  dealt  havoc  in  the 
queen's  circle  of  acquaintances.  Her  half- 
brother  of  Leiningen,  who  had  been  in  Scot- 
land with  her  the  year  before,  her  half-sister, 
the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  (Prince 
Albert's  brother),  and  their  friend,  the  king 
of  Prussia,  suffered  severely  in  the  revolu- 
tionary movements  of  Germany.  In  Italy 
and  Austria,  too,  kings  and  princes  were 
similarly  menaced.  Happily,  in  England, 
threats  of  revolution  came  to  nothing. 
The  great  chartist  meeting  on  Kennington 
Common,  on  10  April,  proved  abortive.  By 
the  advice  of  ministers  the  queen  and  her 
family  removed  to  Osborne  a  few  days  before, 
but  they  returned  on  2  May.  During  the 
crisis  the  queen  was  temporarily  disabled 
by  the  birth,  on  18  March,  of  the  Princess 
Louise;  but  throughout  her  confinement,  she 
wrote  to  her  uncle,  King  Leopold, '  My  only 
thoughts  and  talk  were  politics,  and  I  never 
was  calmer  or  quieter  or  more  earnest. 
Great  events  make  me  calm ;  it  is  only 
trifles  that  irritate  my  nerves '  (4  April). 
When  the  infant  Princess  Louise  was  chris- 
tened at  Buckingham  Palace  on  the  13th, 
the  queen  of  the  Belgians  stood  godmother, 
and  the  strain  of  anxiety  was  greatly  lessened. 
A  new  perplexity  arose  in  June  1848,  when 
Lord  John  feared  defeat  in  the  House  of 
Commons  on  the  old  question  of  the  sugar 
duties,  which  had  already  nearly  wrecked 
two  governments.  The  queen,  although  her 
confidence  in  the  ministry  was  chequered  by 
Palmerston's  conduct  of  the  foreign  office, 
declared  any  change  inopportune,  and  she 
approached  with  reluctance  the  considera- 
tion of  the  choice  of  Lord  John's  successor. 
Demurring  to  Lord  John's  own  suggestion 
of  Lord  Stanley,  who  as  a  seceder  from 
Peel  was  not  congenial  to  her,  she  took 
counsel  with  Melbourne,  who  advised  her 
to  summon  Peel.  But  the  government 

E roved  stronger  than  was  anticipated,  and 
jr  three  years  more  Lord  John  continued  in 
office.    On  5  Sept.  1848  the  queen  prorogued 
parliament  in  person,  the  ceremony  taking 


England 

and 

revolution. 


place  for  the  first  time  in  the  Peers'  Cham- 
ber in  the  new  houses  of  parliament,  which 
had  been  rebuilt  after  the  fire  of  1834.  Her 
French  kinsmen,  the  Due  de  Nemoura 
and  the  Prince  de  Joinville,  were  present 
with  her.  Popular  enthusiasm  ran  high, 
an<^  8ne  was  'n  thorough  accord 
with  the  congratulatory  words 
which  her  ministers  put  into  her 
mouth  on  the  steadfastness  with  which  the 
bulk  of  her  people  had  resisted  incitements 
to  disorder. 

On  the  same  afternoon  she  embarked  at 
Woolwich  for  Aberdeen  in  order  to  spend 
First  stay  three  weeks  at  Balmoral  House, 
at  Balmoral,  then  little  more  than  a  shooting- 
1848-  lodge,  which  she  now  hired  for 

the  first  time  of  Lord  Aberdeen's  brother, 
Sir  Robert  Gordon.  Owing  to  bad  weather 
the  queen  tried  the  new  experiment  of 
making  practically  the  whole  of  the  return 
journey  to  London  by  rail,  travelling  from 
Perth  by  way  of  Crewe.  Thenceforth  she 
travelled  to  and  from  Scotland  in  no 
other  way.  Later  in  the  year  a  distressing 
accident  caused  the  queen  deep  depression 
(9  Oct.)  While  she  was  crossing  from 
Osborne  to  Portsmouth,  her  yacht,  the 
Fairy,  ran  down  a  boat  belonging  to  the 
Grampus  frigate,  and  three  women  were 
drowned.  '  It  is  a  terrible  thing,  and  haunts 
me  continually,'  the  queen  wrote. 

Every  year  the  queen,  when  in  London  or 
at  Windsor,  sought  recreation  more  and 
Music  and  more  conspicuously  in  music  and 
the  drama  the  drama.  Elaborate  concerts-, 
at  court.  oratorios,  or  musical  recitations 
were  repeat  edlv  given  both  at  Windsor  and 
at  Buckingham  Palace.  On  10  Feb.  1846 
Charles  Kemble  read  the  words  of  the 
1  Antigone  '  when  Mendelssohn's  music  was 
rendered,  and  there  followed  like  renderings 
of  '  Atbalie'  (1  Jan.  1847),  again  of  '  Anti- 
gone' (1  Jan.  1848),  and  of  '  (Edipus  at 
Colonos'  (10  Feb.  1848  and  1  Jan.  1852). 
;  During  1842  and  1844  the  composer  Men- 
delssohn was  many  times  at  court.  The 
great  French  actress  Rachel  was  invited  to 
recite  on  more  than  one  occasion,  and  on 
26  Feb.  1851,  when  Macready  took  farewell 
of  the  stage  at  Drury  Lane,  the  queen  was 
present.  Meanwhile,  to  give  greater  bril- 
liance to  the  Christmas  festivities,  the  queen 
organised  at  the  end  of  1848  dramatic  per- 
formances at  Windsor.  Charles  Kean  was 
appointed  director,  and  until  Prince  Albert's 
death,  except  during  three  years  —  in  1850 
owing  to  the  queen  dowager's  death,  in  1855 
during  the  gloom  of  the  Crimean  war,  and 
in  1858  owing  to  the  distraction  of  the 
princess  royal's  marriage  —  dramatic  repre- 


Victoria 


425 


Victoria 


sentations  were  repeated  in  the  Rubens 
room  at  the  castle  during  each  Christmas 
season.  On  28  Dec.  1848,  at  the  first  per- 
formance, '  The  Merchant  of  Venice '  was 
presented,  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kean  and 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Keeley  in  the  cast.  Thirteen 
other  plays  of  Shakespeare  and  nineteen 
lighter  pieces  followed  in  the  course  of  the 
next  thirteen  years,  and  the  actors  included 
Macready,  Phelps,  Charles  Mathews,  Ben 
Webster,  and  Buckstone.  In  1857  William 
Bodham  Donne  succeeded  Kean  as  director ; 
and  the  last  performance  under  Donne's 
management  took  place  on  31  Jan.  1861. 
More  than  thirty  years  then  elapsed  before 
the  queen  suffered  another  professional  dra- 
matic entertainment  to  take  place  in  a  royal 
palace.  The  most  conspicuous  encourage- 
ment which  the  queen  and  her  husband 
bestowed  on  art  duri.ig  this  period  was 
their  commission  to  eight  artists  (Eastlake, 
Maclise,  Landseer,  Dyce,  Stanfield,  Uwins, 
Leslie,  and  Ross)  to  decorate  with  frescoes 
the  queen's  summer  house  in  the  gardens 
of  Buckingham  Palace.  The  subjects  were 
drawn  from  Milton's  '  Comus.'  The  work 
was  completed  in  1845. 

Under  Prince  Al  bert's  guidance,  the  queen's 
domestic  life  was  now  very  systematically 
ordered.  The  education  of  the  growing 

family  occupied  their  parents' 
^children,  minds  almost  from  the  children's 

birth.  Prince  Albert  frequently 
took  counsel  on  the  subject  with  Stockmar 
and  Bunsen,  and  the  queen  consulted  Mel- 
bourne (24  March  1842)  even  after  he  had 
ceased  to  be  her  minister.  In  the  result 
Lady  Lyttelton,  widow  of  the  third  Baron 
Lyttelton,  and  sister  of  the  second  Earl 
Spencer  (Lord  Althorp),  who  had  been  a 
lady-in-waiting  since  1838,  was  in  1842  ap- 
pointed governess  of  the  royal  children,  and, 
on  her  retirement  in  January  1851,  she  was 
succeeded  by  Lady  Caroline  Barrington, 
widow  of  Captain  the  Hon.  George  Barring- 
ton,  R.N.,  and  daughter  of  the  second  Earl 
Grey ;  she  held  the  office  till  her  death  on 
28  April  1875.  The  office  of  royal  governess, 
which  thus  was  filled  during  the  queen's 
reign  by  only  two  holders,  carried  with  it 
complete  control  of  the  '  nursery  establish- 
ment,' which  soon  included  German  and 
French  as  well  as  English  attendants.  All 
the  children  spoke  German  fluently  from  in- 
fancy. The  queen  sensibly  insisted  that  they 
should  be  brought  up  as  simply,  naturally, 
and  domestically  as  possible,  and  that  no 
obsequious  deference  should  be  paid  to  their 
rank.  The  need  of  cultivating  perfect  trust 
between  parents  and  children,  the  value  of  a 
thorough  but  liberal  religious  training  from 


childhood,  and  the  folly  of  child-worship  or 
excessive  laudation  were  constantlv  in  her 
mind.  She  spent  with  her  children  all  the 
time  that  her  public  engagements  permitted, 
and  delighted  in  teaching  them  youthful 
amusements.  As  they  grew  older  she  and 
the  prince  encouraged  them  to  recite  poetry 
and  to  act  little  plays,  or  arrange  tableaux 
vivants.  To  the  education  of  the  prince  of 
Wales  as  the  heir  apparent  they  naturally 
devoted  special  attention,  and  in  every  way 
they  protected  his  interests.  Very  soon 
after  his  birth  the  queen  appointed  a  com- 
mission to  receive  and  accumulate  the  reve- 
nues of  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall,  the  appanage 
of  the  heir  apparent,  in  their  son's  behalf, 
until  he  should  come  of  age,  and  the  estate 
was  administered  admirably.  Although  the 
queen  abhorred  advanced  views  on  the  posi- 
tion of  women  in  social  life,  she  sought  to 
make  her  daughters  as  useful  as  her  sons  to 
the  world  at  large,  and,  while  causing  them 
to  be  instructed  in  all  domestic  arts,  repu- 
diated the  notion  that  marriage  was  the  only 
object  which  they  should  be  brought  up  to 
attain  (Letters  to  Princess  Alice  (1874),  p. 
320).  She  expressed  regret  that  among  the 
upper  classes  in  England  girls  were  taught  to 
aim  at  little  else  in  life  than  matrimony. 

The  queen  and  Prince  Albert  regulated 
with  care  their  own  habits  and  pursuits. 
Although  public  business  compelled  them  to 
spend  much  time  in  London,  the  prince 
rapidly  acquired  a  distaste  for  it,  which  he 
soon  communicated  to  the  queen.  As  a  young 
woman  she  was,  she  said,  wretched  to  leave 
London,  but,  though  she  never  despised  or 
The  queen's  disliked  London  amusements,  she 
residences  at  came  to  adopt  her  husband's  view, 
Osbome  fo^  peace  and  quiet  were  most 
readily  to  be  secured  at  a  distance  from 
the  capital.  The  sentiment  grew,  and  she 
reached  the  conclusion  that  '  the  extreme 
weight  and  thickness  of  the  atmosphere' 
injured  her  health,  and  in  consequence 
her  sojourns  at  Buckingham  Palace  be- 
came less  frequent  and  briefer ;  in  later 
life  she  did  not  visit  it  more  than  twice  or 
thrice  a  year,  staying  on  each  occasion  not 
more  than  two  days.  Windsor,  which  was 
agreeable  to  her,  was  near  enough  to  London 
to  enable  her  to  transact  business  there  with- 
out inconvenience.  In  early  married  life  she 
chiefly  resided  there.  The  Pavilion  at  Brighton 
she  abandoned,  and,  after  being  dismantled 
in  1846,  it  was  sold  to  the  corporation  of 
Brighton  in  1850  to  form  a  place  of  public 
assembly.  Anxious  to  secure  residences 
which  should  be  personal  property  and  free 
from  the  restraints  of  supervision  by  public 
officials,  she  soon  decided  to  acquire  private 


Victoria 


426 


Victoria 


and  Bal- 
moral. 


abodes  in  those  parts  of  her  dominions  which 
were  peculiarly  congenial  to  her — the  Isle  of 
Wight  and  the  highlands  of  Scotland.  Her 
residence  in  the  south  was  secured  first.  Late 
in  1844  she  purchased  of  Lady  Isabella  Blach- 
ford  the  estate  of  Osborne,  consisting  of  about 
eight  hundred  acres,  near  East  Co  wes.  Subse- 
quent purchases  increased  the  land  to  about 
two  thousand  acres.  The  existing  house 
proved  inconvenient,  and  the  foundation- 
stone  of  a  new  one  was  laid  on  23  June  1845. 
A  portion  of  it  was  occupied  in  September 
1846,  although  the  whole  was  not  completed 
until  1851.  In  the  grounds  was  set  up  in 
1854  a  Swiss  cottage  as  a  workshop  and 
playhouse  for  the  children.  In  the  designing 
of  the  new  Osborne  House  and  in  laying  out 
the  gardens  Prince  Albert  took  a  very  active 
part.  The  queen  interested  herself  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  rebuilt  the  parish  church 
at  Whippingham.  In  1848  the  queen  leased 
of  the  fife  trustees  Balmoral  House,  as  her 
residence  in  the  highlands ;  she  purchased 
it  in  1852,  and  then  resolved  to  replace  it 
by  an  elaborate  edifice.  The 
new  Balmoral  Castle  was  com- 
pleted in  the  autumn  of  1854,  and 
large  additions  were  subsequently  made  to 
the  estate.  The  Duchess  of  Kent  rented  in 
the  neighbourhood  Abergeldie  Castle,  which 
was  subsequently  occupied  by  the  prince  of 
Wales.  At  Balmoral,  after  1854,  a  part  of 
every  spring  and  autumn  was  spent  during 
the  rest  of  the  queen's  life,  while  three  or  four 
annual  visits  were  paid  regularly  to  Osborne. 
At  both  Osborne  and  Balmoral  very  homely 
modes  of  life  were  adopted,  and,  at  Balmoral 
especially,  ministers  and  foreign  friends  were 
surprised  at  the  simplicity  which  charac- 
terised the  queen's  domestic  arrangements. 
Before  the  larger  house  was  built  only  two 
sitting-rooms  were  occupied  by  the  royal 
family.  Of  an  evening  billiards  were  played 
in  the  one,  under  such  cramped  conditions 
that  the  queeu,  who  usually  looked  on,  had 
constantly  to  move  her  seat  to  give  the  players 
elbow-space.  In  the  other  room  the  queen 
at  times  would  take  lessons  in  the  Scotch 
reel.  The  minister  in  attendance  did  all  his 
work  in  his  small  bedroom,  and  the  queen 
would  run  carelessly  in  and  out  of  the  house 
all  day  long,  walking  alone,  visiting  neigh- 
bouring cottages,  and  chatting  unreservedly 
with  their  occupants. 

After  identifying  herself  thus  closely  with 
Scotland,  it  was  only  right  for  her  to  make 
the  acquaintance  of  Ireland,  the  only  portion 
of  the  United  Kingdom  which  she  had  not 
visited  during  the  first  decade  of  her  reign. 
Peel  had  entertained  a  suggestion  that  the 
queen  should  visit  the  country  in  1844, 


when  she  received  an  invitation  from  the 
lord  mayor  of  Dublin,  and  a  conditional 
promise  of  future  acceptance  was  given.  In 
the  early  autumn  of  1849  the  plan  was 
carried  out  with  good  results.  The  social 
and  political  condition  of  the  country  was 
not  promising.  The  effects  of  the  famine 
were  still  acute.  Civil  war  had  broken  out 
in  1848,  and,  although  it  was  easily  re- 
pressed, disaffection  was  widespread.  In  June 
1849  the  queen's  attention  was  disagreeably 
drawn  to  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the 
country  by  a  difficulty  which  arose  in  regard 
to  recent  convictions  for  high  treason ;  com- 
mutation of  capital  sentences  was  resolved 
upon,  but  it  was  found  to  be  impossible  to 
substitute  terms  of  imprisonment  until  a 
new  statute  had  been  hastily  devised,  giving 
the  crown  specific  authority  to  that  effect. 

The  general  distress  precluded 
ireiamiusig!  a  state  visit.  But  personal  loyalty 

to  the  sovereign  was  still  be- 
lieved to  prevail  in  Ireland.  The  queen 
went  by  sea  from  Cowes  to  the  Cove  of  Cork, 
upon  which  she  bestowed  the  new  name  of 
Queenstown  in  honour  of  her  first  landing 
there  on  Irish  soil.  She  thence  proceeded  in 
her  yacht  to  Kingstown,  and  took  up  her  re- 
sidence for  four  days  at  the  viceregal  lodge 
in  Phoenix  Park,  Dublin.  She  held  a  levee 
one  evening  in  Dublin  Castle.  Her  recep- 
tion was  all  that  could  be  wished.  It  was 
'  idolatrous,'  wrote  Monckton  Milnes,  lord 
Houghton,  '  and  utterly  unworthy  of  a  free, 
not  to  say  ill-used,  nation'  (REID,  Lord 
Houghton,  i.  485-5).  She  received  addresses 
and  visited  public  institutions.  Everything 
she  saw  delighted  her,  and  she  commemo- 
rated her  presence  in  Dublin  by  making  the 
prince  of  Wales  Earl  of  Dublin  (10  Sept. 
1849).  From  the  Irish  capital  she  went  by 
sea  to  Belfast,  where  her  reception  was  equally 
enthusiastic.  Thence  she  crossed  to  the  Scot- 
tish coast,  and  after  a  public  visit  to  Glasgow 
she  sought  the  grateful  seclusion  of  Bal- 
moral. 

On  30  Oct.  1849  an  attack  of  chicken-pox 
prevented   the    queen  from   fulfilling    her 

promise   to   open  the   new  coal 

Last  royal        "  .     T  *         „,, 

water  exchange  in  Lower  1  names  otreet, 

pageant,  and  she  was  represented  by  her 
husband.  In  two  ways  the  inci- 
dent proved  of  interest.  The  queen's  two 
eldest  children  there  first  appeared  at  a 
public  ceremonial,  while  the  royal  barge, 
which  bore  the  royal  party  from  Westminster 
to  St.  Paul's  wharf,  made  its  last  state 
journey  on1  the  Thames  during  the  queen's 
reign. 

In  the  large  circle  of  the  queen's  family 
and   court,   it  was   inevitable    that   death 


Victoria 


427 


Victoria 


should  be  often  busy  and  should  gradually 

sever  valued  links  with  the  queen's  youth. 

Her  aunt,  Princess  Sophia,  died 

Deaths  in  n-^r        -10,40         j  i_         i  j       •    • 

royal  circles  on  27  May  1848,  and  her  old  mim- 
1848-50.  gter  an(j  mentor,  Melbourne,  on 
24  Nov.  1848,  while  a  year  later  George 
Anson,  the  prince's  former  secretary  and  now 
keeper  of  his  privy  purse,  passed  suddenly 
away,  and  his  loss  was  severely  felt  by  the 
queen.  Another  grief  was  the  death,  on 
2  Dec.  1849  at  Stanmore  Priory,  of  the  old 
Queen  Adelaide,  who  was  buried  in  St. 
George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  beside  William  IV 
on  13  Dec.  The  summer  of  the  following 
year  (1850)  was  still  more  fruitful  in  episodes 
of  mourning.  On  3  July  Peel  succumbed  to 
an  accidental  fall  from  his  horse ;  in  him 
the  queen  said  she  lost  not  merely  a  friend, 
but  a  father.  Five  days  later  there  died  her 
uncle,  the  Duke  of  Cambridge ;  on  26  Aug., 
Louis  Philippe,  whose  fate  of  exile  roused 
the  queen's  abiding  sympathy ;  and  on  10  Oct. 
the  French  king's  gentle  daughter,  the  queen 
of  the  Belgians,  wife  of  King  Leopold. 
Minor  anxieties  were  caused  the  queen  by 
two  brutal  attacks  upon  her  person :  on 
19  May  1849,  when  she  was  returning  from 
a  drive  near  Constitution  Hill,  a  blank  charge 
was  fired  at  her  from  a  pistol  by  an  Irish- 
man, William  Hamilton  of  Adare,  and  on 
27  May  1850  one  Robert  Pate,  a  retired 
officer,  hit  her  on  the  head  with  a  cane  as 
she  was  leaving  Cambridge  House  in  Picca- 
dilly, where  the  Duke  of  Cambridge  was 
lying  ill. 

The  last  outrage  was  the  more  brutal, 
seeing  that  the  queen  was  just  recovering 
Prince  from  her  confinement.  Her  third 

Arthur  an  l  son,  Arthur,  was  born  on  1  May 
the  Duke  of  185Q  The  date  w&&  the  J)uke  Qf 
\\ elhiiL'tou.  -,TT  ...  ,  .  ,  „  ,  .  , 

\\  ellmgton  s  eighty-nrst  birth- 
day. A  few  weeks  before  the  duke  had  de- 
lighted the  queen  by  the  injudicious  sugges- 
tion that  Prince  Albert  should  become  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  ariry  in  succession  to 
himself.  The  prince  wisely  declined  the 
honour.  Apart  from  other  considerations 
his  hands  were  over  full  already  and  his 
health  was  giving  evidence  of  undue  mental 
strain.  But,  by  way  of  showing  her  ap- 
preciation of  the  duke's  proposal,  the  queen 
made  him  godfather  to  her  new-born  son. 
A  second  sponsor  was  the  prince  of  Prussia, 
and  the  christening  took  place  on  22  June. 
The  infant's  third  name,  Patrick,  commemo- 
rated the  queen's  recent  Irish  visit.  At  the 
time,  despite  family  and  political  cares,  the 
queen's  health  was  exceptionally  robust. 
On  going  north  in  the  autumn,  after  inau- 
gurating the  high-level  bridge  at  Newcastle 
and  the  Royal  Border  Bridge  on  the  Scottish  j 


boundary  at  Berwick,  she  stopped  two  days 
in  Edinburgh  at  Holyrood  Palace,  in  order 
to  climb  Arthur's  Seat.  When  she  settled 
down  to  her  holiday  at  Balmoral,  she  took 
energetic  walking  exercise  and  showed  a 
physical  briskness  enabling  her  to  face  boldly 
annoyances  in  official  life,  which  were  now 
graver  than  any  she  had  yet  experienced. 

The  breach  between  the  foreign  minister 
(Palmerston)  and  the  crown  was  growing 
wider  each  year.  Foreign  affairs  interested 
the  queen  and  her  husband  intensely.  As 
they  grew  more  complex  the  prince  studied 
them  more  closely,  and  prepared  memoranda 
with  a  view  to  counselling  the  foreign  mini- 
ster. But  Palmerston  rendered  such  efforts 
abortive  by  going  his  own  way,  without 
consulting  the  court  or,  at  times,  even  his 
colleagues.  The  antagonism  between  Prince 
Albert's  views,  with  which  the  queen  identi- 
fied herself,  and  those  of  Palmerston  was 
largely  based  on  principle.  Palmerston  con- 
Differences  sisteutly  supported  liberal  move- 
ments abroad,  even  at  the  risk  of 
Fmeriton>  exposing  himself  to  the  charge 
of  encouraging  revolution.  Al- 
though the  queen  and  the  prince  fully  recog- 
nised the  value  of  constitutional  methods  of 
government  in  England,  and  were  by  no 
means  averse  to  their  spread  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  their  personal  relations  with 
foreign  dynasties  evoked  strong  sympathy 
with  reigning  monarchs  and  an  active  dread 
of  revolution,  which  Palmerston  seemed  to 
them  to  view  with  a  perilous  complaisance. 
Through  1848,  the  year  of  revolution,  the 
difference  steadily  grew.  Palmerston  treated 
with  equanimity  the  revolutionary  riots  at 
Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Baden  in  1848-9,  while 
they  stirred  in  his  royal  mistress  a  poignant 
compassion  for  those  crowned  kinsmen  or 
acquaintances  whose  lives  and  fortunes  were 
menaced.  When  efforts  were  first  made  in 
Italy  to  secure  national  unity  and  to  throw 
off  the  yoke  of  Austria,  Palmerston  spoke 
with  benevolence  of  the  endeavours  of  the 
Italian  patriots.  Although  the  prince  strongly 
deprecated  the  cruelties  which  Italian  rulers 
practised  on  their  subjects,  he  and  the  queen 
cherished  a  warm  sympathy  with  the  Aus- 
trians  and  their  emperor.  In  regard  to 
Germany,  on  the  other  hand,  the  opposition 
between  royal  and  ministerial  opinions  in- 
volved other  considerations.  The  prince  was 
well  affected  to  the  movement  for  national 
unity  under  Prussia's  leadership.  Palmer- 
ston's  distrust  of  the  weak  reactionary  Prus- 
sian king  and  his  allies  among  the  German 
princes  rendered  him  suspicious  of  German 
nationalist  aspirations.  In  the  intricate 
struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  duchies 


Victoria 


428 


Victoria 


of  Schleswig-Holstein,  which  opened  in  1848, 
Palmerston  inclined  to  the  claim  of  Den- 
mark against  that  of  the  confederation  of 
German  states  with  Prussia  at  its  head, 
whose  triumph  the  English  royal  family 
hopefully  anticipated. 

In  point  of  practice  Palmerston  was  equally 
offensive  to  the  prince  and  the  queen.  He 
frequently  caused  them  intense  irritation  or 
alarm  by  involving  the  government  in  acute 
international  crises  without  warning  the 
queen  of  their  approach.  In  1848,  before 
consulting  her,  he  peremptorily  ordered  the 
reactionary  Spanish  government  to  liberalise 
its  institutions,  with  the  result  that  the 
English  ambassador,  Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  was 
promptly  expelled  from  Madrid.  In  January 
1850,  to  the  queen's  consternation,  Palmer- 
ston coerced  Greece  into  compliance  with 
English  demands  for  the  compensation  of 
Don  Pacifico  and  other  English  subjects 
who  had  claims  against  the  Greek  govern- 
ment. Thereupon  France,  who  was  trying 
to  mediate,  and  regarded  Palinerston's  pre- 
cipitate action  as  insulting,  withdrew  her 
ambassador  from  London,  and  for  the  third 
time  in  the  queen's  reign — on  this  occasion 
almost  before  she  had  an  opportunity  of 
learning  the  cause — Palmerston  brought 
France  and  England  to  the  brink  of  war. 

The  queen's  embarrassments  were  aggra- 
vated by  the  habit  of  foreign  sovereigns,  who 
believed  her  power  to  be  far  greater  than 
The  queen's  ^  was>  °f  writing  autograph  ap- 
private  peals  to  her  personally  on  poli- 

spondence.  tical  affairs.»  and  of  seeking  pri- 
vately to  influence  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  country.  She  was  wise  enough 
to  avoid  the  snares  that  were  thus  laid  for 
her,  and  frankly  consulted  Palmerston  before 
replying.  He  invariably  derided  the  notion 
of  conciliating  the  good  opinion  of  foreign 
courts,  where  his  name  was  a  word  of  loath- 
ing. The  experience  was  often  mortifying 
for  the  queen.  In  1847,  when  the  queen  of 
Portugal,  the  queen's  early  playmate,  was 
threatened  by  her  revolutionary  subjects, 
she  appealed  directly  to  Queen  Victoria  for 
protection.  Palmerston  treated  the  Portu- 

Siese  difficulty  as  a  '  Coburg  family  affair.' 
e  attributed  the  queen's  peril  to  her  re- 
liance on  the  absolutist  advice  of  one  Dietz, 
a  native  of  Coburg,  who  stood  towards  the 
Portuguese  queen  and  her  husband,  Prince 
Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg,  in  a  relation  re- 
sembling that  of  Stockmar  to  Prince  Albert 
and  the  queen.  Palmerston  insisted  on 
Dietz's  dismissal — a  proceeding  that  was 
highly  offensive  to  the  queen  and  to  her 
Saxe-Coburg  kinsmen  (DtTKE  ERNEST,  Me- 
moirs, i.  288  sq.)  Afterwards  he  dictated  a 


solemn  letter  of  constitutional  advice  for  his 
royal  mistress  to  copy  in  her  own  hand  and 
forward  to  her  unhappy  correspondent  at 
Lisbon  (WALPOLE,  Lord  John  Russell). 
Later  in  the  year  the  king  of  Prussia,  in  a 
private  letter  which  his  ambassador  at  St. 
James's,  Baron  Bunsen,  was  directed  to 
deliver  to  the  queen  in  private  audience,  in- 
vited her  encouragement  of  the  feeble  efforts 
of  Prussia  to  dominate  the  German  federa- 
tion. Palmerston  learned  from  Bunsen  of 
the  missive,  and  told  him  that  it  was  irre- 
gular for  the  English  sovereign  to  correspond 
with  foreign  monarchs  unless  they  were  her 
relatives  (BTJNSEN,  Memoirs,  ii.  149).  In 
concert  with  Prince  Albert  he  sketched  a 
colourless  draft  reply,  which  the  queen 
copied  out ;  it  '  began  and  ended  in  German, 
though  the  body  of  it  was  in  English.'  Prince 
Albert,  in  frequent  private  correspondence 
with  the  king  of  Prussia,  had  sought  to 
stimulate  the  king  to  more  active  assertion 
of  Prussian  power  in  Germany,  and  the 
apparent  discrepancy  between  the  prince's 
ardour  and  the  coolness  which  Palmerston 
imposed  on  his  wife  was  peculiarly  repug- 
nant to  both  her  and  her  husband.  Ex- 
postulation with  Palmerston  seemed  vain. 
In  June  1848  Prince  Albert  bade  Lord  John 
remind  him  that  every  one  of  the  ten  thou- 
sand despatches  which  were  received  annu- 
ally at  the  foreign  office  was  addressed  to 
the  queen  and  to  the  prime  minister  as  well 
as  to  himself,  and  that  the  replies  involved 
them  all.  In  the  following  autumn  Palmer- 
ston remarked  on  a  further  protest  made  in 
the  queen's  behalf  by  Lord  John  :  '  Unfor- 
tunately the  queen  gives  ear  too 

Palmerston  s          •  •,     .J 

obduracy.  easily  to  persons  who  are  hostile  tc 
her  government,  and  who  wish  to 
poison  her  mind  with  distrust  of  her  m  inisters, 
and  in  this  way  she  is  constantly  suffering 
under  groundless  uneasiness.'  To  this  chal- 
lenge she  answered,  through  Lord  John,  1  Oct. 
1848:  'The  queen  naturally,  as  I  think, 
dreads  that  upon  some  occasion  you  may 
give  her  name  to  sanction  proceedings  which 
she  may  afterwards  be  compelled  to  disavow' 
(WALPOLE,  Lord  John  Russell,  ii.  47).  Un- 
luckily for  the  queen,  Palmerston's  action 
was  vehemently  applauded  by  a  majority  in 
parliament  and  in  the  country,  and  his  de- 
fence of  his  action  in  regard  to  Greece  in 
the  Don  Pacifico  affair  in  June  1850  elicited 
the  stirring  enthusiasm  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  queen,  in  conversation  with 
political  friends  like  Aberdeen  and  Claren- 
don, loudly  exclaimed  against  her  humilia- 
tion. Lord  John  was  often  as  much  out  of 
sympathy  with  Palmerston  as  she,  but  he 
knew  the  government  could  not  stand 


Victoria 


429 


Victoria 


without  its  foreign  secretary ;  and  the  ' 
queen,  who  was  always  averse  to  inviting 
the  perplexities  of  a  change  of  ministry, 
viewed  the  situation  with  blank  despair,  i 
In  March  1850  she  and  the  prince  drafted  | 
a  statement  of  their  grievance,  but  in  face  ! 
of  the  statesman's  triumphant  appeal  to  the  j 
House  of  Commons  in  June  it  was  laid  ' 
aside.  In  the  summer  Lord  John  recalled 
Palmerston's  attention  to  the  queen's  irrita- 
tion, and  he  disavowed  any  intention  of 
treating  her  with  disrespect.  At  length,  on 
12  Aug.  1850,  she  sent  him  through  Lord 
John  two  requests  in  regard  to  his  future 
conduct :  '  She  requires,'  her  words  ran, 
The  queen's  '  C.1)  that  the  foreign  secretary 
demands,  will  distinctly  state  what  he  pro- 
poses in  a  given  case,  in  order 
that  the  queen  may  know  as  distinctly  to 
what  she  has  given  her  royal  sanction. 
(2)  Having  once  given  her  sanction  to  a 
measure,  that  it  be  not  arbitrarily  altered 
or  modified  by  the  minister.  Such  an  act 
she  must  consider  as  failure  in  sincerity  to- 
wards the  crown,  and  justly  to  be  visited 
by  the  exercise  of  her  constitutional  right 
of  dismissing  that  minister.  She  expects  to 
be  kept  informed  of  what  passes  between 
him  and  the  foreign  ministers  before  impor- 
tant decisions  are  taken,  based  upon  that 
intercourse ;  to  receive  the  foreign  despatches 
in  good  time,  and  to  have  the  drafts  for  her 
approval  sent  to  her  in  sufficient  time  to 
make  herself  acquainted  with  their  contents 
before  they  must  be  sent  off'  (MARTIN,  ii. 
51).  Two  days  afterwards  Prince  Albert 
explained  more  fully  to  Palmerston,  in  a 
personal  interview,  the  queen's  grounds  of 
Prince  complaint.  'The  queen  had  often,' 

Albert  on  the  prince  said,  'latterly  almost 
Palmerston.  invariably,  differed  from  the  line 
of  policy  pursued  by  Lord  Palmerston.  She 
had  always  openly  stated  her  objections ;  but 
when  overruled  by  the  cabinet,  or  convinced 
that  it  would,  from  political  reasons,  be  more 
prudent  to  waive  her  objections,  she  knew 
her  constitutional  position  too  well  not  to 
give  her  full  support  to  whatever  was  done 
on  the  part  of  the  government.  She  knew 
that  they  were  going  to  battle  together,  and 
that  she  was  going  to  receive  the  blows  I 
which  were  aimed  at  the  government ;  and 
she  had  these  last  years  received  several, 
such  as  no  sovereign  of  England  had  before  j 
been  obliged  to  put  up  with,  and  which  had 
been  most  painful  to  her.  But  what  she 
had  a  right  to  require  in  return  was,  that 
before  a  line  of  policy  was  adopted  or  brought 
before  her  for  her  sanction,  she  should  be  in 
full  possession  of  all  the  facts  and  all  the 
motives  operating ;  she  felt  that  in  this  re- 


spect she  was  not  dealt  with  as  she  ought  to 
be.  She  never  found  a  matter  "intact," 
nor  a  question,  in  which  we  were  not  already 
compromised,  when  it  was  submitted  to  her; 
she  had  no  means  of  knowing  what  passed 
in  the  cabinet,  nor  what  passed  between 
Lord  Palmerston  and  the  foreign  ministers 
in  their  conferences,  but  what  Lord  Pal- 
merston chose  to  tell  her,  or  what  she  found 
in  the  newspapers.' 

Palmerston  affected  pained  surprise  and 
solemnly  promised  amendment,  but  he  re- 
mained in  office  and  his  course  of  action 
underwent  no  permanent  change.  A  few 
months  later  he  committed  the  queen, 
without  her  assent,  to  new  dissensions  with 

the  Austrian  government  and  to 
dimensions.  ?ew  encouragement  of  Denmark 

in  her  claims  to  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein.  In  the  first  case  Palmerston,  after 
threatening  Lord  John  with  resignation,  en- 
deavoured to  modify  his  action  in  accordance 
with  the  royal  wish,  but  he  was  still  im- 
penitent. 

In  the  winter  of  1850  a  distasteful  domes- 
tic question  distracted  the  queen's  mind 
from  foreign  affairs.  Lord  John  had  iden- 
tified the  government  with  the  strong  pro- 
testant  feeling  which  was  roused  by  Cardinal 
Wiseman's  announcement  of  the  pope's  re- 
vival of  Roman  catholic  bishoprics  in  Eng- 
land. Hundreds  of  protests  from  public 
bodies  were  addressed  to  the  queen  in  person, 
and  she  received  them  patiently.  But  she  de- 
tested the  controversy  and  regretted  '  the 

unchristian  and  intolerant  spirit  ' 
anraLbm.  exhibited  b7  tbe  protestant  agita- 

tors. '  I  cannot  bear  to  hear  the 
violent  abuse  of  the  catholic  religion,  which 
is  so  painful  and  so  cruel  towards  the 
many  innocent  and  good  Roman  catholics.' 
When  she  opened  parliament  on  4  Feb.  1851 
she  resented  the  cries  of  '  no  popery,'  with 
which  she  was  greeted  ;  but  the  ministry 
determined  actively  to  resist  the  '  papal 
aggression,'  and  the  queen  acquiesced.  It 
was  consequently  without  great  concern  that 
she  saw  Lord  John's  government  —  partly 
through  intestine  differences  on  the  religious 
question  —  outvoted  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in,  February  1851.  The  immediate 

question  at  issue  was  electoral  re- 

g 

form.  Lord  John  at  once  re- 
signed.  The  queen  sent  for  the 
conservative  leader,  Lord  Derby,  who  declined 
to  assume  office  without  adequate  support  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  He  advised  a 
reconstruction  of  the  existing  ministry  —  a 
course  which  was  congenial  to  the  queen. 
On  22  Feb.  she  consulted  Lord  Aberdeen 
with  a  view  to  a  fusion  between  whigs  and 


crisis  and 
deadlock. 


Victoria 


430 


Victoria 


Peelites,  but  the  combination  proved  im- 
practicable. Perplexed  by  the  deadlock 
which  the  refusals  of  Derby  and  Aberdeen 
created,  she  turned  for  advice  to  the  old 
Duke  of  Wellington.  In  agreement  •with 
the  duke's  counsel  she  recalled  Russell  after 
Prince  Albert  had  sent  him  a  memorandum 
of  the  recent  negotiations.  Lord  John 
managed  to  get  through  the  session  in  safety 
and  secured  the  passage  of  his  antipapal 
Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill  after  completely 
emasculating  it ;  it  received  the  royal  assent 
on  29  July  1851. 

Meanwhile  the  'attention  of  the  court  and 
country  had  turned  from  party  polemics 
to  a  demonstration  of  peace  and  good- 
will among  the  nations  which  excited  the 
queen's  highest  hopes.  It  was  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  Great  Exhibition  in  the  Crystal 
Palace  which  was  erected  in  Hyde  Park. 
In  origin  and  execution  that  design  was  due 
to  Prince  Albert ;  and  it  had  consequently  en- 
countered abundant  opposition  from  high 
The  Great  tories  and  all  sections  of  society 
Exhibition,  who  disliked  the  prince.  Abroad 
it  was  condemned  by  absolute 
monarchs  and  their  ministers  as  an  invita- 
tion to  revolutionary  conspiracy  through 
the  suggestion  it  offered  to  revolutionary 
agents  in  Europe  to  assemble  in  London  on 
a  speciously  innocent  pretext,  and  hatch 
nefarious  designs  against  law  and  order. 
The  result  belied  the  prophets  of  evil.  The 
queen  flung  herself  with  spirit  into  the 
enterprise.  She  interested  herself  in  every 
detail,  and  she  was  rewarded  for  her  energy 
by  the  knowledge  that  the  realised  scheme 
powerfully  appealed  to  the  imagination  of 
the  mass  of  her  people.  The  brilliant  open- 
ing ceremony  over  which  she  presided  on 
1  May  1851  evoked  a  marvellous  outburst  of 
loyalty.  Her  bearing  was  described  on  all 
hands  as  'thoroughly  regal'  (STANLEY,!.  424). 
Besides  twenty-five  thousand  people  in  the 
building,  seven  hundred  thousand  cheered 
her  outside  as  she  passed  them  on  her  way 
from  Buckingham  Palace.  It  was,  she  said, 
the  proudest  and  happiest  day  of  her  happy 
life.  Her  feelings  were  gratified  both  as 
queen  and  wife.  '  The  great  event  has 
taken  place,'  she  wrote  in  her  diary  (1  May), 
'  a  complete  and  beautiful  triumph — a  glorious  ! 
and  touching  sight,  one  which  I  shall  ever 
be  proud  of  for  my  beloved  Albert  and 
my  country  ....  Yes !  it  is  a  day  which 
makes  my  heart  swell  with  pride  and  glory 
and  thankfulness ! '  In  her  eyes  the  great 
festival  of  peace  was  a  thousand  times  more 
memorable  than  the  thrilling  scene  of  her 
coronation.  In  spite  of  their  censorious 
fears  foreign  courts  were  well  represented, 


and  among  the  queen's  guests  were  the 
prince  and  princess  of  Prussia.  Tennyson, 
who  had  been  appointed  poet  laureate  in 
November  1850,  in  succession  to  Words- 
worth, in  the  address  '  To  the  Queen,'  which 
he  prefixed  to  the  seventh  edition  of  hia 
'  Poems '  (March  1851),  wrote  of  the  Great 
Exhibition,  in  a  stanza  which  was  not  re- 
printed : 

She  brought  a  vast  design  to  pass 
When  Europe  and  the  scatter'd  ends 
Of  our  fierce  world  did  meet  as  friends 

And  brethren  in  her  halls  of  glass. 

The  season  of  the  Great  Exhibition  was 
exceptionally  brilliant.  On  13  June  another 
balcostumt  at  Buckingham  Palace  illustrated 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  On  9  July  the 
queen  attended  a  ball  at  the  Guildhall, 
which  celebrated  the  success  of  the  Exhi- 
bition. Everywhere  her  reception  was  ad- 
mirably cordial.  When  at  length 
festivities.  sue  temporarily  left  London  for 
Osborne,  she  expressed  pain  that 
'  this  brilliant  and  for  ever  memorable  season 
should  be  past.'  Of  the  continuous  display 
of  devotion  to  her  in  London  she  wrote  to 
Stockmar :  '  All  this  will  be  of  a  use  not  to  be 
described  :  it  identifies  us  with  the  people 
and  gives  them  an  additional  cause  for  loyalty 
and  attachment.'  Early  in  August,  when  the 
queen  came  to  Westminster  to  prorogue  par- 
liament, she  visited  the  Exhibition  for  the 
last  time.  In  October,  on  her  removal  to 
Balmoral,  she  made  a  formal  progress  through 
Liverpool  and  Manchester,  and  stayed  for  a 
few  days  with  the  Earl  of  Ellesmere  at 
Worsley  Hall.  She  manifested  intelligent 
interest  in  the  improvements  which  manufac- 
turing processes  were  making  in  these  great 
centres  of  industry.  Her  visit  to  Peel  Park, 
Salford  (10  Oct.),  was  commemorated  by  a 
statue  of  her,  the  cost  of  which  was  mainly 
defrayed  by  80,000  Sunday  school  teachers 
and  scholars;  it  was  unveiled  by  Prince 
Albert  5  May  1857. 

A  month  after  the  closing  of  the  Exhibi- 
tion the  dream  of  happiness  was  fading.  The 
death  of  her  sour-tempered  uncle,  King 
Ernest  of  Hanover  (18  Nov.  1851),  was  not 
a  heavy  blow,  but  Palmerston  was  again  dis- 
turbing her  equanimity.  Kossuth,  the  leader 
of  the  Hungarian  revolution,  had  just  ar- 
rived in  England ;  Palmerston  openly  avowed 
sympathy  with  him.  Both  the  queen  and 
Lord  John  remonstrated,  and  the  queen 
begged  the  cabinet  to  censure  his  attitude 
unequivocally ;  but  her  appeal  was  vain. 
Relief  from  the  tormenting  attitude  of  Pal- 
merston was,  however,  at  hand.  It  came  at 
a  moment  when  the  queen  despaired  of  any 


rs 

: 


Victoria 


431 


Victoria 


alleviation  of  her  lot.  On  2  Dec.  1851  Prince 
Louis  Xapoleon  by  a  coup  d'etat  made  him- 
self absolute  head  of  the  French  govern- 
ment. Palmerston  believed  in  Xapoleon's 
ability,  and  a  day  or  two  later,  in  conversa- 
tion with  the  French  ambassador,  Walewski, 
expressed  of  his  own  initiative  approbation 
of  the  new  form  of  government  in  France. 
The  queen  and  Lord  John  viewed 
removal.10"8  Xapoleon's  accession  to  power, 
and  the  means  whereby  it  had 
been  accomplished,  with  detestation.  Pal- 
merston's  precipitate  committal  of  England 
to  a  friendly  recognition  of  the  new  regime 
before  he  had  communicated  with  the  queen 
or  his  colleagues  untied  the  Gordian  knot 
that  bound  him  to  the  queen.  This  dis- 
play of  self-sufficiency  roused  the  temper 
of  Lord  John,  who  had  assured  the  queen 
that  for  the  present  England  would  extend 
to  Napoleon  the  coldest  neutrality.  To 
the  queen's  surprise  and  delight,  Lord  John 
summarily  demanded  Palmerston's  resigna- 
tion (19  Dec.)  Palmerston  feebly  defended 
himself  by  claiming  that  in  his  intercourse 
with  Walewski  he  had  only  expressed  his 
personal  views,  and  that  he  was  entitled 
to  converse  at  will  with  ambassadors.  Lord 
John  offered  to  rearrange  the  government 
so  as  to  give  him  another  office,  but  this 
Palmerston  declined.  The  seals  of  the 
foreign  office  were  transferred  to  the  queen's 
friend,  Lord  Granville. 

The  queen  and  the  prince  did  not  con- 
ceal their  joy  at  the  turn  of  events.  To 
his  brother  Ernest,  Prince  Albert  wrote 
without  reserve :  'And  now  the  year  closes 
with  the  happy  circumstance  for  us,  that 
the  man  who  embittered  our  whole  life,  by 
continually  placing  before  us  the  shameful 
alternative  of  either  sanctioning  his  mis- 
deeds throughout  Europe,  and  rearing  up 
the  radical  party  here  to  a  power  under  his 
leadership,  or  bringing  about  an  open  con- 
flict with  the  crown,  and  thus  plunging  the 
only  country  where  liberty,  order,  and 
lawfulness  exist  together  into  the  general 
chaos — that  this  man  has,  as  it  were,  cut 
his  own  throat.  "  Give  a  rogue  rope  enough 
and  he  will  hang  himself"  is  an  old  English 
adage  with  which  we  have  sometimes  tried 
to  console  ourselves,  and  which  has  proved 
true  again  here.  .  .  .'  (Duke  Ernest's  Me- 
moirs). As  a  matter  of  fact,  Palmerston's 
dismissal  was  a  doubtful  triumph  for  the 
crown.  It  was,  in  the  first  place,  not  the 
queen's  act ;  it  was  the  act  of  Lord  John, 
who  was  not  greatly  influenced  by  court 
feeling,  and  it  was  an  act  that  Lord  John 
lived  to  regret.  Palmerston's  popularity  in 
the  country  grew  in  proportion  to  his  un- 


popularity at  court,  and,  in  the  decade  that 
I  followed,  his  power  and  ministerial  power 
generally  increased  steadily  at  the  expense 
of  the  crown's  influence  in  both  home  and 
foreign  affairs.  The  genuine  victory  lay 
with  the  minister. 

IV 

Palmerston's  removal  did  not,  in  fact, 
even  at  the  moment  diminish  anxiety  at 
Lord  court.  1852  opened  ominously. 

Derby's  The  intentions  of  France  were 
StfuSS!"  Doubtful.  The  need  of  increasing 
the  naval  and  military  forces  was 
successfully  urged  on  the  government,  but 
no  sooner  had  the  discussions  on  that  sub- 
ject opened  in  the  House  of  Commons  than 
Palmerston  condemned  as  inadequate  the 
earliest  proposals  of  the  government  which 
were  embodied  in  a  militia  bill,  and,  inflict- 
ing a  defeat  on  his  former  colleagues,  brought 
about  their  resignation  on  20  Feb.  1852, 
within  two  months  of  his  own  dismissal.  The 
queen  summoned  Lord  Derby,  who  formed 
a  conservative  government,  with  Disraeli 
as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  leader 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  It  was  not  a 
strong  ministry.  Its  members,  almost  all 
of  whom  were  new  to  official  life,  belonged 
to  the  party  of  protection;  but  protection 
had  long  since  vanished  from  practical 
politics,  and  the  queen  was  disposed  to 
reproach  her  new  advisers  with  their  delay 
in  discerning  the  impracticability  of  their 
obsolete  policy.  A  little  more  haste,  she 
said,  '  would  have  saved  so  much  annoy- 
ance, so  much  difficulty.'  But  personal  in- 
tercourse rapidly  overcame  her  prejudices. 
Lord  Derby  proved  extremely  courteous. 
Lord  Malmesbury,  the  foreign  minister,  kept 
her  thoroughly  well  informed  of  the  affairs  of 
his  office,  and  the  personal  difficulty  that  she 
Early  im-  an^  her  friends  had  anticipated 
pressiou  of  from  Disraeli  was  held  in  check. 
Disraeli.  Disraeli  had  won  his  first  parlia- 
mentary repute  by  his  caustic  denunciations 
of  the  queen's  friend  Peel,  and  she  was 
inclined  to  adopt  the  widespread  view  that 
he  was  an  unprincipled  adventurer.  He 
was  perfectly  aware  of  her  sentiment,  and 
during  the  ministerial  crisis 'of  1851  he 
expressed  himself  quite  ready  to  accept  a 
post  that  should  not  bring  him  into  frequent 
relations  with  the  court.  But  personal 
acquaintance  with  him  at  once  diminished 
the  queen's  distrust ;  his  clever  conversation 
i  amused  her.  She  afterwards  gave  signal 
proof  of  a  dispassionate  spirit  by  dismissing 
every  trace  of  early  hostility,  and  by  ex- 
tending to  him  in  course  of  time  a  con- 
fidence and  a  devotion  which  far  exceeded 


Victoria 


432 


Victoria 


that  she  showed  to  any  other  minister  of 
her  reign.  But  her  present  experience  of 
Disraeli  and  his  colleagues  was  brief.  A 
general  election  in  July  left  the  conserva- 
tives in  a  minority. 

In  the  same  month  the  queen  made  a 
cruise  in  the  royal  yacht  on  the  south  coast, 
and  a  few  weeks  later  paid  a  second  private 
visit  to  King  Leopold  at  his  summer  palace 
at  Laeken.  The  weather  was  bad,  but  on 
returning  she  visited  the  chief  objects  of 
interest  in  Antwerp,  and  steered  close  to 
Calais,  so  that  she  might  see  it.  When  at 
Balmoral  later  in  the  autumn,  information 
reached  her  of  the  generous  bequest  to  her 
by  an  eccentric  subject,  John  Camden 
Neild,  of  all  his  fortune,  amounting  to  a 
quarter  of  a  million.  The  elation  of  spirit 
which  this  news  caused  her  was  succeeded 
by  depression  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  the 
Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  on  14  Sept. 
Duke  of  '  He  was  to  us  a  true  friend,  she 
Wellington.  ^^3  to  her  uncie  Leopold, '  and 

most  valuable  adviser ...  we  shall  soon  stand 
sadly  alone.  Aberdeen  is  almost  the  only 
personal  friend  of  that  kind  left  to  us. 
Melbourne,  Peel,  Liverpool,  now  the  Duke 
— all  gone.'  The  queen  issued  a  general 
order  of  regret  to  the  army,  and  she  put  her 
household  into  mourning.  She  went  to  the 
lying  in  state  in  Chelsea  Hospital,  and  wit- 
nessed the  funeral  procession  to  St.  Paul's 
from  the  balcony  of  Buckingham  Palace  on 
18  Nov. 

On  11  Nov.  the  queen  opened  the  new 
parliament.  Lord  Derby  was  still  prime 
minister,  but  the  position  of  the  government 
was  hopeless.  On  3  Dec.  Disraeli's  budget 
was  introduced,  and  on  the  17th  it  was 
thrown  out  by  a  majority  of  nineteen.  Lord 
Derby  promptly  resigned. 

For  six  years  the  queen's  government  had 
been  extraordinarily  weak.  Parties  were 
At  queen's  disorganised,  and  no  leader  en- 
request  joyed  the  full  confidence  of  any 
to^Sdi-  We  section  of  the  House  of 
tion  Commons.  A  reconstruction  oi 

ministry.  party  seemed  essential  to  the  queen 
and  the  prince.  In  November  she  had  dis- 
cussed with  Lord  Derby  a  possible  coalition, 
and  the  ehief  condition  she  then  imposed 
was  that  Palmerston  should  not  lead  the 
House  of  Commons.  When  Derby  resigned 
she  made  up  her  mind  to  give  her  views 
effect.  She  sent  for  veteran  statesmen  on 
•each  side,  Lord  Aberdeen  and  Lord  Lans- 
downe,  both  of  whom  she  had  known  long 
and  fully  trusted.  Lansdowne  was  ill,  and 
Aberdeen  came  alone.  On  19  Dec.  she 
wrote  to  Lord  John  Russell  ( WALPOLE,  Life, 
M.  161)  :  '  The  queen  thinks  the  moment  to 


have  arrived  when  a  popular,  efficient,  and 
durable  government  could  be  formed  by  the 
sincere  and  united  efforts  of  all  parties  pro- 
fessing conservative  and  liberal  opinions.' 
Aberdeen  undertook  to  form  such  a  govern- 
ment, with  the  queen's  assistance.  Palmer- 
ston's  presence  was  deemed  essential,  and 
she  raised  no  objection  to  his  appointment 
to  the  home  office.  The  foreign  office  was 
bestowed  on  Lord  John,  who  almost  im- 
mediately withdrew  from  it  in  favour  of 
the  queen's  friend,  Lord  Clarendon.  On 
28  Dec.  Aberdeen  had  completed  his  task, 
and  the  queen  wrote  with  sanguine  satisfac- 
tion to  her  uncle  Leopold  of '  our  excellent 
Aberdeen's  success,'  and  of  the  '  realisation 
of  the  country's  and  of  our  own  most  ardent 
wishes.' 

Thus  the  next  year  opened  promisingly,  but 
it  proved  a  calm  before  a  great  storm.  On 
7  April  1853  the  queen's  fourth  and  youngest 
son  was  born,  and  was  named  Leopold,  after 
the  queen's  uncle,  King  Leopold,  who  was 
his  godfather.  George,  the  new  king  of 
Hanover,  was  also  a  sponsor,  and  the  infant's 
third  name  of  Duncan  celebrated  the  queen's 
affection  for  Scotland.  She  was  not  long  in 
retirement,  and  public  calls  were  numerous. 
Military  training,  in  view  of  possible  warlike 
complications  on  the  continent,  was  proceed- 
ing actively  with  the  queen's  concurrence. 
Twice — 21  June  and  5  August  1853 — she 
visited,  the  first  time  with  her  guests,  the 
new  king  and  queen  of  Hanover,  a  camp 
newly  formed  on  Chobham  Common,  and  (on 
5  Aug.  1901)  a  granite  cross  was  unveiled 
to  commemorate  the  first  of  these  visits. 
In  the  interval  between  the  two  the 
queen,  Prince  Albert,  the  prince  of  Wales, 
Princess  Royal,  and  Princess  Alice  had  been 
disabled  by  an  attack  of  measles,  and  Prince 
Albert,  to  the  queen's  alarm,  suffered  severely 
from  nervous  prostration.  On  11  Aug.  the 
navy  was  encouraged  by  a  great  naval  review 
which  the  queen  held  at  Spithead.  Before 
the  month  ended  the  queen  paid  a  second 
visit  to  Dublin,  in  order  to  inspect  an 
Second  visit  exhibition  of  Irish  industries 
to  Dublin,  which  was  framed  on  the  model 
1853-  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851. 

A  million  Irish  men  and  women  are  said  to 
have  met  her  on  her  landing  at  Kingstown. 
The  royal  party  stayed  in  Dublin  from 
30  Aug.  to  3  Sept.,  and  attended  many 
public  functions.  As  on  the  former  occasion, 
the  queen  spent,  she  said,  '  a  pleasant,  gay, 
and  interesting  time.' 

Throughout  1852  the  queen  continued 
her  frank  avowals  of  repugnance  to  personal 
intercourse  with  Napoleon  III.  Her  rela- 
tions with  the  exiled  royal  family  of  France 


Victoria 


433 


Victoria 


rendered  him  an  object  of  suspicion  and  dis- 
like, and  the  benevolence  with  which  Palmer- 
Napoleon  ston  regarded  him  did  not  soften 
Hi's  her  animosity.  But  she  gradually 

advances.       acknowledged  the  danger  of  al- 
lowing her  personal  feeling  to  compromise 
peaceful  relations  with  France.     On  2  Dec. 
1852  the  empire  had  been  formally  recognised 
by  the  European  powers,  and  the  emperor 
was  making  marked  advances  to  England. 
The  French  ambassador  in  London  sounded 
Malmesbury,  the  foreign  minister  (December 
1852),  as  to  whether  a  marriage  between  the 
emperor  and  Princess  Adelaide  of  Hohen- 
lohe,    daughter  of  the  queen's  half  sister, 
would  be   acceptable.      The   queen    spoke 
•with  horror  of  the  emperor's  religion  and 
morals,  and  was  not  sorry  that  the  discussion 
should  be  ended  by  the  emperor's  marriage 
in  the  following  January  with  Mile.  Eugenie 
de  Montijo,  a  lady  with  whom  the  irony  of 
fate  was  soon  to   connect  the  queen  in  a 
lasting  friendship.     Meanwhile  the  queen's 
uncle,  King  Leopold,  realised  the  wisdom 
of  promoting  better  relations  between  her 
and  the  emperor,  whose  openly  expressed 
anxiety  to  secure  her  countenance  was  be- 
coming a  source  of  embarrassment.    In  the 
early  months  of  1853  Duke  Ernest,  Prince 
Albert's    brother,  after    consultation  with 
King  Leopold,  privately  visited  Paris  and 
accepted  the   hospitality  of  the  Tuileries. 
Emperor  and  empress  outbid  each  other  in 
their  laudation  of  Queen  Victoria's  domestic 
life.     The  empress  expressed  a  longing  for 
close  acquaintance  with  her,  her  husband, 
and    children.       A    revolution    had    been 
rorked,  she  said,  in  the  conditions  of  court 
life  throughout.  Europe  by  the  virtuous  ex- 
amples of  Queen  Victoria  and  of  her  friend 
and   ally  the  queen   of   Portugal.      Duke 
Ernest  promptly  reported  the  conversation 
to  his  brother  and  sister-in-law.    The  queen, 
always   sensitive    to    sympathy    with    her 
domestic  experiences,  was  greatly  mollified. 
Her  initial  prejudices  were  shaken,  and  the 
political  situation  soon  opened  the  road  to 
perfect  amity. 

Napoleon  lost  no  opportunity  of  improving 
the  situation.  At  the  end  of  1853  he  boldly 
suggested  a  matrimonial  alliance  between 
the  two  families.  With  the  approval  of 
King  Leopold  and  of  Palmerston  he  proposed 
a  marriage  between  his  first  cousin,  Prince 
Jerome,  who  ultimately  became  the  political 
head  of  the  Bonaparte  family,  and  the  queen's 
first  cousin,  Princess  Mary  of  Cambridge, 
afterwards  Duchess  of  Teck.  Princess  Mary 
was  a  frequent  guest  at  Windsor,  and 
constantly  shared  in  the  queen's  recreations. 
The  queen  had  no  faith  in  forced  political 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


marriages, and  at  once  consulted  the  princess, 
whose  buoyant, cheerful  disposition  endeared 
her  to  all  the  royal  family.  The  princess 
rejected  the  proposal  without  hesitation,  and 
the  queen  would  hear  no  more  of  it.  Palmer- 
ston coolly  remarked  that  Prince  Jerome 
was  at  any  rate  preferable  to  a  German 
princeling. 

But  although  Napoleon's  first  move  led  to 
nothing,  an  alliance  between  France  and 
England  was  already  at  hand.  It  was  not 
France  among  the  countries  of  Europe  that 
England  under  the  queen's  sway  was  first 

Quarrel  with  *?  "^  in  War'  Jt  Was  in  COQ- 
itussia.  flict  with  Russia  that  her  country, 

under  the  spell  of  Palmerston, 
in  conjunction  with  France,  was  to  break  the 
peace  of  Europe  for  the  first  time  in  her 
reign.  In  the  autumn  of  1853  Russia  pushed 
her  claims  to  protect  the  Greek  Christians 
of  the  Turkish  empire  with  such  violence 
as  to  extort  from  Turkey  a  declaration  of  war 
(23  Oct.)  The  mass  of  the  British  nation 
held  that  England  was  under  an  imperative 
and  an  immediate  obligation  to  intervene 
by  force  of  arms  in  behalf  of  Turkey,  her 
protege  and  ally.  The  English  cabinet  was 
divided  in  opinion.  Aberdeen  regarded  the 
conduct  of  Russia  as  indefensible,  but  hoped 
to  avert  war  by  negotiation.  Palmerston, 
then  home  secretary,  took  the  popular  view, 
that  the  inability  of  Turkey  to  meet  Russia 
single-handed  allowed  no  delay  in  interven- 
tion. On  16  Dec.  Palmerston  suddenly  re- 
signed, on  the  ostensible  ground  that  he 
differed  from  proposals  of  electoral  reform 
which  his  colleagues  had  adopted.  The 
true  reason  was  his  attitude  to  the  foreign 
crisis.  Signs  that  he  interpreted  the  voice  of 
the  country  aright  abounded.  The  ministry 
felt  compelled  to  readmit  him  to  the  cabinet, 
with  the  certainty  of  destroying  the  peace  of 
Europe. 

To  the  court  the  crisis  was  from  every 
point  of  view  distressing.  The  queen  placed 
implicit  trust  in  Aberdeen,  and  with  him 
she  hoped  to  avoid  war.  But  Palmerston's 
restored  predominance  alarmed  her.  Abroad 
the  situation  was  not  more  reassuring.  The 
Emperor  Napoleon  promptly  offered  to  join 
his  army  with  that  of  England,  and  the 
king  of  Sardinia  promised  to  follow  his  ex- 
ample. But  other  foreign  sovereigns  with 
whom  the  queen  was  in  fuller  sympathy 
privately  entreated  her  to  thwart  the  belli- 
cose designs  which  they  identified  with  her 

most  popular  minister's  name. 
excitement.  The  tsar  protested  to  her  the 

innocence  of  his  designs  (  Novem- 
ber 1853).  The  nervous  king  of  Prussia  peti- 
tioned her  to  keep  the  peace,  and  even  sent 

¥  F 


Victoria 


434 


Victoria 


her  an  autograph  note  by  the  hand  of  General 
von  Groben.  Clarendon,  the  foreign  mini- 
ster, gave  her  wise  advice  regarding  the  tenor 
of  her  replies.  She  reproached  the  king  of 
Prussia  with  his  weakness  in  failing  to  aid 
the  vindication  of  international  law  and 
order  (17  March  1854),  and  her  attitude  to 
all  her  continental  correspondents  was  irre- 
proachable. But  the  rumour  spread  that 
she  and  her  husband  were  employing  their 
foreign  intimacies  against  the  country's  in- 
terest. Aberdeen's  hesitation  to  proceed  to 
extremities,  the  known  dissensions  between 
Palmerston  and  the  court,  the  natural 
jealousy  of  foreign  influences  in  the  sphere 
of  government,  fed  the  suspicion  that  the 
crown  at  the  instance  of  a  foreign  prince 
consort  was  obstructing  the  due  assertion 
of  the  country's  rights,  and  was  playing 
into  the  hands  of  the  country's  foes.  As  the 
winter  of  1853-4  progressed  without  any 
signs  of  decisive  action  on  the  part  of  the 
English  government,  popular  indignation 
redoubled  and  burst  in  its  fullest  fury  on 
The  attack  the  head  of  Prince  Albert.  He 
on  Prince  was  denounced  as  the  chief  agent 
Albert.  Qf  an  Austro-Belgian-Coburg- 

Orleans  clique,  the  avowed  enemy  of  Eng- 
land, and  the  subservient  tool  of  Russian 
ambition.  The  tsar,  it  was  seriously  alleged, 
communicated  his  pleasure  to  the  prince 
through  the  prince's  kinsmen  at  Gotha  and 
Brussels.  '  It  is  pretended,'  the  prince  told 
his  brother  (7  Jan.  1854), '  that  I  whisper  [the 
tsar's  orders]  in  Victoria's  ear,  she  gets  round 
old  Aberdeen,  and  the  voice  of  the  only 
English  minister,  Palmerston,  is  not  listened 
to — ay,  he  is  always  intrigued  against,  at 
the  court  and  by  the  court'  (DciKE 
ERNEST'S  Memoirs,  ii.  46).  The  queen's  hus- 
band, in  fact,  served  as  scapegoat  for  the 
ministry's  vacillation.  Honest  men  be- 
lieved that  he  had  exposed  himself  to  the 
penalties  of  high  treason,  and  they  gravely 
doubted  if  the  queen  herself  were  wholly 
guiltless. 

The  queen  took  the  calumnies  to  heart, 
and  Aberdeen,  who  was,  she  told  Stockmar, 
'  all  kindness,'  sought  vainly  for  a  time  to 
console  her.  '  In  attacking  the  prince.'  she 
pointed  out  to  Aberdeen  (4  Jan.  1854), 
'who  is  one  and  the  same  with  the  queen 
herself,  the  throne  is  assailed,  and  she  must 
say  she  little  expected  that  any  portion  of 
her  subjects  would  thus  requite  the  un- 
ceasing labours  of  the  prince.'  The  prime 
minister  in  reply  spoke  with  disdain  of 
*  these  contemptible  exhibitions  of  malevo- 
lence and  faction,'  but  he  admitted  that  the 
prince  held  an  anomalous  position  which 
the  constitution  had  not  provided  for. 


When  the  queen  opened  pai'liament  on 
31  Jan.  she  was  well  received,  and  the 
leaders  of  both  sides — Lord  Aberdeen  and 
Lord  Derby  in  the  upper  house  and  Lord 
John  Russell  and  Spencer  Walpole  in  the 
commons  —  emphatically  repudiated  the 
slanders  on  her  and  her  husband.  The  tide 
of  abuse  thereupon  flowed  more  sluggishly, 
and  it  was  temporarily  checked  on  27  Feb. 

,  1854,    when   the   queen   sent    a 
\v  ar  declared  .1       TT  /•  T       i 

with  Russia,  message  to  the  House  of  Lords 
announcing  the  breakdown  of 
negotiations  with  Russia.  War  was  formally 
declared  next  day,  and  France  and  Sardinia 
affirmed  their  readiness  to  fight  at  England's- 
side. 

The  popular  criticism  of  the  queen  was 
unAvarranted.  Repulsive  as  the  incidents  of 
war  were  to  her,  and  active  as  was  her 
sympathy  with  the  suffering  that  it  entailed, 
she  never  ceased  to  urge  her  ministers  and  her 
generals,  when  war  was  actually  in  being, 
to  press  forward  with  dogged  resolution  and 
not  to  slacken  their  efforts  until  the  final 
goal  of  victory  was  reached.  Her  attitude 
was  characterised  alike  by  dignity  and  com- 
mon sense.  She  \vas  generous  in  the  en- 
couragement she  gave  all  ranks  of  the  army 
and  navy.  For  months  she  watched  in  persou 
The  queen  tne  departure  of  troops.  On 
and  the  10  March  she  inspected  at  Spit- 
troops,  head  the  great  fleet  which  was 
destined  for  the  Baltic  under  Sir  Charles 
Napier.  At  the  opening  of  the  conflict  the 
government  proposed  a  day  of  humiliation 
for  the  success  of  the  British  arms.  The 
queen  was  not  enthusiastic  in  favour  of  the 
proposal.  She  warned  Aberdeen  of  the  hypo- 
crisy of  self-abasement  in  the  form  of  prayers, 
and  at  the  same  time  she  deprecated  abuse  of 
the  enemy. 

Some  alleviation  of  anxiety  was  sought 
in  the  ordinary  incidents  of  court  life.  On 
12  May  the  queen,  by  way  of  acknowledging 
the  alliance  into  which  she  had  entered  with 
the  emperor,  paid  the  French  ambassador, 
Count  Walewski,  the  high  compliment  of 
attending  a  bal  costume  at  the  French  em- 
bassy at  Albert  Gate.  The  queen  alone  wore 
ordinary  evening  dress.  Next  day  she  went  to 
Woolwich  to  christen  in  her  husband's  honour 
a  new  battleship  of  enormous  dimensions, 
the  Royal  Albert.  In  June  the  queen  en- 
tertained for  a  month  her  cousin,  the  new 
king  of  Portugal,  Pedro  V,  and  his  brother 
the  Duke  of  Oporto,  who  afterwards  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne.  Their  mother,  in  whom 
she  was  from  her  childhood  deeply  interested, 
had  died  in  childbed  seven  months  before 
(20  Nov.  1853).  The  queen  showed  the 
young  men  every  attention,  taking  them 


Victoria 


435 


Victoria 


Her 

protests 
asrainst 
lukewarm- 


with  her  to  the  opera,  the  theatre,  and 
Ascot.  A  suggestion  made  to  them  that 
Portugal  should  join  England  in  the 
Crimean  war  was  reasonably  rejected  by 
their  advisers.  The  chief  spectacular  event 
of  the  season  was  the  opening  by  the  queen 
at  Sydenham,  on  10  June,  of  the  Crystal 
Palace,  which  had,  much  to  the  prince's  satis- 
faction, been  transferred  from  Hyde  Park 
after  the  Great  Exhibition. 

Through  the  summer  the  queen  shared 
with  a  large  section  of  the  public  a  fear 
that  the  government  was  not  pursuing  the 
war  with  requisite  energy.  When  Lord  Aber- 
deen, in  a  speech  in  the  House  of  Lords  on 
20  June,  argumentatively  defended  Russia 
against  violent  assaults  in  the  English  press, 
the  queen  promptly  reminded  him  of  the 
m  isapprehensions  that  the  appearance  of  luke- 
warnmess  must  create  in  the  public  mind. 
Whatever  were  the  misrepresen- 
tations of  the  tsar's  policy,  she 
said,  it  was  at  the  moment  in- 
cumbent on  him  to  remember  that 
'  there  is  enough  in  that  policy  to 
make  us  fight  with  all  our  might  against 
it.'  She  and  the  prince  incessantly  appealed 
to  the  ministers  to  hasten  their  deliberations 
and  to  improve  the  organisation  of  the 
Crimean  army.  A  hopeful  feature  of  the 
situation  was  Napoleon  Ill's  zeal.  In  July 
the  prince  accepted  the  emperor's  invitation 
to  inspect  with  him  the  camp  at  St.  Omer, 
where  an  army  was  fitting  out  for  the  Crimea. 
The  meeting  was  completely  successful,  and 
the  good  relations  of  the  rulers  of  the  two 
countries  were  thus  placed  on  a  surer  founda- 
tion. While  at  Balmoral  in  September  the 
queen  was  elated  to  receive  '  all  the  most 
interesting  and  gratifying  details  of  the 
splendid  and  decisive  victory  of  the  Alma.' 
On  leaving  Balmoral  (11  Oct.)  she  visited 
the  docks  at  Grimsby  and  Hull,  but  her 
mind  was  elsewhere.  From  Hull  (13  Oct.) 
she  wrote  to  her  uncle  Leopold,  '  We  are, 
and  indeed  the  whole  country  is,  entirely  en- 
grossed with  one  idea,  one  anxious  thought — 
the  Crimea.'  News  of  the  victories  of  Inker- 
mann  (25  Oct.)  and  Balaclava  (5  Nov.)  did 
not  entirely  relieve  her  anxiety.  '  Such  a 
time  of  suspense,'  she  wrote  on  7  Nov.,  'I 
never  expected  to  see,  much  less  to  feel.' 

During  the  winter  the  cruel  hardships 
which  climate,  disease,  and  failure  of  the 
commissariat  inflicted  on  the  troops  strongly 
stirred  public  feeling.  The  queen  initiated 
or  supported  all  manner  of  voluntary  measures 
of  relief.  With  her  own  hands  she  made 
woollen  comforters  and  mittens  for  the  men. 
On  New  Year's  day,  1855,  she  wrote  to  the 
commander-in-chief,  Lord  Raglan,  express- 


ing  her  sympathy  with  the  army  in  its 
'  sad  privations  and  constant  sickness,' 
and  entreated  him  to  make  the  camps 
'  as  comfortable  as  circumstances  can  admit 
of.'  No  details  escaped  her,  and  she  espe- 
cially called  his  attention  to  the  rumour 
'that  the  soldiers'  coffee  was  given  them 
green  instead  of  roasted.'  Although  the 
queen  and  the  prince  grew  every  day  more 
convinced  of  the  defective  administration  of 
the  war  office,  they  were  unflinchingly  loyal 
to  the  prime  minister,  Lord  Aberdeen,  who 
was  the  target  of  much  public  censure. 
Before  the  opening  of  parliament  in  January 
1855,  by  way  of  proof  of  their  personal 
sympathy,  she  made  him  a  knight  of  the 
garter. 

But  it  was  beyond  her  power,  had  it  been 
her  wish,  to  prop  the  falling  government. 
The  session  no  sooner  opened  than  Lord  John 
insisted  on  seceding  in  face  of  the  outcry 
against  the  management  of  the  war.  The 
blow  was  serious,  and  Lord  Aberdeen  was 
with  difficulty  persuaded  by  the  queen  to 
hold  on.  But  complete  shipwreck  was  not 
long  delayed.  On  29  Jan.  the  govern- 
ment was  hopelessly  defeated  on  a  hostile 
motion  for  an  inquiry  into  the  management 
of  the  war.  Aberdeen's  retirement  was  in- 
evitable, and  it  was  obvious  that 
the  queen  was  face  to  face  with 
the  distasteful  necessity  of  con- 
ferring the  supreme  power  in  the  state  on  her 
old  enemy,  Palmerston.  The  situation  called 
for  all  her  fortitude.  She  took  time  be- 
fore submitting.  A  study  of  the  division 
lists  taught  her  that  Lord  Derby's  supporters 
formed  the  greater  number  of  the  voters  who 
had  destroyed  Lord  Aberdeen's  ministry. 
She  therefore,  despite  Aberdeen's  warning, 
invited  Lord  Derby  to  assume  the  govern- 
ment. Derby  explained  to  her  that  he  could 
not  without  aid  from  other  parties,  and  a 
day  later  he  announced  his  failure  to  secure 
extraneous  assistance.  The  queen  then 
turned  to  the  veteran  whig,  Lord  Lans- 
downe,  and  bade  him  privately  seek  advice 
for  her  from  all  the  party  leaders.  In  the 
result  she  summoned  Lord  John  Russell 
on  the  ground  that  his  followers  were  in 
number  and  compactness  second  to  Lord 
Derby's.  But  she  could  not  blind  herself 
to  the  inevitable  result  of  the  negotiations, 
and,  suppressing  her  private  feeling,  she 
assured  Lord  John  that  she  hoped  Palmer- 
ston would  join  him.  But  she  had  not  gone 
far  enough.  Lord  John  was  not  strong  enough 
to  accept  the  queen's  commands.  A  continu- 
ance of  the  deadlock  was  perilous.  The 
queen  confided  to  her  sympathetic  friend 
Lord  Clarendon  her  reluctance  to  take  the 

FF2 


Lord 

Aberdeen 

retires. 


Victoria 


436 


Victoria 


next  step,  but  he  convinced  her  that  she  had 
no  course  but  one  to  follow.  He  assured  her 
that  Palmerston  would  prove  conciliatory  if 
frankly  treated.  Thereupon  she  took  the 
plunge  and  bade  Palmerston  form  an  ad- 
ministration. Palrnerston's  popular  strength 
was  undoubted,  and  resistance  on  the  part 
of  the  crown  was  idle.  As  soon  as  the  die 
was  cast  the  queen  with  characteristic  good 
sense  indicated  that  she  would  extend  her 
full  confidence  to  her  new  prime  minister. 
Queen  On  ^  Feb.  he  wrote  to  his 

accepts  brother :  '  I  am  backed  by  the 
Palmerston.  generai  opinion  of  the  whole 
country,  and  I  have  no  reason  to  complain 
of  the  least  want  of  cordiality  or  confidence 
on  the  part  of  the  court.'  To  the  queen's 
satisfaction  Lord  Aberdeen  had  persuaded 
most  of  his  colleagues  to  serve  temporarily 
under  his  successor,  but  within  a  few  days 
the  Peelite  members  of  the  old  government 
went  out,  the  unity  of  the  government  was 
assured,  and  Palmerston's  power  was  freed 
of  all  restraint. 

Baseless  rumours  of  the  malign  influence 
exerted  by  Prince  Albert  were  still  alive,  but 
no  doubt  was  permissible  of  the  devoted  energy 
with  which  the  queen  was  promoting  the 
relief  of  the  wounded.  In  March  she  visited 
the  hospitals  at  Chatham  and  Woolwich,  and 
complained  privately  that  she  was  not  kept 
informed  in  sufficient  detail  of  the  condition 
and  prospects  of  disabled  soldiers  on  their 
return  home.  A  new  difficulty  arose  with 
the  announcement  on  the  part  of  Napoleon 
that  he  intended  to  proceed  to  the  Crimea 
to  take  command  of  the  French  army  there. 
His  presence  was  certain  to  provoke  com- 
plications in  the  command  of  the  allied  forces 
in  the  field.  The  emperor  hinted  that  it 
might  be  well  for  him  to  discuss  the  project 
in  person  with  the  queen.  She  and  her 
advisers  at  once  acceded  to  the  suggestion, 
and  she  invited  him  and  the  empress  to  pay 
her  a  state  visit.  On  all  sides  she  was 
thrown  into  association  with  men  who  had 
inspired  her  with  distrust,  but  she  cheerfully 
yielded  her  private  sentiments  at  the  call  of 
a  national  crisis.  The  queen  made  every  effort 
to  give  her  guests  a  brilliant  reception. 
She  personally  supervised  every  detail  of  the 
programme  and  drew  up  with  her  own  hands 
the  lists  of  guests  who  were  to  be  com- 
manded to  meet  them.  On  16  April  the 
Visit  of  Na-  emPeror  an(l  empress  reached 
pofeon  in,  Dover  and  proceeded  through 
April  1855.  London  to  Windsor.  Every  ela- 
borate formality  that  could  mark  the  en- 
tertainment of  sovereigns  was  strictly  ob- 
served, and  the  emperor  was  proportionately 
impressed.  The  ordeal  proved  far  less  trying 


than  the  queen  feared.  At  a  great  banquet  in 
St.  George's  Hall  on  the  evening  of  his  arrival, 
the  emperor  won  the  queen's  heart  by  his 
adroit  flattery  and  respectful  familiarity.  She 
found  him  '  very  quiet  and  amiable  and  easy 
to  get  on  with.'  There  was  a  review  of  the 
household  troops  in  Windsor  Park  next  day, 
and  on  the  18th  the  queen  bestowed  on  Na- 
poleon the  knighthood  of  the  garter.  A  visit 
to  Her  Majesty's  opera  house  in  the  Hay- 
market  on  the  19th  evoked  a  great  display 
of  popular  enthusiasm,  and  amid  similar 
manifestations  the  royal  party  went  on 
the  20th  to  the  Crystal  Palace.  On  the 
21st  the  visit  ended,  and  with  every 
sign  of  mutual  goodwill  the  emperor  left 
Buckingham  Palace  for  Dover.  Of  '  the 
great  event'  the  queen  wrote:  '  On  all  it  has 
left  a  pleasant  satisfactory  impression.'  The 
royal  party  had  talked  much  of  the  war 
with  the  result  that  was  desired.  On 
25  April  the  emperor  wrote  to  the  queen 
that  he  had  abandoned  his  intention  of  going 
to  the  Crimea.  But  throughout  the  hospi- 
table gaieties  the  ironies  of  fate  that  dog  the 
steps  of  sovereigns  were  rarely  far  from  the 
queen's  mind.  Three  days  before  the  em- 
peror arrived,  the  widowed  ex-queen  of  the 
French,  who  had  fallen  far  from  her  high 
estate,  visited  her  at  Windsor,  whence  she 
drove  away  unnoticed  in  the  humblest  ot 
equipages.  After  the  great  ball  in  the 
Waterloo  room  at  Windsor,  when  she  danced 
a  quadrille  with  the  emperor  on  the  17th, 
she  noted  in  her  diary,  '  How  strange  to 
think  that  I,  the  granddaughter  of  George  III, 
should  dance  with  the  Emperor  Napoleon, 
nephew  of  England's  great  enemy,  and  now 
my  nearest  and  most  intimate  ally,  in  the 
Waterloo  room,  and  this  ally,  only  six  years 
ago,  living  in  this  country  an  exile,  poor 
and  unthought  of! ' 

Meanwhile  peace  proposals,  which  proved 
abortive,  were  under  consideration  at  a  con- 
ference of  the  powers  at  Vienna ;  but  the 
queen  was  resolved  that  none  but  the  best 
possible  terms  should  be  entertained  by  her 
ministers.  Lord  John  represented  England 
and  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  France,  and  when 
Lord  John  seemed  willing  to  consider  con- 
ditions that  were  to  the  queen  unduly 
favourable  to  Russia,  she  wrote  peremptorily 
Queen  (^5  April  1855)  to  Palmerston, 

reproves  'How  Lord  John  llussell  and 
Lord  John.  ]\£  Drouyn  can  recommend  such 
proposals  for  our  acceptance  is  beyond  her 
[our]  comprehension.'  In  May  the  queen 
identified  herself  conspicuously  with  the 
national  feeling  by  distributing  with  her 
own  hands  war  medals  to  the  returned 
soldiers  on  the  Horse  Guards'  Parade 


Victoria 


437 


Victoria 


(18  May).  It  was  the  queen's  own  sugges- 
tion, and  it  was  the  first  time  that  the 
sovereign  had  performed  such  functions. 
'  The  rough  hand  of  the  brave  and  honest 
private  soldier  came,'  she  said, '  for  the  first 
time  in  contact  with  that  of  their  [his] 
sovereign  and  their  [his]  queen.'  Later 
in  the  day  she  visited  the  riding  school  in 
Wellington  barracks  while  the  men  were 
assembled  at  dinner.  In  the  months  that 
followed  the  queen  and  prince  were  inde- 
fatigable in  exerting  their  influence  against 
what  they  deemed  unworthy  concessions 
to  Russia.  From  their  point  of  view  the 
resignation  of  Lord  John  on  16  July  rendered 
the  situation  more  hopeful. 

At  the  moment  domestic  distress  was  oc- 
casioned by  an  outbreak  of  scarlet  fever  in 
the  royal  household,  which  attacked  the 
four  younger  children.  On  their  recovery 
the  queen  and  prince  sought  to  strengthen 
the  French  alliance  by  paying  the  emperor 
a  return  visit  at  Paris.  Following  the  ex- 
ample of  Prince  Albert,  the  emperor  had  or- 
ganised a  great '  Exposition,'  which  it  was  his 
desire  that  his  royal  friends  should  compare 
with  their  own.  On  20  Aug.,  after  parlia- 
ment had  been  prorogued  by  commission,  the 
queen  travelled,  with  the  prince,  the  prince 
of  Wales,  and  the  Princess  Royal,  from  Os- 
borne  to  Boulogne.  There  the  emperor  met 
them.  By  an  accident  they  reached  Paris 
rather  late,  but  they  passed  through  it  in 
Queen  in  procession  to  the  palace  of  St. 
i-aris,  Aug.  Cloud,  and  Marshal  Magnan  de- 
clared that  the  great  Napoleon 
was  not  so  warmly  received  on  his  return 
from  Austerlitz.  The  occasion  was  worthy 
of  enthusiasm.  It  was  the  first  time  that 
an  English  sovereign  had  entered  the  French 
capital  since  the  infant  Henry  VI  went  there 
to  be  crowned  in  1422.  The  splendid  fes- 
tivities allowed  the  queen  time  for  several 
visits,  not  merely  to  the  Exposition,  but  to 
the  historic  buildings  of  Paris  and  Ver- 
sailles. Their  historical  associations  greatly 
interested  her,  especially  those  which  re- 
called the  tragedies — always  fascinating 
to  her — of  Marie  Antoinette  or  James  IL 
Among  the  official  celebrations  were  a  re- 
view on  the  Champ  de  Mars  of  45,000 
troops,  and  balls  of  dazzling  magnificence 
at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  and  at  Versailles.  At 
the  Versailles  fete,  on  25  Aug.,  the  queen 
was  introduced  for  the  first  time  to  Count 
(afterwards  Prince)  Bismarck,  then  Prussian 
minister  at  Frankfort,  from  whose  iron 
•will  her  host,  and  afterwards  her  daughter, 
were  soon  to  suffer.  The  queen  conversed 
with  him  in  German  with  great  civility. 
He  thought  that  she  was  interested  in  him, 


but  lacked  sympathy  with  him.  The  im- 
pression was  correct.  On  reaching  Boulogne 
on  her  way  to  Osborne  (27  Aug.)  she  was 
accorded  a  great  military  reception  by  the 
emperor,  who  exchanged  with  her  on  parting 
the  warmest  assurances  of  attachment  to 
her,  her  husband,  and  her  children.  The 
anticipations  of  a  permanent  alliance  between 
the  two  countries  seemed  at  the  moment 
likely  to  be  fulfilled,  but  they  quickly  proved 
too  sanguine.  The  political  relations  between 
Napoleon  III  and  the  queen  were  soon  to 
be  severely  strained,  and  her  faith  in  his 
sincerity  to  be  rudely  shaken.  Yet  his  per- 
sonal courtesies  left  an  indelible  impres- 
sion on  her.  Despite  her  political  distrust 
she  constantly  corresponded  with  her  host 
in  autograph  letters  in  terms  of  a  dignified 
cordiality  until  the  emperor's  death ;  and 
the  sympathetic  affection  which  had  arisen 
between  the  queen  and  the  Empress  Eugenie 
steadily  grew  with  time  and  the  vicissitudes 
of  fortune. 

The  month  (September-October)  which 
was  spent,  as  usual,  at  Balmoral  was 
brightened  by  two  gratifying  incidents.  On 
10  Sept.  there  reached  the  queen  news  of 
the  fall  of  Sebastopol,  after  a  siege  of  nearly 
a  year — a  decisive  triumph  for  British  arms, 
which  brought  honourable  peace  well  in 
sight.  Prince  Albert  himself  superintended 
the  lighting  of  a  bonfire  on  the  top  of  a 
neighbouring  cairn.  The  other  episode  ap- 
pealed more  directly  to  the  queen's  maternal 
The  Princess  feeling  The  eldest  son  of  the 
Royal's  en-  prince  of  Prussia  (afterwards  the 
gagement.  Emperor  Frederick  I),  who,  at- 
tended by  Count  von  Moltke,  was  at  the 
time  a  guest  at  Balmoral,  requested  permis- 
sion to  propose  marriage  to  the  Princess 
Royal.  She  was  barely  sixteen,  and  he  was 
twenty-four,  but  there  were  indications  of  a 
mutual  affection.  The  manly  goodness  of 
the  prince  strongly  appealed  to  the  queen, 
and  an  engagement  was  privately  made  on 
29  Sept.  The  public  announcement  was  to 
be  deferred  till  after  the  princess's  confirma- 
tion next  year.  Prince  Albert  denied  that 
the  betrothal  had  any  political  significance. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  English  politics 
it  had  at  the  instant  little  to  recommend  it. 
A  close  union  between  the  royal  families  of 
London  and  Berlin  was  not  likely  to  recom- 
mend itself  to  the  queen's  late  host  of  Paris. 
To  most  English  statesmen  Prussia  ap- 
peared to  be  on  the  downward  grade ;  and 
although  Prince  Albert  and  the  queen  had 
faith  in  its  future,  they  were  personally  dis- 
appointed by  the  incompetence  of  its  present 
ruler,  the  uncle  of  their  future  son-in-law. 
He  had  deserted  them  in  the  recent  war 


Victoria 


438 


Victoria 


but  was  still  seeking  their  influence  inEurope 
in  bis  own  interests  in  private  letters  to  the 
queen,  which  he  conjured  her  not  to  divulge 
in  Do*wning  Street  or  at  the  Tuileries.  His 
pertinacity  had  grown  so  troublesome  that, 
to  'avoid  friction,  she  deemed  it  wisest  to 
suppress  his  correspondence  unanswered 
(DuKK  EKNEST,  vol.  iii.)  It  was  not  sur- 
prising that,  when  the  news  of  the  betrothal 
leaked  out,  the  public  comments  should  be 
unpleasing  to  the  court.  The  '  Times '  on 
3  Oct.  denounced  it  with  heat  as  an  act  of 
truckling  '  to  a  paltry  German  dynasty.' 

In  November,  when  the  court  was  again 
at  Windsor,  the  queen  extended  her  acquaint- 
ance among  great  kings  and  statesmen  by 
receiving  a  visit  from  her  second  ally  in  the 
Crimea,  Victor  Emanuel,  king  of  Sardinia, 
and  his  minister,  Count  Cavour,  and  the 
affairs  of  one  more  country  of  Europe  were 
pressed  upon  her  attention.  The  king's 
brother,  the  Duke  of  Genoa,  had  been  her 
guest  in  1852,  and  she  had  presented  him 
with  a  riding-horse  in  words  that  he  inter- 
preted to  imply  sympathy  with  the  efforts 
of  Cavour  and  his  master  to  unite  Italy 
under  a  single  king,  and  to  purge  the  sepa- 
rate states  of  native  tyranny  or  foreign  domi- 
nation (ib.  iii.  22-3).  Victor  Emanuel  had 
come  to  Windsor  in  effect  to  seek  confirma- 
tion of  his  brother's  version  of  the  queen's 
sentiment,  and  to  test  its  practical  value. 
He  had  just  been  at  the  Tuileries,  where 
Napoleon  was  encouraging,  while  Palmerston, 
now  prime  minister,  was  known  to  sympa- 
thise with  the  Italian  aspiration.  It  was 
not  opportune  at  the  moment  for  Palmerston 
to  promise  material  aid ;  while  the  prince, 
however  deeply  he  deplored  the  misgovern- 
ment  which  it  was  sought  to  annul  in  Italy, 
deprecated  any  breach  with  Austria,  which 
ruled  in  North  Italy.  He  and  the  queen, 
moreover,  dreaded  the  kindling  of  further  war 
in  Europe,  in  whatever  cause.  Victor  Ema- 
nuel and  Cavour  therefore  received  from  the 
queen  cold  comfort,  but  she  paid  the  king 
every  formal  honour,  despite  his  brusque  and 
unrefined  demeanour.  He  was  invested  with 
the  garter  on  5  Dec.,  and  a  great  banquet 
was  given  him  in  St.  George's  Hall  in  the 
evening.  When  he  departed  the  queen  rose 
at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  bid  him 
farewell. 

Meanwhile  peace  was  arranged  in  Paris 
with  Russia,  and  the  queen  opened  parlia- 
ment on  31  Jan.  1856  amid  great  rejoicing. 
The  peace,  On  30  March  the  treaty  was 
so  March  signed  and  the  encroachment  of 
Russia  on  Turkey  was  checked. 
Napoleon  had  shown  much  supineness  in 
the  negotiations  and  seemed  to  be  developing 


a  tendency  to  conciliate  the  common  enemy, 
Russia.  But  the  queen  exchanged  hearty 
congratulations  with  him,  and  on  11  April 
she  celebrated  the  general  harmony  by  con- 
ferring the  knighthood  of  the  garter  on  Pal- 
merston, to  whom  she  acknowledged,  with 
some  natural  qualifications,  the  successful 
issue  to  be  mainly  due. 

Henceforth  the  army,  to  a  larger  extent 
than  before,  was  the  queen's  constant  care. 
A  visit  to  the  military  hospital  at  Chatham 
on  16  April  was  followed  by  a  first  visit 
to  the  newly  formed  camp  at  Aldershot. 
First  visit  to  There  the  queen,  for  the  first  of 
AWershot,  many  times,  slept  the  night  in 
856-  the  royal  pavilion,  and  next  day 

she  reviewed  eighteen  thousand  men.  She 
was  on  horseback,  and  wore  the  uniform  of 
a  field-marshal  with  the  star  and  riband  of 
the  garter.  Shortly  after  she  laid  two  founda- 
tion stones — of  a  new  military  (the  Royal 
Victoria)  hospital  at  Netley  (19  May),  and 
of  Wellington  College,  Sandhurst,  for  the 
sons  of  officers  (2  June).  Much  of  the  sum- 
mer she  spent  in  welcoming  troops  on  their 
return  from  the  war.  On  7  and  8  June  the 
queen,  accompanied  by  her  guests,  the  king 
of  the  Belgians  and  Prince  Oscar  of  Sweden, 
inspected  a  great  body  of  them  at  Aldershot, 
and  addressed  to  them  stirring  words  of 
thanks  and  sympathy.  Thoroughly  identify- 
ing herself  with  the  heroism  of  her  soldiers 
.  and  sailors,  she  instituted  a  deco- 
Cross.10  m  ration  for  acts  of  conspicuous 
valour  in  war,  to  be  known  as  the 
Victoria  Cross  ( V.C.) ;  the  decoration  carried 
with  it  a  pension  of  10/.  a  year.  A  list  of 
the  earliest  recipients  of  the  honour  was 
soon  drawn  up,  and  the  crosses  were  pinned 
by  the  queen  herself  on  the  breasts  of  sixty- 
two  men  at  a  great  review  in  Hyde  Park 
next  year  (26  June  1857). 

A  melancholy  incident  had  marked  her 
visit  to  Aldershot  on  8  June  1856.  While 
the  commander-in-chief,  Lord  Hardinge, 
was  speaking  to  her  he  was  seized  by  in- 
curable paralysis,  and  had  to  vacate  his  post. 
An  opportunity  seemed  thus  presented  to 
the  queen  of  tightening  the  traditional  bond 
between  herself  and  the  army,  on  which 
recent  events  had  led  her  to  set  an  enhanced 
value.  Of  no  prerogative  of  the  crown  was 
the  queen  more  tenacious  than  that  which 
gave  her  a  nominal  control  of  the  army 
through  the  commander-in-chief.  It  was  a 
control  that  was  in  name  independent  of 
parliament,  although  that  body  claimed  a 
concurrent  authority  over  the  military  forces 
through  the  secretary  of  state  for  war.  Par- 
liament was  in  course  of  time,  to  the  queen's 
dismay,  to  make  its  authority  over  the  army 


Victoria 


439 


Victoria 


Court 
festivities. 


sole  and  supreme,  to  the  injury  of  her  pre- 
rogative. But  her  immediate  ambition 
was  to  confirm  the  personal  connection  be- 
tween the  army  and  herself.  She  there- 
fore induced  Palmerston  to  sanction  the  ap- 
pointment of  her  cousin,  George, 
CamSe°f  <luke  of  Cambridge,  as  coin- 
mander-in-chiel,  in  succession  to 
Lord  Ilardinge  (14  July  I860).  The  duke 
had  held  a  command  in  the  Crimea,  and 
the  queen's  recent  displays  of  attachment 
to  the  army  rendered  it  difficult  for  her 
advisers  to  oppose  her  wish.  But  the 
choice  was  not  in  accord  with  public  policy, 
and  in  practical  effect  ultimately  weakened 
the  military  prerogative  which  she  sought 
to  strengthen. 

Public  and  private  affairs  justified  a  season 
of  exceptional  gaiety.  The  Princess  Royal 
had  been  confirmed  on  20  March  and  her 
betrothal  became  generally  known,  when  in 
May  Prince  Frederick  William,  again  ac- 
companied by  Von  Moltke,  paid  the  court 
another  visit.  The  queen's  spirits  ran  high. 
On  7  May  she  gave  a  great  banquet  to  the 
leaders  of  both  parties  and  their 
wives,  and  she  was  amused  at 
the  signs  of  discomfort  which 
made  themselves  apparent.  But  Lord  Derby 
told  the  prince  that  the  guests  constituted 
*  a  happy  family  '  (MAXME8BURY,  Memoirs}. 
Balls  were  incessant,  and  at  them  all  the 
queen  danced  indefatigably.  On  9  May  the 
new  ball-room  and  concert- room  at  Buck- 
ingham Palace,  which  Prince  Albert  had 
•devised,  was  brought  into  use  for  the  first 
time  on  the  occasion  of  a  ball  in  honour 
of  the  Princess  Royal's  debut.  On  27  May 
the  queen  attended  a  ball  at  the  Turkish 
ambassador's,  and,  to  the  ambassador's  em- 
barrassment, chose  him  for  her  partner  in 
the  first  country  dance.  At  a  ball  in  the 
"Waterloo  Gallery  at  Windsor  on  10  June 
the  queen  danced  every  dance,  and  finally  a 
Scottish  reel  to  the  bagpipes  (Moi/TKE,  Let- 
ters, vol.  i.  passim  ;  MALMESBURY,  Memoirs, 
pp.  380  sqq.)  On  20  June  she  entertained 
Sir  Fenwick  Williams  of  Kars  at  Bucking- 
ham Palace.  On  26  June  the  Duke  of  West- 
minster gave  a  great  ball  in  her  honour  at 
Orosvenor  House.  On  9  July  there  was  a 
state  reception  by  her  of  the  guards  on  their 
home-coming  from  the  Crimea.  From  10  to 
28  Aug.  the  prince  and  princess  of  Prussia, 
the  father  and  mother  of  her  future  son-in- 
law,  were  her  guests,  and  later  in  the  autumn 
the  queen  received  at  Balmoral  Miss  Florence 
Nightingale,  to  whom  she  had  sent  in  the 
previous  January  a  valuable  memorial  jewel. 
In  November  1856  the  family  were  plunged 
in  mourning  by  the  death  of  Prince  Leinin- 


gen,the  queen's  half-brother  and  a  companion 
of  her  youth. 

The  next  year  (1857)  involved  the  queen 
in  a  new  and  great  public  anxiety,  and  the 
serious  side  of  life  oppressed  her.  Parlia- 
ment was  opened  by  commission  on  3  Feb., 
and  before  the  end  of  the  month  the  country 
heard  the  first  bitter  cry  of  the  Indian 
mutiny.  Next  month  Palmerston  was  de- 
feated in  the  House  of  Commons  on  Cobden's 
motion  condemning  his  warlike  policy  in 
China.  The  queen,  with  characteristic  reluc- 
tance, assented  to  his  demand  for  a  dissolu- 
tion. His  appeal  to  the  country  received  a 
triumphant  answer,  and  the  new  parliament 
assembled  with  a  majority  of  seventy-nine  in 
his  favour — a  signal  tribute  to  his  personal 
popularity.  On  14  April  the  queen's  youngest 
child,  Princess  Beatrice,  was  born  at  Buck- 
ingham Palace,  and  on  the  30th  the  queen 
suffered  much  grief  on  the  death  of  her  aunt, 
the  Duchess  of  Gloucester,  the  last  surviving 
child  of  George  III ;  '  we  all  looked  upon 
her,'  said  the  queen,  'as  a  sort  of  grand- 
mother.' At  the  time  the  forthcoming  mar- 
riage of  her  eldest  daughter  began  to  occupy 
her  thoughts.  On  16  May  the  betrothal  was 
formally  announced  at  Berlin,  and  on  the 
25th  the  queen  sent  a  message  to  parliament 
asking  for  a  provision  for  the  princess.  It  was 
her  earliest  appeal  to  the  nation  for  the 
Grant  to  pecuniary  support  of  her  children. 
Princess  The  request  was  favourably  enter- 
Hoyai.  tained.  The  government  pro- 

posed a  dowry  of  40,000/.  and  an  annuity 
of  8,0001.  Roebuck  raised  the  objection  that 
the  marriage  was  an  '  entangling  alliance,' 
and  opposed  the  grant  of  an  annuity.  Sir 
George  Cornewall  Lewis,  the  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  queen's  recent  expenses  in  connec- 
tion with  the  French  visits  were  defrayed 
out  of  her  income,  and  that  the  eldest  daugh- 
ters of  George  II  and  George  III  each  re- 
ceived a  dowry  of  80,000/.  and  an  annuity 
of  5,000£.  All  parties  finally  combined  to 
support  the  government's  proposal,  which 
found  in  its  last  stages  only  eighteen  dis- 
sentients. The  royal  betrothal  continued 
to  be  celebrated  by  brilliant  and  prolonged 
festivities.  In  June  and  July  Prince  Fre- 
derick William  once  more  stayed  at  court, 
and  Von  Moltke,  who  was  again  his  com- 
panion, declared  the  succession  of  gaieties  to 
be  overpowering.  One  day  (15  June)  there 
was  a  state  visit  to  the  Princess's  Theatre  to 
see  Kean's  spectacular  production  of  Shake- 
speare's '  Richard  II.'  Next  day  the  infant 
Princess  Beatrice  was  baptised.  On  11  June 
the  Ascot  ceremonies  were  conducted  in  full 
state,  and  among  the  royal  guests  was 


Victoria 


440 


Victoria 


Royal 


M.  Achille  Fould,   the   Paris  banker  and 
Napoleon  Ill's  minister  of  finance.     On  the 
17th  the  whole    court  attended    the   first 
Handel  festival  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  when 
'  Judas    Maccabeus '  was    performed ;    the 
royal  company  drove  to   and  fro   in   nine 
four-in-hands.     On  the  18th  a  levee  was 
followed  by  a  state  ball,  in  which  the  queen 
danced  with  unabated  energy.     Hardly  a 
day  passed  without  an  elaborate  ceremonial. 
On  26  June  a  military  review  took  place 
in  Hyde  Park  amid  extraordinary  signs  of 
popular  enthusiasm,  and  the  first  batch  of 
Victoria   crosses  was    distributed.      From 
29  June  to  2  July  the  queen  stayed  with 
the  Earl  of  Ellesmere  at  Worsley  Hall  to 
inspect  the  art  treasures  exhibition  at  Man- 
chester.    Next  month  she  laid  the  founda- 
tion at  Wandsworth  Common  of  the  Royal 
Victoria  Patriotic  Asylum  for  daughters  of 
soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines,  and  before  the 
end  of  the  month  time  was  found  for  a  visit 
to  Aldershot.     Royal  personages  from  the 
continent  thronged   the  queen's 
palaces.  The  king  of  the  Belgians 
brought  his  daughter,  the  Princess 
Charlotte,    and    her  fianc6  the   Archduke 
Maximilian  of  Austria,  who  was  later  to  lay 
down  his  life  in  Mexico  under  heartrending 
circumstances.    The  prince  of  Hohenzollern, 
the  queen  of  the  Netherlands,  and  the  Duke 
and  Duchess  of  Montpensier  all  interested 
their  royal  hostess.     She  was  gratified,  too, 
on  both  personal  and  political  grounds,  by  a 
short  visit  to  Osborne  of  the  Grand  Duke 
Constantino  of  Russia,  brother  of  the  reigning 
tsar  Alexander  II.     He  had  been  invited  to 
theTuileries  by  Napoleon, who  was  ominously 
seeking  every   opportunity  of   manifesting 
goodwill  to  Russia,  and  the  queen  did  not 
wish  to  be  behind  him  in  showing  cour- 
tesies to  her  recent  foes. 

The  constant  intercourse  of  the  queen 
and  the  prince  at  this  moment  with  the 
royal  families  of  Europe  led  her  to  define 
her  husband's  rank  more  accurately  than 
Title  of  ha<^  ^een  done  before.  On  25  June 
prince  1857,  by  royal  letters  patent,  she 

consort.  conferred  on  him  the  title  of 
prince  consort.  '  It  was  always  a  source  of 
weakness,'  the  prince  wrote,  '  for  the  crown 
that  the  queen  always  appeared  before  the 
people  with  her  foreign  husband.'  But  it 
was  doubtful  whether  this  bestowal  of  a  new 
name  effectively  removed  the  embarrass- 
ment. The  '  Times '  wrote  sneeringly  that 
the  new  title  guaranteed  increased  homage 
to  its  bearer  on  the  banks  of  the  Spree  and 
the  Danube,  but  made  no  difference  in  his 
position  anywhere  else.  Abroad  it  achieved 
the  desired  result.  When  on  29  July  the 


prince  attended  at  Brussels  the  marriage  of 
the  ill-fated  Archduke  Maximilian  with  the 
Princess  Charlotte  of  Belgium,  he  was  ac- 
corded precedence  before  the  Austrian  arch- 
dukes and  immediately  after  the  king  o«f 
the  Belgians. 

The  English  government  still  deemed  it 
prudent  to  cultivate  the  French  alliance, 
Relations       but    fhe    emperor's    policy    was 
withNa-        growing   enigmatic,   and   in   the 
poieon  ill.     diplomatic  skirmishes  among  the 
powers  which  attended  the  final  adjustment, 
in   accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  of  the  affairs  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula,  he  and  the  English  government 
took  opposite   sides.     The   anxiety  of  the 
emperor  to  maintain  good  personal  relations- 
with   the  queen  was  the   talisman    which 
restored  harmony.     A  few  informal  word* 
with  the  queen,  the  emperor  assured  her 
ministers,   would    dissolve    all    difficulties. 
Accordingly  he  and  the  empress  were  in- 
vited to  pay  a  private  visit  to  Osborne,  and 
they  stayed  there  from  6  to  10  Aug.     The 
French  ministers,  Walewski  and  Persigny, 
accompanied  their  master,  and  the  queen 
was  attended  by  Palmerston  and  Clarendon. 
The   blandest   cordiality   characterised    the 
discussion,  but  from  the  point  of  view  of 
practical  diplomacy  advantage  lay  with  the 
emperor.     He  had  supported  the  contention 
of  Russia  and  Sardinia  that  it  was  desirable 
to  unite  under   one   ruler  the   two   semi- 
independent  principalities  of  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia.     The  English  government  sup- 
ported Austria's   desire    to   keep  the   two- 
apart.     Napoleon  now  agreed  to  the  con- 
tinued separation  of  the  principalities ;  but 
in  1859,  when  they,  by  their  own  efforts, 
joined  together  and  founded  the  dominion 
which  was  afterwards  named  Roumania,  he 
insisted  on  maintaining  the  union.     When 
the   Osborne   visit   was   ended   affectionate 
compliments  passed   between  the  emperor 
and  the  queen  in  autograph  letters,  and  the 
agreement  was  regarded  as  final.     The  queen 
wrote  with    ingenuous    confidence  of    the 
isolation  that  characterised  the  position  of 
a  sovereign,  but  added  that  fortunately  her 
ally,  no  less  than  herself,  enjoyed  the  com- 
pensation of  a  happy  marriage.     The  osten- 
tatious activity  with  which  the  emperor  was 
strengthening  his  armaments  at  Cherbourg 
hardly  seemed   promising  for   the  continu- 
ance of  such  personal   harmony,   but  the- 
emperor  paradoxically  converted  the   war- 
like preparations  which  were  going  forward 
almost  within   hail   of  the   English  shore, 
into  new  links  of  the  chain  of  amity  which 
was  binding  the  two  royal  families  together. 
At  his  suggestion,  within  a  fortnight  of  his 


Victoria 


441 


Victoria 


leaving  Osborne,  the  queen  and  the  prince 
crossed  in  her  yacht  Victoria  and  Albert  to 
Cherbourg  on  19  Aug.  in  order  to  inspect 
the  dockyard,  arsenal,  and  fortifications. 
Every  facility  of  examination  was  given 
them,  but  amid  the  civilities  of  the  welcome 
the  queen  did  not  ignore  the  use  to  which 
those  gigantic  works  might  be  put  if  Eng- 
land and  France  came  to  blows.  The  rela- 
tions of  the  queen  and  emperor  abounded  in 
irony. 

Meanwhile  the  nation  was  in  the  throes 

of  the  Indian  mutiny — a  crisis  more  trying 

and  harrowing  than  the  recent 

The  Indian  TT      •         i.     i  ^  •      Ai 

mutiny.  war<  Having  broken  out  in  the 
previous  June,  it  was  in  August 
at  its  cruel  height,  and  the  queen,  in  common 
with  all  her  subjects,  suffered  acute  mental 
torture.  She  eagerly  scanned  the  news 
from  the  disturbed  districts,  and,  according 
to  her  wont,  showered  upon  her  ministers 
entreaties  to  do  this  and  that  in  order  to 
suppress  the  rebellion  with  all  available 
speed.  Palmerston  resented  the  queen's 
urgency  of  counsel,  and  wrote  (18  July) 
with  unbecoming  sarcasm,  to  which  she  was 
happily  blind,  how  fortunate  it  was  for  him 
that  she  was  not  on  the  opposition  side  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  At  the  same  time 
he  reminded  her  that  '  measures  are  some- 
times best  calculated  to  succeed  which 
follow  each  other  step  by  step.'  The  mini- 
ster's cavils  only  stimulated  the  activity  of 
her  pen.  She  left  Osborne  for  her  autumn 
holiday  at  Balmoral  on  28  Aug.  Parliament 
was  still  sitting.  Her  withdrawal  to  the  north 
before  the  prorogation  excited  adverse  criti- 
cism, but  throughout  her  sojourn  at  Bal- 
moral little  else  except  India  occupied  her 
mind.  She  vividly  felt  the  added  anxieties 
due  to  the  distance  and  the  difficulty  of 
communication.  Happily,  just  after  the 
court  left  Scotland  (on  16  Sept.)  events 
took  a  more  favourable  turn.  On  3  Dec., 
when  the  queen  opened  parliament  in  per- 
son, the  mutiny  was  in  process  of  extinction. 
The  sudden  death  of  the  Duchess  de 
Nemours  in  November  at  Claremont  in- 
creased at  the  time  the  queen's  depression. 
'  We  were  like  sisters,'  she  wrote  ;  '  bore  the 
same  name,  married  the  same  year,  our 
children  of  the  same  age.'  But  the  need  of 
arranging  for  the  celebration  of  her  eldest 
daughters  marriage  soon  distracted  her 
attention.  As  many  as  seventeen  German 
princes  and  princesses  accepted  invitations 
Marria7eof  to  ^e  present.  The  festivities 
the  Princess  opened  on  19  Jan.  1858  with  a 
state  performance  at  Her  Ma- 
jesty's Theatre,  when  '  Macbeth'  was  per- 
formed, with  Phelps  and  Miss  Faucit  in 


the  chief  parts,  and  was  followed  by  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Keeley's  rendering  of  the  farce 
of  'Twice  Killed.'  The  wedding  took 
place  at  St.  James's  Palace  on  the  25th,  and 
eight  days  later  the  bride  and  bridegroom 
left  England.  The  queen  felt  the  parting; 
severely,  and  dwelt  upon  her  mixed  feelings 
of  joy  and  sorrow  in  her  replies  to  the  ad- 
dresses of  congratulation  which  poured  in 
upon  her. 

Before  the  queen  quite  reconciled  herself 
to  the  separation  from  her  daughter,  she  was 
suddenly  involved  in  the  perplexities  of  a 
ministerial  crisis.  The  French  alliance 
which  Palmerston  had  initiated  proved  a 
boomerang  and  destroyed  his  government. 
On  15  Jan.  an  explosive  bomb  had  been 
thrown  by  one  Orsini,  an  Italian  refugee, 
at  the  emperor  and  empress  of  the  French 
while  entering  the  Opera  House  in  Paris^ 
and  though  they  escaped  unhurt  ten  persons 
were  killed  and  150  wounded.  It  was  soon 
discovered  that  the  plot  had  been  hatched 
in  England,  and  that  the  bomb  had  been 
manufactured  there.  A  strongly  worded 
despatch  from  the  French  minister  Walewski 
to  Palmerston  demanded  that  he  should  take 
steps  to  restrict  the  right  of  asylum  in  Eng- 
land which  was  hitherto  freely  accorded  to 
foreign  political  malcontents.  Addresses 
of  congratulation  to  the  emperor  on  his 
escape,  which  he  published  in  the  official 
'  Moniteur,'  threatened  England  with  re- 
prisal. Palmerston  ignored  Walewski's  des- 
patch, but  introduced  a  mild  bill  making 
conspiracy  to  murder,  hitherto  a  misde- 
meanour, a  felony.  The  step  was  approved 
by  the  queen,  but  it  was  denounced  as  a 
weak  truckling  to  Palmerston's  old  friend 
Napoleon,  and  his  bill  was  defeated  on  the 
Pataerston's  second  reading  (19  Feb.)  There- 
fall,  Febru-  upon  he  resigned.  The  queen 
aryisss  begged  him  to  reconsider  the 
matter.  Although  she  never  derived  much 
comfort  from  Palmerston,  she  had  great 
faith  in  his  colleague  Clarendon,  and  it 
was  on  his  account  that  she  sought  to  keep 
the  ministry  in  office;  but  Palmerston 
persisted  in  resigning,  and  she  at  once 
summoned  Lord  Derby.  The  queen,  al- 
though she  recognised  the  parliamentary 
weakness  of  a  conservative  government, 
was  successful  in  urging  him  to  attempt 
it.  It  gratified  her  that  the  brother  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  General  Jonathan  1*061,  became 
secretary  for  war.  '  His  likeness  to  his 
deceased  brother,'  she  wrote,  'in  manner, 
in  his  way  of  thinking,  and  in  patriotic 
feeling,  is  quite  touching.'  Friendly  relations 
with  France  were  easily  re-established  by 
the  new  ministry,  and  the  queen  was 


Victoria 


442 


Victoria 


delighted  by  the  emperor's  choice  of  the  emi- 
nent General  P61issier,  Due  de  Malakoff,  to 
represent  France  at  her  court  in  place  of 
Persigny,  who  was  no  favourite.  General 
P6lissier  was  constantly  at  court,  and  was 
much  liked  by  all  the  royal  family,  and 
when  he  withdrew,  on  5  March  1859,  tears 
were  shed  on  both  sides. 

In  June  1858  the  prince  consort  paid  a 
visit  to  his  daughter  and  son-in-law  in  Ger- 
many, and  on  his  return  the  queen,  during 
exceptionally  hot  weather,  which  interfered 
with  her  comfort,  made  a  royal  progress  to 
Birmingham  to  open  the  Aston  Park.  She 
and  the  prince  stayed  with  Lord  Leigh  at 
Stoneleigh  Abbey.  The  need  of  maintaining 
at  full  heat  the  French  alliance  again  called 
them  to  France  in  August,  when  they  paid 
,a  second  visit  to  Cherbourg.  The  meeting  of 
the  sovereigns  bore  a  somewhat  equivocal 
aspect.  The  queen  in  her  yacht  was  ac- 
companied by  a  great  escort  of 
^herboar"  men-of-war,  while  nearly  all  the 
ships  of  the  French  navy  stood 
by  to  welcome  her.  On  landing  at  Cher- 
bourg she  joined  the  emperor  in  witness- 
ing the  formal  opening  of  the  new  arsenal, 
and  she  climbed  up  the  steep  fort  La 
Roule  in  order  to  survey  the  whole  extent 
of  the  fortifications.  The  emperor  plea- 
santly reminded  the  queen  that  a  century 
before  the  English  fleet  had  bombarded 
Cherbourg,  but  the  cordiality  between 
the  two  appeared  unchanged,  and  the 
emperor  repeated  his  confidence  in  the 
permanence  of  the  Anglo-French  alliance; 
the  prince,  however,  thought  the  imperial 
ardour  somewhat  cooler  than  of  old.  From 
France  the  queen  passed  to  Ger- 
Tour  m  many  on  a  visit  to  her  daughter. 

Germany.         -..        J  ,  ,     .    .      °     . 

It  was  a  long  and  interesting 
expedition,  and  she  renewed  personal  in- 
tercourse with  many  friends  and  kinsmen. 
She  and  the  prince  landed  at  Antwerp,  and  at 
Malines  met  King  Leopold,  who  travelled 
with  them  to  Verviers.  At  Aix-la-Chapelle 
the  prince  of  Prussia  joined  them.  Thence 
they  travelled  to  Hanover  to  visit  the  king 
and  queen  at  Herrenhausen,  where  the  queen 
delighted  in  the  many  memorials  of  her 
Hanoverian  predecessors.  Her  daughterwas 
residing  at  the  castle  of  Babelsberg,  about 
three  miles  from  Potsdam,  and  there  she 
arrived  on  13  Aug.  In  the  course  of 
the  next  few  days  many  visits  were  paid  to 
Berlin,  and  the  queen  inspected  the  public 
buildings,  the  tomb  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  the  royal  palaces  of  Sans  Souci  and 
Charlottenberg,  and  the  Neues  Palais.  On 
the  27th  she  left  for  Cologne,  and  after 
a  brief  visit  to  places  of  interest  she 


arrived  at  Osborne  by  way  of  Antwerp  and 
Dover  on  the  31st.  She  and  the  prince  soon 
left  for  the  north,  but  they  paused  on  the 
journey  at  Leeds  to  open  the  new  town-hall. 

The  foreign  tour  had  not  withdrawn  the 
queen  from  important  business  at  home. 
When  she  was  setting  out  the  country  was 
excited  by  the  completion  of  the  laying 
of  the  first  submarine  cable  between  America 
and  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  queen  sent 
an  elaborate  message  of  congratulation  over 
the  wires  to  the  president  of  the  United 
States,  James  Buchanan.  She  described  the 
enterprise  as  an  additional  link  between 
nations  whose  friendship  was  founded  upon 
common  interest  and  reciprocal  esteem. 
Unfortunately  the  cable  soon  ceased  to  work 
and  the  permanent  connection  was  not  esta- 
blished till  1861.  During  her  stay  in  Ger- 
The  re_  many,  Indian  affairs  mainly  occu- 
settiement  pied  her  government's  atten- 
of  India.  tion.  While  the  mutiny  was  in 
course  of  suppression  parliament  decided  to 
abolish  the  old  East  India  Company  and  to 
transfer  its  territories  and  powers  to  the 
crown.  India  was  thenceforth  to  be  ad- 
ministered by  a  secretary  of  state  assisted  by 
a  council  of  fifteen.  The  queen  set  a  high 
value  on  the  new  and  direct  connection 
which  the  measure  created  between  India 
and  herself.  She  felt  that  it  added  to  the 
prestige  of  the  monarchy,  but  in  two  details 
the  queen  deemed  the  bill  to  encroach  on 
her  prerogative.  In  the  first  place,  the 
introduction  of  competitive  examinations 
for  appointments  in  the  new  Indian  civil 
service  cancelled  the  crown's  power  of 
nomination.  In  the  second  place,  the 
Indian  army  was  to  be  put  under  the 
authority  of  the  Indian  council.  She  insisted 
that  her  prerogative  gave  her  control  of  all 
military  forces  of  the  crown  through  the 
commander-in-chief  exclusively.  She  laid 
her  objections  before  Lord  Derby  with  her 
usual  frankness,  but  the  government  had 
pledged  itself  to  the  proposed  arrangements, 
and  on  Lord  Derby  threatening  to  resign 
if  the  queen  pressed  the  points,  she  pru- 
dently dropped  the  first  and  waited  for  a 
more  opportune  moment  for  renewing  dis- 
cussion on  the  second.  In  1860  it  was 
decided  to  amalgamate  the  European  forces 
in  India  with  the  home  army. 

The  act  for  the  reorganisation  of  the 
Indian  government  received  the  royal  assent 
on  2  Aug.  1858.  Thereupon  Lord  Derby's 
cabinet  drafted  a  proclamation  to  the  people 
of  India  defining  the  principles  which  would 
henceforth  determine  the  crown's  relations 
with  them.  The  queen  was  resolved  that 
her  first  address  to  the  native  population 


Victoria 


443 


Victoria 


should  plainly  set  forth  her  personal  interest 
in  its  welfare.  She  had  thrown  the  whole 
weight  of  her  influence  against  those  who 
defended  indiscriminate  retaliatory  punish- 
ment of  the  native  population  for  the  mis- 
deeds of  the  mutiny.  The  governor-general, 
Lord  Canning,  who  pursued  a  policy  of  con- 
ciliation, had  no  more  sympathising  adherent 
than  the  queen.  '  The  Indian  people  should 
know,'  she  had  written  to  him  in  December 
1857,  '  that  there  is  no  hatred  to  a  brown 
skin,  none  ;  but  the  greatest  wish  on  their 
queen's  part  to  see  them  happy,  contented, 
and  flourishing.'  The  draft  proclamation 
which  was  forwarded  to  her  at  Babel sberg 
seemed  to  assert  England's  power  with  need- 
less brusqueness,  and  was  not  calculated  to 
conciliate  native  sentiment.  Undeterred  by 
the  ill-success  which  had  attended  her  efforts 
to  modify  those  provisions  in  the  bill  which 
offended  her,  she  now  reminded  the  prime 
minister  '  that  it  is  a  female  sovereign  who 
speaks  to  more  than  a  hundred  millions  of 
eastern  people  on  assuming  the  direct  go- 
Her  vernment  over  them,  and  after  a 

attitude  to  bloody  civil  war,  giving  them 
rab'ects311  Podges  which  her  future  reign  is 
to  redeem,  and  explaining  the 
principles  of  her  government.  Such  a  docu- 
ment should  breathe  feelings  of  generosity, 
benevolence,  and  religious  toleration,  and 
point  out  the  privilege  which  the  Indians 
will  receive  in  being  placed  on  an  equality 
with  the  subjects  of  the  British  crown,  and 
the  prosperity  following  in  the  train  of 
civilisation  '  (MARTIX,  iv.  49).  She  resented 
her  ministers'  failure  to  refer  with  sympathy 
to  native  religion  and  customs.  The  deep 
attachment  which  she  felt  to  her  own  reli- 
gion imposed  on  her,  she  said,  the  obligation 
of  protecting  all  her  subjects  in  their  adher- 
ence to  their  own  religious  faith.  She  desired 
to  give  expression  to  her  feelings  of  horror  and 
regret  at  the  mutiny,  and  her  gratitude 
to  God  at  its  approaching  end.  She  desired 
Lord  Derby  to  rewrite  the  proclamation  in 
what  she  described  as  '  his  excellent  lan- 
guage.' 

The  queen  never  brought  her  influence  to 
bear  on  an  executive  act  of  government  with 
nobler  effect.  The  second  draft,  which  was 
warmly  approved  by  the  queen,  breathed 
that  wise  spirit  of  humanity  and  toleration 
which  was  the  best  guarantee  of  the  future 
prosperity  of  English  rule  in  India.  Her 
suggestion  was  especially  responsible  for  the 
magnificent  passage  in  the  proclamation 
the  effect  of  which,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
both  literature  and  politics,  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  exaggerate  :  '  Firmly  relying  our-  i 
selves  on  the  truth  of  Christianity,  and  i 


acknowledging  with  gratitude  the  solace  of 
religion,  we  disclaim  alike  the  right  and  the 
desire  to  impose  our  convictions  on  any  of 
our  subjects.  We  declare  it  to  be  our  royal 
will  and  pleasure  that  none  be  in  any  wise 
favoured,  none  molested  or  disquieted  by 
reason  of  their  religious  faith  or  observances, 
but  that  all  shall  alike  enjoy  the  equal  and 
impartial  protection  of  the  law ;  and  we  do 
strictly  charge  and  enjoin  all  those  who  may 
be  in  authority  under  us  that  they  abstain 
from  all  interference  with  the  religious  be- 
lief or  worship  of  any  of  our  subjects  on  pain 
of  our  highest  displeasure.'  Finally,  the 
queen  recommended  the  establishment  of  a 
new  order  of  the  star  of  India  as  a  decora- 
tive reward  for  those  native  princes  who 
were  loyal  to  her  rule,  and  such  of  her 
officials  in  the  Indian  government  as  ren- 
dered conspicuous  service.  The  first  investi- 
ture took  place  on  1  Nov.  1861. 

In  the  closing  months  of  1858  and  the 
opening  months  of  1859  time  forcibly  re- 
minded the  queen  of  its  passage.  On  9  Nov. 
1858  the  prince  of  Wales,  who  had  been 
confirmed  on  1  April  1858,  completed  his 
eighteenth  year.  That  age  in  the  royal 
family  was  equivalent  to  a  majority, 
and  the  queen  in  an  admirable  letter  to 
her  eldest  son,  while  acknowledging  that,  in 
the  interest  of  his  owji  welfare,  his  discipline 
had  been  severe,  now  bade  him  consider 
himself  his  own  master  ;  she  would  always  be 
ready  to  offer  him  advice  if  he  wished  it,  but 
she  would  not  intrude  it.  No  sooner  had 
she  set  her  eldest  son  on  the  road  to  inde- 
pendence than  she  welcomed  the  first  birth 
of  that  second  generation  of  her 
Her^d^M  family  which  before  her  death 

grandchild.  •  .. 

was  to  grow  to  great  dimensions. 
On  27  Jan.  1859  a  son  and  heir  was  born  at 
Berlin  to  the  Princess  Royal.  The  child  ulti- 
mately became  the  present  German  emperor 
William  II.  For  some  time  the  princess's 
condition  caused  anxiety  to  her  family,  but 
the  crisis  happily  passed.  The  queen  thus 
became  a  grandmother  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
nine.  Congratulations  poured  in  from  every 
quarter. 

Among  the  earliest  and  the  warmest 
greetings  came  one  from  Napoleon  III,  and 
the  queen  in  her  acknowledgment  took  occa- 
sion solemnly  to  urge  him  to  abide  in  the 
paths  of  peace.  The  persistency  with  which 
he  continued  to  increase  his  armaments  had 
roused  a  widespread  suspicion  that  he  was 
preparing  to  emulate  the  example  of  his 
great  predecessor.  For  a  time  it  seemed 
doubtful  in  which  direction  he  would  aim 
his  first  blow.  But  when  the  queen's  first 
grandson  was  born,  she  knew  that  her  gentle- 


Victoria 


444 


Victoria 


spoken  ally  was  about  to  challenge  the 
peace  of  Europe  by  joining  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia in  an  endeavour  to  expel  Austria  from 
Lombardy  and  Venetia,  and  thereby  to  pro- 
mote the  unity  of  Italy  under  the  kingship 
of  the  royal  house  of  Sardinia.  The  em- 
peror accepted  the  queen's  pacific  counsel 
in  good  part,  but  at  the  same  time  wrote 
to  her  in  defence  of  the  proposed  war.  On 
3  Feb.  she  opened  parliament  in  person  and 
read  with  emphasis  those  passages  in  her 
speech  which  delared  that  England  would 
be  no  party  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon's  am- 
bitious designs.  Before  the  end  of  April  the 
queen's  hopes  of  peace  were  defeated  by 
the  unexpected  action  of  Austria,  which, 
grasping  its  nettle,  declared  war  on  Sardinia. 
Napoleon  at  once  entered  the  field  with  his 
ally  of  Italy.  The  queen  and  the  prince 
Napoleon  at  were  harassed  by  fear  of  a  uni- 
\\-ar  with  versal  war.  Popular  feeling  in 
Austria.  England  in  regard  to  the  struggle 
that  was  in  progress  was  entirely  distasteful 
to  them.  English  public  sentiment  regarded 
Sardinia  as  the  courageous  challenger  of 
absolutist  tyranny.  Napoleon  was  applauded 
for  rendering  Sardinia  assistance.  The  queen 
and  the  prince,  on  the  other  hand,  while  they 
deplored  Austria's  precipitancy,  cherished 
sympathy  with  her  as  a  German  power,  whose 
fortunes  appeared  to  affect  immediately  those 
of  her  neighbour,  Prussia. 

Affection  for  her  newly  married  daughter 
redoubled  the  queen's  desire  for  the  safety 
of  Prussia.  Her  son-in-law  had 
anxiety*11  *  risen  a  step  nearer  the  Prus- 
respecting  sian  throne  in  1858,  when  the 
Prussia.  king,  his  uncle,  had,  owing  to 
failing  health,  been  superseded  by  his  father, 
the  prince  of  Prussia,  who  became  prince- 
regent.  The  change  of  rule  greatly  increased 
the  influence  that  Prince  Albert  could  exert 
on  Prussia,  for  the  new  ruler  was  an  old 
friend  of  his  and  of  the  queen,  and,  having 
much  faith  in  the  prince's  judgment,  freely 
appealed  to  them  for  confidential  counsel. 
It  was  now  for  the  prince-regent  of  Prussia 
to  decide  whether  the  safety  of  his  domi- 
nions required  him  to  throw  in  his  lot  with 
Austria.  The  English  court,  mainly  moved 
by  a  desire  to  protect  their  daughter  from 
the  consequences  of  strife,  besought  him  to 
stand  aside.  He  assented,  and  the  queen 
turned  to  Napoleon  to  persuade  him  to  keep 
hostilities  within  a  narrow  compass.  When 
the  empress  of  the  French  sent  her  birthday 
congratulations  on  25  May,  she  in  reply 
entreated  her  to  persuade  her  husband  to 
localise  the  war.  The  prompt  triumph  of 
the  French  arms  achieved  that  result,  and, 
to  the  queen's  relief,  although  not  without 


anxiety,  she  learned  that  the  two  emperors 
were  to  meet  at  Villafranca  to  negotiate 
terms  of  peace. 

The  queen's  fears  of  the  sequel  were  greatly 
increased  by  the  change  of  government  which 
took  place  during  the  progress  of  the  war. 
On  1  April  Lord  Derby's  government,  which 
in  the  main  held  her  views  in  re- 
£ard  to  th«  f<>reign  situation,  was 
defeated  on  its  reform  bill.  She 
declined  to  accept  the  ministers'  resignation, 
but  assented  to  the  only  alternative,  dissolu- 
tion of  parliament.  The  elections  passed  off 
quietly,  but  left  the  conservatives  in  a  mino- 
rity of  forty-three.  On  10  June  the  mini- 
sters were  attacked  and  defeated,  and,  to  the 
queen's  disappointment,  she  saw  herself  com- 
pelled to  accept  Lord  Derby's  resignation. 
Again  Palmerston  was  the  conservative 
leader's  only  practicable  successor.  But  it 
was  repugnant  to  the  queen  to  recall  him  to 
power  at  the  existing  juncture  in  foreign 
politics.  His  sympathy  with  Italy  and  his 
antipathy  to  Austria  were  alike  notorious. 
Lord  John  Russell,  too,  had  identified  him- 
self with  Italian  interests.  On  11  June  she 
therefore  invited  Lord  Granville,  a  compara- 
tively subordinate  member  of  the  party,  to 
extricate  her  from  her  difficulties  by  forming 
a  government.  To  him  she  was  personally 
attached,  and  he  was  calculated  to  prove 
more  pliable  than  his  older  colleagues.  In 
autograph  letters  addressed  to  Palmerston 
and  Lord  John,  which  Granville  was  charged 
to  deliver,  she  requested  those  veterans  to 
serve  under  him.  Her  action  Avas  mortify- 
ing to  both,  and  by  accident  involved  her 
and  them  in  even  more  embarrassment  than 
could  have  been  anticipated.  Owing  to 
some  indiscreet  talk  of  Lord  Granville  with 
a  friend,  a  correct  report  of  the  queen's  con- 
versation with  him  appeared  in  the  '  Times' 
next  day  (12  June).  She  was  in  despair: 
'  Whom  am  I  to  trust  ? '  she  said ;  '  these 
were  my  own  very  words.'  In  the  result 
Palmerston  genially  agreed  to  accept  Gran- 
ville's  leadership,  but  Lord  John  refused  to 
hear  of  it ;  and  Lord  Granville  withdrew 
from  the  negotiation.  The  queen  was  thus 
compelled  to  appeal  to  Palmerston,  and  to 
accept  him  as  her  prime  minister  for  the 
second  time.  Before  his  ministry  was  con- 
stituted she  suffered  yet  another  disappoint- 
ment. Lord  John  insisted  on  taking  the 
foreign  office,  and,  as  a  consequence,  Lord 
Clarendon,  her  trusted  friend,  who  had  good 
claims  to  the  post,  was  excluded  from  the 
government. 

Her  forebodings  of  difficulties  with  her 
new  ministers  were  justified.  At  the  handsof 
Lord  John,  as  foreign  minister,  she  endured 


Victoria 


445 


Victoria 


the  Italian 
question. 


hardly  fewer  torments  than  Palmerston  had 
inflicted  on   her  when  he   held  that  office. 
Lord  John  and  his  chief  at  once 
avowed  a  resolve  to  serve  the  in- 
terests  of  Italy  at  the  expense  of 

Austria,  and  won,  in  the  inner 
.     .         '     .  '    ,  ,     . 

circle  01  the  court,  the  sobriquet 
of  '  the  old  Italian  masters.'  At  the  same 
time  the  course  of  the  negotiations  between 
Napoleon  and  the  emperor  of  Austria  was 
perplexing  alike  to  the  queen  and  to  her 
ministers.  Napoleon  had  at  Villafranca  ar- 
ranged mysterious  terms  with  the  emperor  of 
Austria  which  seemed  to  the  friends  of  Italy 
far  too  favourable  to  Austria,  although 
they  gave  France  no  advantage.  Austria 
was  to  lose  Lombardy,  but  was  to  retain 
Venetia.  France  protested  unwilling- 
ness to  take  farther  part  in  the  matter. 
Sardinia  was  recommended  to  rely  on  her 
own  efforts  to  obtain  whatever  other  changes 
she  sought  in  the  adjustment  of  Italy.  So 
barren  a  result  was  unsatisfactory  to  all 
Italian  liberals,  and  was  deemed  by  Pal- 
merston  and  Lord  John  to  be  grossly  unjust 
to  them.  They  opened  diplomatic  negotia- 
tions with  a  view  to  a  modification  of  the 
proposed  treaty,  and  to  the  encouragement 
of  the  Italians  to  fight  their  battle  out  to 
the  end.  The  queen,  who  was  relieved  by 
the  cessation  of  hostilities  and  by  the  easy 
terms  offered  to  Austria,  stoutly  objected  to 
ker  ministers'  intervention.  '  We  did  not 
protest  against  the  war,'  she  told  Lord  John  ; 
*  we  cannot  protest  against  the  peace.'  She 
insisted  that  the  cry  '  Italy  for  the  Italians,' 
If  loudly  raised  by  the  government,  would 
compel  this  country  to  join  Sardinia  in  war. 
But  Palmerston  and  Lord  John  were  un- 
moved by  her  appeals.  Palmerston  declared 
that,  if  their  advice  were  not  acted  on,  their 
resignations  would  follow.  In  August,  when 
the  vacation  had  scattered  the  ministers,  the 
queen  insisted  on  the  whole  cabinet  being 
summoned,  so  that  they  might  realise  her 
unconquerable  determination  to  observe  a 
strict  neutrality.  Palmerston  affected  in- 
difference to  her  persistency,  but  Italian 
affairs  were  suffered  to  take  their  own  course 
without  English  intervention.  Yet  the  out- 
come was  not  agreeable  to  the  queen.  As 
soon  as  the  treaty  of  Villafranca  was  signed, 
Sardinia,  aided  by  Garibaldi,  sought  at  the 
sword's  point,  without  foreign  aid,  full  con- 
trol of  the  independent  states  of  the  penin- 
sula outside  Rome  and  Venetia.  Although 
she  was  aware  of  the  weakness  of  their  cause, 
the  queen  could  not  resist  sympathy  with 
the  petty  Italian  rulers  who  were  driven 
by  Sardinia  from  their  principalities.  The 
Duchess  of  Parma,  one  of  the  discrowned 


sovereigns,  appealed  to  the  queen  for  pro- 
tection. Lord  John,  whose  stolidity  in  such 
matters  widened  the  breach  between  him  and 
the  queen,  drew  up  a  cold  and  bald  refusal, 
which  she  declined  to  send.  Lord  Claren- 
don, however,  was  on  a  visit  to  her  at  the 
moment,  and  by  his  advice  she  gave  her 
reply  a  more  sympathetic  tone,  without 
openly  defying  her  ministers. 

At  the  same  time,  with  Sardinia's  reluctant 
assent,  Napoleon  annexed  Savoy  and  Nice 
to  France  as  the  price  of  his  benevolent 
service  to  Italy  in  the  past,  and  by  way 
of  a  warning  that  he  would  tolerate  no 
foreign  intrusion  while  the  internal  struggle 
for  Italian  unity  was  proceeding.  The  queen 
viewed  this  episode  with  especial  disgust. 
That  Napoleon  should  benefit  from  the  con- 
fusion into  which,  in  her  eyes,  he  had  wan- 
tonly thrown  southern  Europe  roused  her 
indignation  to  its  full  height.  She  bitterly 
reproached  her  ministers,  whom  she  suspected 
of  secret  sympathy  with  him,  with  playing 
Anger  with  ^nto  h*3  hands.  Her  complaint 
Napoleon  was  hardly  logical,  for  she  had 

herself  urged  on  them  the 
strictest  neutrality.  On  5  Feb.  1860  she 
wrote  to  Lord  John,  '  We  have  been  made 
regular  dupes,  which  the  queen  apprehended 
and  warned  against  all  along.'  Her  hope  that 
Europe  would  stand  together  to  prevent  the 
annexation  was  unavailing,  and  in  impotent 
rage  she  exclaimed  against  maintaining  fur- 
ther intercourse  with  France.  '  France,'  she 
wrote  to  her  uncle  (8  May  1860),  'must 
needs  disturb  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
and  try  to  make  mischief,  and  set  every  one 
by  the  ears.  Of  course  this  will  end  some 
day  in  a  general  crusade  against  the  universal 
disturber  of  the  world.'  But  her  wrath 
cooled,  and  her  future  action  bore  small 
trace  of  it.  In  1860  the  ministry  gave  her 
another  ground  for  annoyance  by  proposing 
to  abolish  the  post  of  commander-in-chief, 
and  to  bring  the  army  entirely  under  the 
control  of  parliament  through  the  secretary 
of  state.  She  protested  with  warmth  against 
the  change  as  an  infringement  of  her  prero- 
gative, and  for  the  moment  the  scheme  was 
dropped. 

Apart  from  foreign  politics  her  life  still 
knew  no  cloud.  Her  public  duties  continued 
to  bring  her  into  personal  relations  with  the 
army  which  were  always  congenial  to  her. 
On  29  Jan.  1859  she  opened  Wellington 
College  for  the  sons  of  officers,  an  institution 

of  which  she  had  already  laid  the 

Military  <•          i    ,  •  r^f   a    -r 

ceremonials,    foundation-stone.        On   6  June 
sheonce  more  distributed  Victoria 
crosses.     On  26  Aug.  she  inspected  at  Ports- 
mouth the  32rd  regiment,  whence  the  heroes 


Victoria 


446 


Victoria 


The 
volunteers. 


of  Lucknow  had  been  drawn.  To  meet  sur- 
prises of  invasion  a  volunteer  force  was  called 
into  existence  by  royal  command  in  May 
1859,  and  to  this  new  branch  of  the  service 
the  queen  showed  every  favour.  She  held  a 
special  levee  of  2,500  volunteer  officers  at 
St.  James's  Palace  on  7  March  I860,  and 
she  reviewed  twenty  thousand  men  in  Hyde 
Park  on  23  June.  Her  brother-in-law, 
Duke  Ernest,  who  accompanied  her  on  the 
occasion,  did  not  conceal  his  contempt  for 
the  evolutions  of  her  citizen  soldiers,  but 
she  was  earnest  in  her  commendation  of 
their  zeal.  On  2  July  1860  she  personally 
inaugurated  the  National  Rifle 
Association,  which  was  a  needful 
complement  of  the  volunteer 
movement,  and  in  opening  its  first  annual 
meeting  on  Wimbledon  Common  she  fired 
the  first  shot  at  the  targets  from  a  Whit- 
wort  li  rifle.  She  at  once  instituted  the 
queen's  prize  of  the  value  of  200/.,  which  was 
awarded  annually  till  the  end  of  her  reign. 
When  on  the  way  to  Balmoral  in  August 
1860  she  stayed  at  Holyrood  in  order  to  re- 
view the  Scottish  volunteer  forces. 

Domestic  life  proceeded  agreeably.  Twice 
in  1859  her  daughter,  the  Princess  Royal, 
visited  her,  on  the  second  occasion  with 
her  husband.  During  the  autumn  sojourn  at 
Balmoral  of  that  year  the  queen  was  excep- 
tionally vigorous,  making  many  mountaineer- 
ing expeditions  with  her  children.  The  prince 
consort  presided  over  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  at  Aberdeen  in  Septem- 
ber 1859,  and  afterwards  invited  two  hun- 
dred of  the  members  to  be  the  queen's 
guests  at  a  highland  gathering  on  Deeside. 
On  her  way  south  she  opened  the  Glasgow 
waterworks  at  Loch  Katrine,  and  made  a 
tour  through  the  Trossachs.  She  also  paid 
a  visit  to  Colonel  Douglas  Pennant,  M.P., 
at  Penrhyn  Castle,  near  Bangor,  and  was 
well  received  by  the  workmen  at  the  Penrhyn 
slate  quarries.  During  the  season  of  next 
year,  when  she  opened  parliament  in  person 
(24  Jan.,  1860),  her  guests  included  the  king 
of  the  Belgians  and  the  young  German  princes, 
Louis  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  and  his  brother. 
She  looked  with  silent  favour  on  the  atten- 
tions which  Prince  Louis  paid  her  second 
daughter,  the  Princess  Alice,  who  was  now 
seventeen,  and,  although  she  deprecated  so 
early  a  marriage,  awaited  the  result  with  in- 
terest. At  the  same  time  the  queen  and  prince 
were  organising  a  tour  for  the  prince  of  Wales 
through  Canada  and  the  United  States, 
which  promised  well  for  the  good  relations 
of  England  and  the  United  States.  Presi- 
dent Buchanan,  in  a  letter  to  the  queen, 
invited  the  prince  to  Washington,  an  invi- 


tation which  she  accepted  in  an  autograph 
reply. 

In  the  late  autumn  of  1860  the  royal 
family  paid  a  second  visit  to  Coburg.  A 
main  inducement  was  to  converse  once  more 
with  Stockmar,  who  had  since  18->7  lived 
there  in  retirement  owing  to  age  and  failing 
health.  The  queen  and  the  prince  were  still 
actively  corresponding  with  him,  and  were 
as  dependent  as  ever  on  his  counsel.  On 
22  Sept.,  accompanied  by  Princess  Alice 
and  attended  by  Lord  John  Russell,  they 
embarked  at  Gravesend  for  Antwerp. 
Second  visit  On  the  journey  they  were  dis- 
to  Coburg,  tressed  by  the  intelligence  of  the 
death  of  the  prince  consort's  step- 
mother, with  whom  they  had  both  cherished 
a  sympathetic  intimacy.  While  passing 
through  Germany  they  were  joined  by  mem- 
bers of  the  Prussian  royal  family,  including 
their  son-in-law.  At  Coburg  they  met  their 
daughter  and  her  first-born  son,  with  whom 
his  grandmother  then  made  her  first  acquaint- 
ance. On  29  Sept.  they  removed  to  Rosenau. 
Among  the  guests  there  was  Gustav  Frey- 
tag,  the  German  novelist,  who  interested 
the  queen,  and  described  in  his  reminiscences 
her  '  march-like  gait '  and  aft'able  demeanour 
(GusTAvFRErTAG,J?e?nmz',scewces,Eng.  Trans. 
1890,  vol.  ii.)  On  1  Oct.  the  prince  met 
with  an  alarming  carriage  accident  (cf.  LORD 
AUGUSTUS  LOFTUS,  Reminiscences,  1st  ser.  ii. 
89).  The  queen,  though  she  suppressed  her 
emotion,  was  gravely  perturbed,  and  by  way 
of  thank-offering  instituted  at  Coburg,  after 
her  return  home,  a  Victoria-Stift  (i.  e.  founda- 
tion), endowing  it  with  1,000/.  for  the  assist- 
ance of  young  men  and  women  beginning- 
life.  Happily  the  prince  sustained  slight 
injury,  but  the  nervous  depression  which 
followed  led  his  friend  Stockmar  to  remark 
that  he  would  fall  an  easy  prey  to  illness. 
When  walking  with  his  brother  on  the  day 
of  his  departure  (10  Oct.)  he  completely  broke 
down,  and  sobbed  out  that  he  would  never 
see  his  native  land  again  (DuKE  ERNEST'S 
Memoirs,  iv.  55).  On  the  return  journey  the 
prince  and  princess  of  Prussia  entertained  the 
queen  and  the  prince  at  the  palace  of  Co- 
blenz,  where  slight  illness  detained  the  queen 
for  a  few  days.  Lord  John  Russell  and  Baron 
von  Schleinitz,  the  German  minister,  spent 
Relations  ^ne  time  in  political  discussion, 
witii  partly  in  regard  to  a  trifling  in- 

Prussia.  cident  which  was  at  the  moment 
causing  friction  between  the  two  countries. 
An  English  traveller,  Captain  Macdonald, 
had  been  imprisoned  by  the  mistake  of  an 
over-zealous  policeman  at  Bonn.  No  settle- 
ment was  reached  by  Lord  John.  After- 
wards Palmerston  used  characteristically 


Victoria 


447 


Victoria 


strong  language  in  a  demand  for  repara- 
tion. A  vexatious  dispute  followed  between 
the  two  governments,  and  the  queen  and  the 
prince  were  displeased  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  English  ministers  handled  it. 
The  queen  wisely  avoided  all  open  expression 
of  opinion,  but  shrewdly  observed  that, 
'  although  foreign  governments  were  often 
violent  and  arbitrary,  our  people  are  apt  to 
give  offence  and  to  pay  no  regard  to  the  laws 
of  the  country.'  The  discussion  was  gra- 
dually dropped,  and  when,  on  2  Jan.  1861, 
the  death  of  the  paralysed  Frederick  Wil- 
liam IV  placed  the  queen's  friend,  the  prince- 
regent  of  Prussia,  finally  on  the  throne  of 
Prussia  as  King  William  I,  and  her  son-in- 
law  and  her  daughter  then  became  crown 
prince  and  princess,  the  queen  believed  that 
friendship  between  the  two  countries,  as  be- 
tween the  two  courts,  was  permanently 
assured.  Her  wrath  with  Napoleon,  too,  was 
waning.  A  private  visit  to  AVindsor  and  Os- 
borne  from  the  Empress  Eugenie,  who  had 
come  in  search  of  health,  revived  the  tie  of 
personal  affection  that  bound  her  to  the  queen, 
and  the  new  year  (1861)  saw  the  customary 
interchange  of  letters  between  the  queen  and 
Napoleon  III.  English  and  French  armies 
had  been  engaged  together  in  China.  But 
the  main  burden  of  the  queen's  greeting  to 
the  emperor  was  an  appeal  for  peace. 

A  further  source  of  satisfaction  sprang 
from  the  second  visit  which  Prince  Louis 
of  Hesse  paid  to  Windsor  in  November  1860, 
when  he  formally  betrothed  himself  to  Prin- 
cess Alice  (30  Nov.) 

Christmas  and  New  Year  1860-1  were  kept 
at  Windsor  with  unusual  spirit,  although  the 
Betrothal  of  death  of  Lord  Aberdeen  on  1 4  Dec. 
Princess  was  a  cause  of  grief.  Among  the 
many  guests  were  both  Lord  Pal- 
merston  and  Mr.  Disraeli  with  his  wife. 
The  queen  and  prince  had  much  talk  with 
Disraeli,  of  whose  growing  influence  they 
took  due  account,  and  they  were  gratified 
by  his  assurance  that  his  followers  might  be 
relied  on  to  support  a  national  policy.  On 
more  personal  questions  he  was  equally  com- 
placent. He  readily  agreed  to  support  the 
government  in  granting  a  dowry  of  30,000/. 
and  an  annuity  of  3,0001.  to  Princess  Alice 
on  her  approaching  marriage.  On  4  Feb. 
1861  the  queen  opened  parliament  in  person, 
and  herself  announced  the  happy  event.  It 
was  the  last  occasion  on  which  she  delivered 
with  her  own  voice  the  speech  from  the 
throne.  On  10  Feb.  she  kept  quietly  at 
Buckingham  Palace  the  twenty-first  anni- 
versary of  her  marriage.  '  Very  few,'  she 
wrote  to  her  uncle  Leopold,  'can  say 
with  me  that  their  husband  at  the  end  of 


twenty-one  years  is  not  only  full  of  the 
friendship,  kindness,  and  affection  which  a 
truly  happy  marriage  brings  with  it,  but  of 
the  same  tender  love  as  in  the  very  first  days 
of  our  marriage.'  But  death  was  to  destroy 
the  mainspring  of  her  happiness  within  the 
year. 

The  queen  passed  to  the  crowning  sorrow 
of  her  life  through  a  lesser  grief,  which  on 
its  coming  tried  her  severely.  On  16  March 
Death  of  the  her  mother,  who  kept  her  youth- 
queen's  ful  spirit  and  cheerfulness  to  the 
last,  and  especially  delighted  in 
her  grandchildren,  died  at  Frogmore  after  a 
brief  illness.  It  was  the  queen's  first  experi- 
ence of  death  in  the  inmost  circle  of  her 
family.  Princess  Alice,  who  was  with  her 
at  the  moment,  first  gave  proof  of  that 
capacity  of  consolation  which  she  was 
often  afterwards  to  display  in  her  mother's 
future  trials.  Although  she  was  much  broken, 
the  queen  at  once  sent  the  sad  news  in  her  own 
hand  to  her  half-sister,  to  the  princess  royal, 
and  to  King  Leopold.  Expressions  of  sym- 
pathy abounded,  and  the  general  sentiment 
was  well  interpreted  by  Disraeli,  who  said  in 
his  speech  in  the  House  of  Commons,  in 
seconding  a  vote  of  condolence :  '  She  who 
reigns  over  us  has  elected,  amid  all  the 
splendours  of  empire,  to  establish  her  life  on 
the  principle  of  domestic  love.' 

The  duchess's  body  was  laid  on  25  March 
in  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor.  The  queen 
resolved  that  a  special  mausoleum  should 
be  built  at  Frogmore  for  a  permanent  burial- 
place,  and  the  remains  were  removed  thither 
on  17  Aug.  The  queen's  behaviour  to  all 
who  were  in  any  way  dependent  on  her 
mother  was  exemplary.  She  pensioned  her 
servants ;  she  continued  allowances  that 
!  the  Duchess  of  Kent  had  made  to  the  Prin- 
cess Hohenlohe  and  her  sons  Victor  and 
Edward  Leiningen.  To  the  duchess's  lady- 
in-waiting,  Lady  Augusta  Bruce,  sister  of 
Lord  Elgin,  who  had  shown  great  de- 
votion, the  queen  was  herself  much  attached, 
and  she  at  once  made  her  her  own  bed- 
|  chamber  woman  in  permanent  attendance 
upon  her. 

The  mourning  at  court  put  an  end  for  the 
;  time  to  festivities,  and  some  minor  troubles, 
added  to  the  queen's  depression.  In  May, 
when  Prince  Louis  of  Hesse  visited  Osborne, 
he  fell  ill  of  measles.  On  14  July  the  queen 
was  shocked  by  news  of  the  attempted  assassi- 
nation at  Baden  of  her  friend  the  king  of 
Prussia.  But  she  gradually  resumed  the 
hospitalities  and  activities  of  public  life. 
Before  the  end  of  the  season  she  entertained 
the  king  of  the  Belgians  and  the  crown 
prince  and  princess  of  Prussia,  the  king  and 


Victoria 


448 


Victoria 


Thini  vUit 
to  Ireland, 


Prince  Oscar  of  Sweden,  and  the  ill-fated 
Archduke  and  Archduchess  Maximilian. 

On  21  Aug.  the  queen,  with  the  prince 
consort,  the  Princesses  Alice  and  Helena, 
an(^  Prince  Arthur,  set  out  from 
Osborne  to  pay  Ireland  a  third 
visit.  The  immediate  inducement 
•was  to  see  the  prince  of  Wales,  who  was 
learning  regimental  duties  at  the  Curragh 
camp.  The  royal  party  travelled  by  rail- 
way from  Southampton  to  Holyhead,  and 
crossed  to  Kingstown  in  the  royal  yacht. 
The  queen  took  up  her  residence  in  the 
Viceregal  Lodge  in  Phoenix  Park  on  the 
22nd.  On  Saturday  the  24th  she  went  to 
the  Curragh  to  review  a  force  of  ten  thou- 
sand men,  among  whom  her  eldest  son  held 
a  place.  On  the  26th  the  queen  and  her 
family  went  south,  travelling  to  Killarney 
and  taking:  up  their  residence  at  Kenmare 
House.  They  were  received  by  the  people 
of  the  district  with  every  mark  of  en- 
thusiasm. Next  day  they  explored  the 
lakes  of  Killarney,  and  removed  in  the 
evening  to  Muckross  Abbey,  the  residence 
of  Mr.  Herbert.  Among  the  queen's  guests 
there  was  James  O'Connell,  brother  of 
Daniel  O'Connell  the  agitator,  with  other 
members  of  the  agitator's  family.  A  stag 
hunt,  which  proved  abortive,  was  organised 
for  the  enjoyment  of  the  royal  party.  On 
the  29th  the  queen  left  Killarney  for  Dublin 
and  Holyhead  on  her  way  to  Balmoral. 
Nearly  thirty-nine  years  were  to  pass  before 
the  queen  visited  Ireland  again  for  the 
fourth  and  last  time.  At  Balmoral  she 
occupied  herself  mainly  with  outdoor  pur- 
suits. On  4  Sept.,  to  her  delight,  she  was 
joined  by  her  half-sister,  the  Princess  Lei- 
ningen,  who  came  on  a  long  visit.  Near  the 
end  of  October,  on  the  journey  south,  a 
short  halt  was  made  at  Edinburgh  to  enable 
the  prince  consort  to  lay  the  foundation- 
stones  of  a  new  post  office  and  the  industrial 
museum  of  Scotland  (22  Oct.)  Windsor 
Gastle  was  reached  the  next  morning.  This 
was  the  last  migration  of  the  court  which 
the  prince  consort  was  destined  to  share. 

As  usual,  guests  were  numerous  at  Wind- 
sor in  November,  but  the  deaths  of  Sir 
James  Graham  and  of  Pedro  V  of  Portu- 
gal and  his  brother  Ferdinand  damped  the 
spirits  of  host  and  hostess.  In  the  middle 
of  November  signs  that  the  prince's  health 
was  failing  became  obvious.  A  year  before 
he  had  had  an  attack  of  English  cholera, 
and  he  suffered  habitually  from  low  fever. 
Though  the  queen  was  solicitous,  she,  like 
most  persons  in  robust  health,  was  inclined 
to  take  a  hopeful  view  of  his  condition,  and 
not  until  the  last  did  she  realise  that  a  fatal 


issue  was  impending.     A  serious  political 
crisis  suddenly  arose  to  absorb  her  atten- 
tion, and  for  the   last  time  she. 
Affair  of  the         j  ,  ,       ,         ,, 

Trent.  under     her     husbands     advice, 

brought    personal    influence    to 
bear  on   her  ministers   in  the   interests  of 
the  country's  peace.     In  April  the  civil  war 
in  America  had  broken  out,  and  the  queen 
had   issued   a  proclamation   of  neutrality. 
Public  opinion  in  England  was  divided  on 
the  merits  of  the  two  antagonists,  but  the 
mass  of  the  people  favoured  the  confedera- 
tion of  the  south.     Palmerston,  the  prime 
minister,  Gladstone,  and  many  of  their  col- 
leagues made  no  secret  of  their  faith  in  the 
justice  of  the  cause  of  the  south.  In  Novem- 
ber the  prevailing  sentiment  seemed  on  the 
point  of  translating  itself-  into  actual  war 
with    the   north.      Two   southern   envoys, 
named  respectively  Mason  and  Slidell,  had 
been  despatched  by  the  southern  confede- 
rates to  plead  their  cause  at  the  English 
and  French  courts.    They  had  run  the  fede- 
rals' blockade  of  the  American  coast,  and, 
embarking  on  the  Trent,  an  English  steamer, 
at    Havana,   set    sail    in   her    on  8    Nov. 
Next  day  a  federal  ship-of-war  fired  at  the 
Trent.  The  federal  captain  ( Wilkes)  boarded 
her  after  threatening  violence,  and  captured 
the  confederate   envoys  with  their   secre- 
taries.    On  27  Nov.  the  Trent  arrived  at 
Southampton,  and  the  news  was  divulged 
in  England.    On  30  Nov.  Palmerston  for- 
warded to  the  queen  the  draft  of  a  despatch 
to  be  forwarded  to  Washington.  In  peremp- 
tory and  uncompromising  terms  the  English 
government  demanded  immediate  reparation 
and  redress.     The  strength  of  Palmerston's 
language  seemed  to  place  any  likelihood  of  an 
accommodation  out  of  question.    The  prince 
consort  realised  the  perils  of  the  situation. 
He  did  not  share  the  prime  minister's  vene- 
ration of  the  southerners,  and  war  with  any 
party  in  the  United  States  was  abhorrent  to 
him.     He  at  once  suggested,  in  behalf  of  the 
Prince  Ai-     queen,  gentler  phraseology,  and 
bert's  inter-    in  spite  of  his  rapidly  developing 
vention.         illness  wrote  to  Lord  Palmerston 
for  the  queen  (1  Dec.)  urging  him  to  recast 
the  critical  despatch  so  that  it  might  dis- 
avow the  belief  that  the   assault   on   the 
Trent  was  the  deliberate  act  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States.     Let  the  prime 
minister  assume  that  an  over-zealous  officer 
of  the  federal  fleet  had  made  an  unfortunate 
error  which  could  easily  be  repaired  by  'the 
restoration  of  the   unfortunate   passengers 
and  a  suitable  apology.'     This  note  to  Pal- 
merston 'was  the  last  thing '  the  prince  '  ever 
wrote,'  the  queen  said  afterwards,  and  it  had 
the  effect  its  author  desired.     The  English 


Victoria 


449 


Victoria 


government  had  a  strong  case.  The  emperor 
of  the  French,  the  emperor  of  Austria,  the 
king  of  Prussia,  and  the  emperor  of  Russia 
expressed  themselves  in  full  sympathy  with 
England.  But  Palmerston  and  Russell  wil- 
lingly accepted  the  prince  consort's  cor- 
rection. They  substituted  his  moderation 
for  their  virulence,  with  the  result  that  the 
government  of  Washington  assented  cheer- 
fully to  their  demands.  Both  in  England 
and  America  it  was  acknowledged  that  a 
grave  disaster  was  averted  by  the  prince's  tact. 

But  he  was  never  to  learn  of  his  victory. 
He  already  had  a  presentiment  that  he  was 
Prince  g°ing  *°  die,  and  he  did  not  cling 

Albert's  to  life.  He  had  none  of  the 
queen's  sanguineness  or  elasticity 
of  temperament,  and  of  late  irremovable 
gloom  had  oppressed  him.  During  the  early 
days  of  December  he  gradually  sank,  and 
on  the  14th  he  passed  away  unexpectedly 
in  the  queen's  presence.  Almost  without 
warning  the  romance  of  the  queen's  life  was 
changed  into  a  tragedy. 

At  the  time  of  the  prince's  death,  her 
daughter  Alice  and  her  stepsister  the  Prin- 
cess Hohenlohe  were  with  her  at  Windsor, 
and  all  the  comfort  that  kindred  could  offer 
they  gave  her  in  full  measure.  Four  days 
after  the  tragic  event  she  drove  with  Prin- 
cess Alice  to  the  gardens  at  Frogmore,  and 
chose  a  site  for  a  mausoleum,  where  she 
and  her  husband  might  both  be  buried  to- 

f  ether.  Her  uncle  Leopold  took  control  of 
er  immediate  action,  and  at  his  bidding 
she  reluctantly  removed  to  Osborne  next 
day.  In  the  course  of  the  20th  she  me- 
chanically signed  some  papers  of  state.  At 
midnight  her  brother-in-law,  Duke  Ernest, 
reached  Osborne,  and,  dissolved  in  tears,  she 
at  once  met  him  on  the  staircase.  On 
23  Dec.,  in  all  the  panoply  of  state,  the 
prince's  remains  were  temporarily  laid  to 
rest  in  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor.  The 
prince  of  Wales  represented  her  as  chief 
mourner.  Early  in  January  her  uncle  Leopold 
came  to  Osborne  to  console  and  counsel  her. 
No  heavier  blow  than  the  prince's  removal 
could  have  fallen  on  the  queen.  Rarely 
was  a  wife  more  dependent  on  a 
husband.  More  than  fifteen  years 
before  she  had  written  to  Stock- 
mar  (30  July  1840),  in  reference  to  a  few 
days'  separation  from  the  prince  :  '  Without 
him  everything  loses  its  interest  ...  it 
will  always  be  a  terrible  pang  for  me  to 
separate  from  him  even  for  two  days,  and  I 
pray  God  never  to  let  me  survive  him.' 
Now  that  the  permanent  separation  had 
come,  the  future  spelt  for  her  desolation. 
As  she  wrote  on  a  photograph  of  a  family 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


The  queen's 
position. 


group,  consisting  of  herself,  her  children,  and 
a  bust  of  the  prince  consort, '  day  for  her  was 
turned  into  night'  (L.u>Y  BLOOMFIELD,  ii. 

Her  tragic  fate  appealed  strongly  to  the 
sympathies  of  her  people,  who  mourned  with 
her  through  every  rank.  '  They  cannot  tell 
what  I  have  lost,'  she  said ;  but  she  was  not 
indifferent  to  the  mighty  outburst  of  com- 
passion. Personal  sympathy  with  her  in 
her  bereavement  was  not,  however,  all  that 
she  asked.  She  knew  that  the  exalted  esti- 
mate she  had  formed  of  her  husband  was 
not  shared  by  her  subjects,  and  as  in  his 
lifetime,  so  to  a  greater  degree  after  his 
death,  she  yearned  for  signs  that  he  had 
won  her  countrymen's  and  countrywomen's 
highest  esteem.  '  Will  they  do  him  justice 
now  ? '  she  cried,  as,  in  company  with  her 
friend  the  Duchess  of  Sutherland,  she  looked 
for  the  last  time  on  his  dead  face.  Praise  of 
him  was  her  fullest  consolation,  and  happily 
it  was  not  denied  her.  The  elegiac  eulogy 
with  which  Tennyson  prefaced  his  '  Idylls  of 
the  King,'  within  a  month  of  the  prince's 
death,  was  the  manner  of  salve  that  best 
soothed  'her  aching,  bleeding  heart.'  The 
memorials  and  statues  that  sprang  up  in 
profusion  over  the  land  served  to  illu- 
mine the  gloom  that  encircled  her,  and 
in  course  of  years  she  found  in  the  task  of 
supervising  the  compilation  of  his  biography 
a  potent  mitigation  of  grief.  Public  opinion 
proved  tractable,  and  ultimately  she  enjoyed 
the  satisfaction  of  an  almost  universal  ac- 
knowledgment that  the  prince  had  worked 
zealously  and  honestly  for  the  good  of  his 
adopted  country. 

But,  despite  the  poignancy  of  her  sorrow, 
and  the  sense  of  isolation  which  thenceforth 
abode  with  her,  her  nerve  was  never  wholly 
shattered.  Naturally  and  freely  as  she  gave 
vent  to  her  grief,  her  woe  did  not  degenerate 
into  morbid  wailing.  One  of  its  most  perma- 
nent results  was  to  sharpen  her  sense  of  sym- 
pathy, which  had  always  been  keen,  with 
the  distresses  of  others,  especially  with  dis- 
tresses resembling  her  own ;  no  widow  in  the 
land,  in  whatever  rank  of  life,  had  hence- 
forth a  more  tender  sympathiser  than  the 
queen.  As  early  as  10  Jan.  1862  she  sent  a 
touching  message  of  sympathy  with  a  gift 
of  2001.  to  the  relatives  of  the  victims  of 
a  great  colliery  explosion  in  Northumber- 
land. In  the  days  following  the  prince's 
death,  the  Princess  Alice  and  Sir  Charles 
Phipps,  keeper  of  her  privy  purse,  acted  as 
intermediaries  between  her  and  her  ministers, 
but  before  the  end  of  the  first  month  her 
ministers  reminded  her  that  she  was  bound 
to  communicate  with  them  directly.  Pal- 

6  G 


Victoria 


45° 


Victoria 


merston  at  the  moment  was  disabled  by 
gout,  and  the  cabinet  was  under  the  some- 
what severe  and  pedantic  control  of  Lord 
John  Russell.  The  reproof  awoke  the  queen 
to  a  sense  of  her  position.  Gradually  she 
controlled  her  anguish,  and  resigned  herself 
to  her  fate.  She  had  lost  half  her  existence. 
Nothing  hereafter  could  be  to  her  what  it 
had  once  been.  No  child  could  fill  the 
place  that  was  vacant.  But  she  did  not  seek 
to  ease  herself  of  her  burden.  She  steeled 
herself  to  bear  it  alone.  Hitherto  the  prince, 
she  said,  had  thought  for  her.  Now  she 
would  think  for  herself.  His  example  was 
to  be  her  guide.  The  minute  care  that  he 

had  bestowed  with  her  on  affairs 
toThe'state.6  °f  state  she  would  bestow.  Her 

decisions  would  be  those  that  she 
believed  he  would  have  taken.  She  would 
seek  every  advantage  that  she  could  derive 
from  the  memory  of  his  counsel.  Nothing 
that  reminded  her  of  him  was  disturbed — 
no  room  that  he  inhabited,  scarcely  a  paper 
that  he  had  handled.  The  anniversary  of 
his  death  was  henceforth  kept  as  a  solemn 
day  of  rest  and  prayer,  and  the  days  of  his 
birth,  betrothal,  and  marriage  were  held  in 
religious  veneration.  She  never  ceased  to 
wear  mourning  for  him ;  she  long  lived  in 
seclusion,  and  took  no  part  in  court  festivi- 
ties or  ceremonial  pageantry.  Now  that  the 
grave  had  closed  over  her  sole  companion 
and  oracle  of  one-and-twenty  years,  she 
felt  that  a  new  reign  had  begun,  and  must 
in  outward  aspect  be  distinguished  from  the 
reign  that  had  closed.  But  the  lessons  that 
the  prince  had  taught  her  left  so  deep  an 
impression  on  her,  she  clung  so  tenaciously 
to  his  spirit,  that  her  attitude  to  the  busi- 
ness of  state  and  her  action  in  it  during 
the  forty  years  that  followed  his  death  bore 
little  outward  sign  of  change  from  the  days 
when  he  was  perpetually  at  her  side. 


In  the  '  two  dreadful  first  years  of  loneli- 
ness' that  followed  the  prince's  death  the 
queen  lived  in  complete  seclusion. 

Her  personal    "}•    •  f.         •>       i  -i/.  •  , 

dining  often  by  herself  or  with 
her  half-sister,  and  seeing  only  for 
any  length  of  time  members  of 
her  own  family.  But  her  widowhood  ren- 
dered her  more  dependent  than  before  on  her 
personal  attendants,  and  her  intimacy  with 
them  gradually  grew  greater.  Of  the  female 
members  of  her  household  on  whose  support 
she  rested,  ,the  chief  was  Lady  Augusta 
Bruce,  and  on  her  marriage  to  Dean  Stanley 
on  23  Dec.  1863,  congenial  successors  to 
Lady  Augusta  were  found  in  Jane  Mar- 


atteudants 
in  her 
widowhood. 


chioness  of  Ely,  who  had  been  a  lady  of  the 
bedchamber  since  1857  and  filled  that  office 
till  30  April  1889,  and  in  Jane  Lady 
Churchill,  who  was  a  lady  of  the  bed- 
chamber from  4  July  1854  and  remained  in 
attendance  on  the  queen  till  her  sudden 
death  on  Christmas  day  1900 — less  than  a 
month  before  the  queen  herself  died.  Even 
from  the  lower  ranks  of  her  household  she 
welcomed  sympathy  and  proofs  of  personal 
attachment.  She  found  Scotsmen  and  Scots- 
women of  all  classes,  but  especially  of  the 
humbler,  readier  in  the  expression  of  kindly 
feeling  than  Englishmen  and  Englishwomen. 
When  she  paid,  in  May  1862,  the  first  pain- 
ful visit  of  her  widowhood  to  Balmoral,  her 
reception  was  a  real  solace  to  her.  Her 
Scottish  chaplain,  Dr.  Norman  Macleod,  gave 
her  more  real  consolation  than  any  clergyman 
of  the  south.  She  found  a  satisfaction  in 
employing  Scots  men  and  women  in  her 
domestic  service.  John  Brown,  a  son  of  a 
farmer  on  her  highland  estate,  had  been  an 
outdoor  servant  at  Balmoral  since  1849,  and 
had  won  the  regard  of  the  prince  and  herself. 
She  soon  made  him  a  personal  retainer, 
to  be  in  constant  attendance  upon  her  in 
all  the  migrations  of  the  court.  He  was  of 
rugged  exterior  and  uncourtly  manners,  but 
she  believed  in  his  devotion  to  her  and  in  his 
strong  common  sense,  and  she  willingly  par- 
doned in  him  the  familiarity  of  speech  and 
manner  which  old  servants  are  in  the  habit 
of  acquiring.  She  took  all  his  brothers  into 
her  service,  and  came  to  regard  him  as  one  of 
her  trustiest  friends.  In  official  business  she 
derived  invaluable  assistance  in  the  early  years 
of  her  widowhood  from  those  who  were  filling 
more  dignified  positions  in  her  household. 
The  old  objections  to  the  appointment  of  a 
private  secretary  to  the  queen,  now  that  the 
prince  who  had  acted  in  that  capacity  was 
no  more,  were  not  revived,  and  it  was  at 
once  conferred  without  debate  on  General 
the  Hon.  Charles  Grey,  a  younger  son  of 
the  second  Earl  Grey,  who  had  been  since 
1846  private  secretary  to  the  prince,  and 
whose  sister,  Lady  Caroline  Barrington, 
was  since  1851  the  governess  of  the  royal 
children.  Some  differences  of  opinion  were 
held  outside  court  circles  as  to  his  tact  and 
judgment,  but  until  his  death  in  1870  his 
devotion  to  his  work  relieved  the  queen  of 
much  pressing  anxiety.  She  also  reposed  full 
confidence  in  Sir  Charles  Phipps,  keeper  of 
the  privy  purse,  who  died  in  1866,  and  in  Sir 
Thomas  Biddulph,  who  was  master  of  her 
household  from  1851,  and  after  1867  sole 
keeper  of  the  privy  purse  until  his  death  in 
1878.  No  three  men  could  have  served  her 
more  single-mindedly  than  Grey,  Phipps, 


Victoria 


451 


Victoria 


and  Biddulph.  She  was  especially  fortu- 
nate, too,  in  General  Sir  Henry  Ponsonby, 
Grey's  successor  as  private  secretary,  who, 
as  equerry  to  the  prince  consort,  had  been 
brought  within  the  sphere  of  influence  which 
the  queen  deemed  the  best  inspiration  for  her 
advisers.  Sir  Henry  remained  her  secretary 
for  the  long  period  of  a  quarter  of  a  century 
— 8  April  1870  to  May  1895,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  her  last  private  secretary, 
Colonel  Sir  Arthur  Bigge.  Outside  her 
household  she  derived  much  benefit  from 
the  counsel  of  Gerald  Wellesley,  son  of  Lord 
Cowley,  and  nephew  of  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington, who  had  been  her  domestic  chaplain 
since  1849,  and  was  dean  of  Windsor  from 
1854  until  his  death  in  1882.  She  was  often 
in  consultation  with  him,  particularly  in 
regard  to  the  church  appointments  which 
her  ministers  suggested  to  her.  In  one  direc- 
tion only  did  the  queen  relieve  herself  of  any 
of  her  official  work  on  the  prince's  death. 
It  had  been  her  custom  to  sign  (in  three 
places)  everv  commission  issued 

Her  signa-  a*'  •         n  i_  e  ii_ 

tare  to  to  officers  in  all  branches  of  the 
officers'  military  service,  but  she  had 
ons-  fallen  into  arrears  with  the  labour 
of  late  years,  and  sixteen  thousand  docu- 
ments now  awaited  her  signature.  In  March 
1862  a  bill  was  introduced  into  parliament 
enabling  commissions  to  be  issued  without 
bearing  her  autograph,  though  her  right  of 
signing  was  reserved  in  case  she  wished  to 
resume  the  practice,  as  she  subsequently  did. 
Public  business,  in  accordance  with  her 
resolve,  occupied  her  almost  as  soon  as  her 
husband  was  buried.  On  9  Jan.  1862 
she  received  the  welcome  news  that  the 
authorities  at  AVashington  had  solved  the 
difficulty  of  the  Trent  by  acceding  to  the 
requests  of  the  English  government.  She 
reminded  Lord  Palmerston  that '  this  peace- 
ful issue  of  the  American  quarrel  was 
greatly  owing  to  her  beloved  prince,'  and 
Palmerston  considerately  replied  that  the 
alterations  in  the  despatch  were  only  one  of 
innumerable  instances  '  of  the  tact  and 
judgment  and  the  power  of  nice  discrimi- 
nation which  excited  Lord  Palmerston's 
constant  and  unbounded  admiration.'  A 
day  or  two  later  she  assented  to  Palmerston's 
proposal  to  confer  the  garter  on  Lord  Russell, 
though  she  would  not  hear  of  a  chapter  of 
the  order  being  held,  and  insisted  on  con- 
ferring the  distinction  by  warrant.  On 
11  Jan.  she  presided  over  a  meeting  of  her 
privy  council. 

Two  plans  of   domestic   interest  which 
the  prince  had  initiated  she  at  once  carried 
to  completion.     It  had  been  arranged  that 
it   the  prince  of  Wales  should  make  a  tour  to 


thai 

131.LI  ULIl.ll 

prince  of 
Wales. 


the  Holy  Land  with  Dr.  A.  P.  Staril, 
late  prince's  chaplain.  In  January  IntfJ  the 
queen  finally  settled  the  tour  with  Stanley, 
who  visited  her  at  Osborne  for  the  purpose, 
and  from  6  Feb.  till  14  June  her  eldest  ton 
was  absent  from  her  on  the  expedition. 
There  was  some  inevitable  delay  in  the 
solemnisation  of  the  marriage  of  Prince** 
Princess  Alice,  but  it  was  quietly  cele- 
Aiice's  mar-  brated  at  Osborne  on  1  Julv. 
riage-  The  queen  was  present  in  deep 

mourning.  Her  brother-in-law,  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Cobtirg,  gave  the  princess  away. 
The  queen  felt  acutely  the  separation  from 
the  daughter  who  had  chiefly  stood  by  her 
in  her  recent  trial. 

During  the  autumn  visit  to  Balmoral 
(21  Aug.  1862)  the  queen  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  a  cairn  '  to  the  beloved  memory 
of  Albert  the  Great  and  Good,  Prince  Con- 
sort, raised  by  his  broken-hearted  widow.' 
She  and  the  six  children  who  were  with  her 
placed  on  it  stones  on  which  their  initials 
were  to  be  carved.  Next  month  (September 
1862)  negotiations  were  in  progress  for  the 
betrothal  of  the  prince  of  Wales. 

•»••*••  *         •  1          1      *•     11  T*    • 

His  choice  had  fallen  on  Princes* 
Alexandra,  daughter  of  Prince 
Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Sonder- 
burg-Glucksburg,  the  next  heir  to  the  throne 
of  Denmark,  to  which  he  ascended  shortly 
afterwards  on  15  Nov.  1863.  Her  mother, 
Princess  Louise  of  Hesse-Cassel,  was  niece 
of  Christian  VIII  of  Denmark,  and  aole 
heiress  of  the  old  Danish  royal  family. 
Princess  Alexandra  was  already  a  distant 
connection  of  the  queen  by  marriage,  for  the 
queen's  aunt,  the  old  Duchess  of  Cambridge, 
a  member  of  the  princely  house  of  Hes§e- 
Cassel,  was  also  aunt  of  the  princess's 
father.  The  queen  readily  assented  to  the 
match,  and  the  princess  was  her  guest  at 
Osborne  in  November.  Her  grace  and 
beauty  fascinated  the  queen  and  the  people 
of  England  from  the  first,  and  although 
the  princess's  connection  with  Denmark  di 
not  recommend  the  alliance  to  the  Prussian 
government,  which  anticipated  complica- 
tions with  its  little  northern  neighbour,  tti 
betrothal  had  little  political  significance  o 
influence.  .- 

More   perplexing  was  the  consid 
which  it  was  needful  to  devote  in  D 
1862  to  a  question   aflecting  the  future  o 
her  second    son,  Alfred,  wlo,  under   th,« 
prince    consort's    careful    superv 

been  educated  for  the  niu 
The  throne     poplQar  assembly  of  the  kingdom 
*ce'      of  Greece  had  driven  their  kin?, 
Otho,  from    the    throne,  MjjW** 
confer  the  vacant  crown  on  Prince  Airreo. 

i,  i.  •_ 


Victoria 


452 


Victoria 


The  queen  regarded  the  proposal  with  un- 
concealed favour,  but  her  ministers  declared 
its  acceptance  to  be  impracticable  and  to  be 
contrary  to  the  country's  treaty  obligations 
with  the  powers.  Unhappily  for  the  queen's 
peace  of  mind,  the  ministers'  rejection  of  the 
invitation  to  her  second  son,  in  which  she 
soon  acquiesced,  did  not  relieve  her  of  further 
debate  on  the  subject.  A  substitute  for 
Alfred  as  a  candidate  for  the  Greek  throne 
was  suggested  in  the  person  of  her  brother- 
in-law,  Duke  Ernest  of  Saxe-Coburg.  He  at 
at  once  came  to  England  to  take  the  queen's 
advice,  and  his  conduct  greatly  harassed  her. 
His  attitude  to  the  question  threatened  a 
breach  between  them.  The  duke  had  no 
children,  and  his  throne  of  Saxe-Coburg  would 
naturally  devolve,  should  he  die  childless,  on 
his  only  brother's  eldest  son,  the  prince  of 
Wales ;  but  it  had  already  been  agreed  that, 
in  view  of  the  prince  of  Wales  s  heirship 
to  the  English  throne,  he  should  transfer  to 
his  next  brother  Alfred  his  claim  to  the 
German  duchy.  Duke  Ernest  was  quite 
willing  to  ascend  the  Greek  throne,  but 
made  it  a  condition  that  he  should  not 
immediately  on  his  accession  sever  his  con- 
nection with  Coburg.  This  condition  was 
treated  as  impossible  of  acceptance,  alike  by 
English  ministers  and  by  Greek  leaders. 
For  the  duke  to  abandon  Coburg  meant  its 
immediate  assignment  to  Prince  Alfred. 
Of  this  result  the  queen,  who  was  deeply 
attached  to  the  principality  and  was  always 
solicitous  of  the  future  fortunes  of  her 
younger  children,  by  no  means  disapproved. 
But  it  was  congenial  neither  to  Duke  Ernest 
nor  to  their  uncle  Leopold,  and  the  duke 
thought  his  sister-in-law's  action  ambiguous 
and  insufficiently  considerate  towards  his 
own  interests.  She  endeavoured  to  soothe 
him,  while  resenting  his  pertinacious  criti- 
cism, and  on  29  Jan.  1863  she  wrote  to  him : 
'  What  I  can  do  to  remove  difficulties,  with- 
out prejudicing  the  rights  of  our  children 
and  the  welfare  of  the  beloved  little  country, 
you  may  rely  upon.  You  are  sure  of  my 
sisterly  love,  as  well  as  my  immense  love 
for  Coburg  and  the  whole  country.  ...  I 
am  not  at  all  well,  and  this  whole  Greek 
matter  has  affected  me  fearfully.  Much 
too  much  rests  upon  me,  poor  woman,  stand- 
ing alone  as  I  do  with  so  many  children, 
and  every  day,  every  hour,  I  feel  more  and 
more  the  horrible  void  that  is  ever  growing 
greater  and  more  fearful'  (DtiKE  ERNEST, 
iv.  99-100).  Finally  the  duke's  candidature 
for  the  Greek  throne  was  withdrawn,  and 
the  crown  was  placed  by  England,  in  con- 
cert with  the  powers,  on  the  head  of  George, 
brother  of  the  Princess  Alexandra,  who  was 


the  affianced  bride  of  the  prince  of  Wales. 
The  settlement  freed  the  queen  from  the 
worry  of  family  bickerings. 

Through  all  the  ranks  of  the  nation  the 
marriage  of  the  queen's  eldest  son,  the  heir 
to  the  throne,  evoked  abundant  enthusi- 
asm. There  was  an  anticipation  that  the 
queen  would  make  it  the  occasion  of  ending 
the  period  of  gloomy  seclusion  in  which  she 
had  chosen  to  encircle  the  court.  At  her 
request  parliament  readily  granted  an  an- 
nuity of  40,000^.  for  the  prince,  which,  added 
to  the  revenues  of  the  duchy  of  Cornwall, 
brought  his  income  to  over  100,000/.  a  year, 
while  his  bride  was  awarded  an  immediate 
annuity  of  10,000/.  and  a  prospective  one  of 
30,000/.  in  case  of  widowhood.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  marriage  treaty,  which  was 
signed  at  Copenhagen  on  lo  Jan.  1863,  the 
marriage  took  place  on  5  March  1863  at 
St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor.  The  queen 
played  no  part  in  the  ceremony,  but  wit- 
nessed it  from  a  gallery  overlooking  the 
Marriage  of  cnance^  The  sadness  of  her 
the  prince  of  situation  impressed  so  unsenti- 
Waies,  mental  a  spectator  as  Lord  Pal- 

5  March  1863.  r  i         i     j    . 

merston,  who  shed  tears  as  he 
gazed  on  her.  After  the  prince's  marriage 
the  court  resumed  some  of  its  old  routine ; 
state  balls  and  concerts  were  revived  to  a 
small  extent,  but  the  queen  disappointed 
expectation  by  refusing  to  attend  court  en- 
tertainments herself.  She  entrusted  her 
place  in  them  to  her  eldest  son  and  his  bride, 
and  to  others  of  her  children. 

But  while  ignoring  the  pleasures  of  the 
court,  she  did  not  relax  her  devotion  to  the 
business  of  state.  Her  main  energy  was 
applied  to  foreign  politics.  While  anxious 
that  the  prestige  of  England  should  be 
maintained  abroad,  she  was  desirous  to  keep 
the  peace,  and  to  impress  other  sovereigns 
with  her  pacific  example.  Her  dislike  of 
war  in  Europe  now  mainly  sprang  from 
family  considerations — from  her  concern  for 
the  interests  of  her  married  daughters  at 
Berlin  and  Darmstadt,  and  in  a  smaller 
degree  for  those  of  her  brother-in-law  at 
Coburg.  The  fortunes  of  all,  and  especially 
those  of  the  crown  princess  of  Prussia, 
seemed  to  her  to  be  involved  in  every  menace 
of  the  tranquillity  of  Europe.  Into  the  pre- 
cise merits  of  the  difficulties  which  arose 
among  the  nations  she  did  not  enter  with 
quite  the  same  fulness  as  her  husband.  But 
the  safety  of  existing  dynasties  was  a  prin- 
ciple that  had  appealed  to  him,  and  by  that 
she  stood  firm.  Consequently  the  points  of 
view  from  which  she  and  her  ministers, 
Lord  Palmerston  and  Lord  John  Russell, 
approached  the  foreign  questions  that  en- 


Victoria 


453 


Victoria 


grossed  the  attention  of  Europe  from  1863 
to  1866  rarely  coincided.  But  she  pressed 
counsel  on  them  with  all  her  old  pertinacity, 
and  constantly  had  to  acquiesce  unwillingly 
.  in  its  rejection  in  detail.  Never- 

Her  views  or     ,     ,  i       <•  I/.-M    i  i 

foreign          tneless  she  mlmled  her  main  pur- 
»Hcy  in        pose  of  keeping  her  country  free 

from  such  European  complica- 
tions as  were  likely  to  issue  in  war.  And 
though  she  was  unable  to  give  effective 
political  aid  to  her  German  relatives,  she  was 
often  successful  in  checking  the  activity  of 
her  ministers'  or  her  people's  sympathies  with 
their  enemies. 

The  different  mental  attitudes  in  which 
the  queen  and  her  ministers  stood  to  current 
foreign  events  is  well  illustrated  by  the  diver- 
gent sentiments  which  the  Polish  insurrection 
excited  in  them  in  1863.  Palmerston  and 
his  colleague  Lord  John  sympathised  with 
the  efforts  of  Poland  to  release  itself  from 
the  grip  of  Russia,  and  their  abhorrence  of 
the  persecution  of  a  small  race  by  a  great 
reflected  popular  English  feeling.  France, 
affecting  horror  at  Russia's  cruelty,  invited 
English  co-operation  in  opposing  her.  Prus- 
sia, on  the  other  hand,  where  Bismarck  now 
ruled,  declared  that  the  Poles  were  meeting 
their  deserts.  The  queen  sternly  warned 
her  government  against  any  manner  of  in- 
terference. Her  view  of  the  situation  alto- 
§  ether  ignored  the  grievances  of  the  Poles, 
he  privately  identified  herself  with  their 
oppressors.  The  Grand  Duke  Constantine, 

who  was  governor-general  of 
Suirection.  Poland  when  the  insurrection 

broke  out,  had  been  her  guest. 
His  life  was  menaced  by  the  Polish  rebels, 
wherefore  his  modes  of  tyranny,  however 
repugnant,  became  in  her  sight  inevitable 
weapons  of  self-defence.  The  question  had 
driven  France  and  Prussia  into  opposite 
camps.  Maternal  duty  called  her  to  the 
side  of  Prussia,  her  eldest  daughter's  adopted 
country  and  future  dominion. 

Early  in  the  autumn  of  1863  the  queen 
visited  Germany  and  examined  the  foreign 
situation  for  herself  at  close  quarters.  The 
main  object  of  her  tour  was  to  revive  her 
memories  of  the  scenes  of  her  late  husband's 
youth.  After  staying  a  night  at  the  summer 
palace  of  Laeken  with  her  uncle  Leopold, 
she  proceeded  to  Rosenau,  Prince  Albert's 

birthplace,  and  thence  passed  on 
CoburJ  to  Coburg.  The  recent  death  of 

her  husband's  constant  counsellor, 
Stockmar,  at  Coburg,  intensified  the  depres- 
sion in  which  public  and  private  anxieties 
involved  her,  but  she  took  pleasure  in  the 
society  of  the  crown  prince  and  princess,  who 
joined  her  at  Rosenau.  Their  political  pro- 


spects, however,  filled  her  with  fresh  alarms. 
Ine  sovereigns  of  Germany  were  meeting  at 
Frankfort  to  consider  a  reform  of  the  con- 
federation of  the  German  states.  ForrflMOM 
that  were  to  appear  later,  Prussia  declined 
to  join  the  meeting,  and  Austria  assumed 
the  leading  place  in  the  conference.  It 
looked  probable  that  an  empire  of  Germany 
would  come  into  being  under  the  headship 
of  the  emperor  of  Austria,  that  Prussia  would 
be  excluded  from  it,  and  would  be  ruined  in 
its  helpless  isolation.  The  jealousy  with 
which  not  only  Austria,  but  the  smaller 
German  states,  regarded  Prussia  seemed  to 
the  queen  to  render  imminent  its  decay  and 
fall.  Domestic  instincts  spurred  her  to  exert 
all  her  personal  influence  in  Germany  to 
set  the  future  of  Prussia  and  her  daughter's 
fortunes  on  a  securer  basis.  Her  brother- 
in-law,  Duke  Ernest,  was  attending  the 
German  diet  of  sovereigns  at  Frankfort. 
From  Rosenau  she  addressed  to  him  con- 
stant appeals  to  protect  Prussia  from  the 
disasters  with  which  the  Frankfort  meeting 
threatened  it.  On  29  Aug.,  after  drawing 
a  dismal  picture  of  Prussia's  rapid  decline, 
she  wrote :  '  All  the  more  would  I  beg  you, 

as  much  as  lies  in  your  power,  to 
ofepraSl!r  prevent  a  weakening  of  Prussia, 

which  not  only  my  own  feeling 
resists — on  account  of  the  future  of  our 
children — but  which  would  surely  also  be 
contrary  to  the  interest  of  Germany;  and  I 
know  that  our  dear  angel  Albert  alwavs 
regarded  a  strong  Prussia  as  a  necessity,  for 
which  therefore  it  is  a  sacred  duty  for  me 
to  work.'  Two  days  later,  on  31  Aug.,  the 
king  of  Prussia,  at  her  request,  paid  her  a 
visit.  Bismarck,  who  had  a  year  before 
assumed  control  of  the  policy  of  Prussia  and 
understood  the  situation  better  than  the 
queen,  was  in  his  master's  retinue,  but  he 
was  not  present  at  the  interview.  The  king's 
kindly  tone  did  not  reassure  the  queen.  She 
thought  he  failed  to  realise  his  country's  and 
his  family's  danger.  But  his  apparent  pusilla- 
nimity did  not  daunt  her  energies.  A  per- 
sonal explanation  with  the  ruler,  from  whom 
Prussia  had,  in  her  view,  everything  to 
fear,  became  essential.  Early  in  SepU-tn- 
ber  Francis  Joseph,  the  emperor  of  Austria, 
was  returning  to  Vienna  from  the  diet  at 
Frankfort.  She  invited  him  to  visit  I»T 
on  the  way  at  the  castle  of  Coburg.  On 
3  Sept.  he  arrived  there.  It  was  h.-r 

first  meeting  with  him.  Sin- 
Stthtbir  had  b*611  interested  in  him  since 
emperor  of  his  accession  to  the  throne  in 
Austria.  the  eventful  year  1848.  Ten 
years  later,  in  August  1858,  he  had  sent 
to  her  when  at  Babelsberg  a  letter  re- 


Victoria 


454 


Victoria 


gretting  his  inability  to  make  her  personal 
acquaintance  while  she  was  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  his  dominions ;  and  when  his 
son  and  heir  was  born  a  day  or  two  later, 
on  22  Aug.  1858,  she  at  once  wrote  a  cordial 
note  of  congratulation.  Now  his  interview 
with  her  lasted  three  hours.  Only  Duke 
Ernest  was  present  with  them.  The  queen 
prudently  deprecated  the  notion  that  she 
desired  to  enter  in  detail  into  political  ques- 
tions, but  her  maternal  anxiety  for  her  chil- 
dren at  Berlin  impelled  her  (she  said)  to 
leave  no  stone  unturned  to  stave  off  the 
dangers  that  threatened  Prussia.  She  knew 
how  greatly  Prussia  would  benefit  if  she 
won  a  sympathetic  hearing  from  the  em- 
peror. He  heard  her  respectfully,  but  com- 
mitted himself  to  nothing,  and  the  interview 
left  the  situation  unchanged  (DUKE  ERNEST, 
Memoirs,  iv.  134).  But  the  interest  of  the 
episode  cannot  be  measured  by  its  material 
result.  It  is  a  signal  proof  of  the  queen's 
courageous  will  and  passionate  devotion  to 
her  family. 

Soon  after  parting  with  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph,  the  queen  set  her  face  homewards, 
only  pausing  at  Darmstadt  to  see  her  daugh- 
ter Alice  in  her  own  home.  Arrived  in 
England,  she  paid  her  customary  autumn 
visit  to  Balmoral,  and  spent  some  days  in 
September  with  her  friends  the  Duke  and 
Duchess  of  Athol  at  Blair  Athol.  After- 
wards she  temporarily  issued  from  her 
seclusion  in  order  to  unveil  publicly  at 
Aberdeen,  on  13  Oct.  1863,  a  bronze  statue 
of  the  prince  consort,  which  Marochetti  had 
designed  at  the  expense  of  the 

Prince  con-        •.    '          •, 

sort's  statue  city  and  county.  In  reply  to 
unveiled  at  the  address  from  the  subscribers 
[een-  the  queen  declared  through  Sir 
George  Grey,  the  home  secretary,  that  she 
had  come  '  to  proclaim  in  public  the  un- 
bounded reverence  and  admiration,  the  de- 
voted love  that  fills  my  heart  for  him  whose 
loss  must  throw  a  lasting  gloom  over  all  my 
future  life.'  The  occasion  was  one  of  severe 
and  painful  trial  to  her ;  but  it  proved  the 
first  of  numerous  occasions  on  which  she 
presided  over  a  like  ceremony.  She  wel- 
comed the  multiplication  of  statues  of  the 
late  prince  with  such  warmth  that  by  de- 
grees, as  Gladstone  said,  they  'covered  the 
land.' 

Before  the  end  of  the  year  (1863)  there 
broke  out  the  struggle  in  central  Europe 
which  the  conflicting  claims  of 
Germany  and  Denmark  to  the 
duchies  of  Schleswig  -  Holstein 
had  long  threatened.  English 
ministers  and  the  queen  had  always  kept  the 
question  well  in  view.  In  1852  a  conference 


The 

Scnleswig- 
Holsteiii 
question. 


in  London  of  representatives  of  the  various 
parties  had  arranged,  under  the  English  go- 
vernment's guidance,  a  compromise,  whereby 
the  relation  of  the  duchies  to  Germany  and 
Denmark  was  so  defined  as  to  preserve  peace 
for  eleven  years.  The  Danes  held  them 
under  German  supervision.  But  in  the 
course  of  1863  Frederick  VII  of  Denmark 
asserted  new  claims  on  the  disputed  territory. 
Although  he  died  just  before  he  gave  eft'ect 
to  his  intentions,  his  successor,  the  princess- 
of  Wales's  father,  Christian  IX,  at  once  fully 
accepted  his  policy.  Opinion  in  Germany, 
while  at  one  in  its  hostility  to  Denmark 
and  in  its  deliberate  resolve  henceforth  to 
exclude  her  from  the  duchies,  ran  in  two 
sharply  divided  currents  in  regard  to  their 
future  status  and  their  relation  to  Germany. 
In  1852  Denmark  had  bought  off  a  German 
claimant  to  the  duchies  in  the  person  of  Duke 
Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- 
Augustenburg,  but  his  son  Duke  Frederick 
declined  to  be  bound  by  the  bargain,  and 
had,  in  1863,  reasserted  an  alleged  hereditary 
right  to  the  territory,  with  the  enthusiastic 
concurrence  of  the  smaller  German  states 
and  of  a  liberal  minority  in  Prussia.  Two 
of  Duke  Frederick's  adherents,  the  kings  of 
Saxony  and  Hanover,  actually  sent  troops  to 
drive  the  Danes  from  Kiel,  the  chief  city  of 
Holstein,  in  December  1863,  and  to  put  him 
in  possession.  The  government  of  Prussia, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  indifferent  to  Duke 
Frederick's  pretensions,  and  anticipating  em- 
barrassment from  co-operation  with  the  small 
German  states,  it  took  the  matter  entirely 
out  of  their  hands.  The  king  of  Prussia  in- 
duced the  emperor  of  Austria  to  join  him 
exclusively  in  expelling  the  Danes  from  the 
two  duchies,  and  it  was  agreed  that  the  two 
powers,  having  overcome  the  Danes,  should 
hold  the  territories  jointly  until  some  final 
arrangement  was  reached.  There  were  thus 
three  parties  to  the  dispute — the  king  of 
Denmark,  Duke  Frederick  of  Augustenburg 
with  his  German  champions,  and  the  rulers 
of  Prussia  and  Austria. 

Two  of  the  three  litigants,  the  king  of 
Denmark  and  Duke  Frederick,  each  cla- 
The  queen's  moured  f°r  the  queen's  support 
divided  and  the  intervention  of  English 
interests.  arms.  The  queen,  who  narrowly 
watched  the  progress  of  events  and  sur- 
prised ministers  at  home  and  envoys  from 
abroad  with  the  minuteness  and  accuracy  of 
her  knowledge,  was  gravely  disturbed.  Her 
sympathies  were  naturally  German  and  anti- 
Danish  ;  but  between  the  two  sections  of 
German  opinion  she  somewhat  hesitated. 
Duke  Frederick  was  the  husband  of  the- 
daughter  of  her  half-sister  Feodore,  and  she 


Victoria 


455 


Victoria 


had  entertained  him  at  Windsor.  The  crown 
prince  of  Prussia  was  his  close  friend,  and 
Her  sym.  his  cause  was  also  espoused  by 
pathy  with  the  queen's  daughter  Alice  and 
Germany.  ter  husband,  Prince  Louis  of 
Hesse,  as  well  as  by  her  brother-in-law, 
Duke  Ernest  of  Saxe-Coburg.  But  while 
regarding  with  benevolence  the  pretensions  of 
Duke  Frederick  of  Augustenburg,  and  pitying 
the  misfortunes  of  his  family,  she  could  not 
repress  the  thought  that  the  policy  of  Prussia, 
although  antagonistic  to  his  interests,  was 
calculated  to  increase  the  strength  and  pres- 
tige of  that  kingdom,  the  promotion  of  which 
was  for  her  '  a  sacred  duty.' 

There  were  other  grounds  which  impelled 
her  to  restrain  her  impulse  to  identity  herselt 
completely  with  any  one  party  to  the  strife. 
Radical  divergences  of  opinion  were  alive 
in  her  own  domestic  circle.  The  princess  ot 
Wales,  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Denmark, 
naturally  felt  acutely  her  father's  position, 
and  when,  in  December  1863,  she  and  her 
husband  were  fellow-guests  at  Windsor  with 
the  crown  prince  and  princess  of  Prussia, 
the  queen  treated  Schleswig-Holstein  as  a 
forbidden  subject  at  her  table.  To  her  mini- 
sters and  to  the  mass  of  her  subjects,  more- 
over, the  cause  of  Denmark  made  a  strong 
appeal.  The  threats  of  Prussia  and  Austria 
to  attack  a  small  power  like  Denmark 
seemed  to  them  another  instance  of  brutal 
oppression  of  the  weak  by  the  strong.  Duke 
Frederick's  position  was  deemed  futile.  The 
popularity  of  the  princess  of  Wales,  the 
king  of  Denmark's  daughter,  tended  to 
strengthen  the  prevailing  popular  sentiment 
in  favour  of  the  Danes. 

In  view  of  interests  so  widely  divided  the 
queen  hoped  against  hope  that  peace  might 
be  preserved.  At  any  rate  she  was  resolved 
that  England  should  not  directly  engage  in 
the  strife,  which  she  wished  to  see  restricted 
to  the  narrowest  possible  limits  of  time  and 
space.  It  was  therefore  with  deep  indigna- 
tion that  she  learned  that  active  interference 
in  behalf  of  Denmark  was  contemplated  by 
her  cabinet.  Napoleon  III  was  sounded  as 
to  whether  he  would  lend  his  aid,  but  he 
had  grown  estranged  from  Palmerston,  and 
answered  coldly.  The  ministers'  ardour  in 
behalf  of  Denmark  was  not  diminished  by 
this  rebuff.  But  the  queen's  repugnance  to 
their  Danish  sentiment  was  strengthened. 
She  made  no  endeavour  to  conceal  her  Ger- 
man sympathies,  although  they  became,  to 
her  regret, thesubject  of  reproachful  comment 
in  the  press.  Theodor  von  Bernhardi,  the 
Prussian  envoy,  had  an  interview  with  her 
at  Osborne  on  8  Jan.  1864.  She  frankly 
deplored  the  strength  of  the  Danish  party 


in  England,  which  had  won,  she  said,  the 
leading  journalistic  organs.  She  thought 
that  Germany  might  exert  more  influence  in 
j  j  8ame.direction-  She  was  dissatisfied,  she 
added,  with  the  position  of  the  crown  prince, 
and  lamented  the  depressed  condition  of  th.' 
liberal  party  in  Prussia  (BKRNHARDI,  AMI 
dem  Leben,  1895,  pt.  v.  276-81).  At  th* 
same  time  she  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  urfj.-nt 
appeals  of  Duke  Frederick's  friends  for  mate- 
rial assistance.  Within  a  few  hours  of  her 
interview  with  Bernhardi  she  wrote  to  her 
brother-in-law  at  Coburg  that  she  had  come 
to  see  with  her  government  that  Duke  Fre- 
derick's claim  was  unworkable.  'All  my 
endeavours  and  those  of  my  government,' 
she  said,  'are  only  directed  towards  the 
preservation  of  peace.'  When  her  ministers 
introduced  what  she  regarded  as  bellicose 
expressions  into  the  queen's  speech  at  the 
opening  of  parliament  (4  Feb.  1864),  she 
insisted  on  their  removal. 

A  more  critical  stage  was  reached  in  the 
same  month,  when  hostilities  actually  broke 
out  between  Austria  and  Prussia  on  the  one 
hand  and  Denmark  on  the  other.  Although 
the  Danes  fought  bravely,  they  were  soon 
defeated,  and  the  English  government,  with 
the  assent  of  the  queen,  urged  on  the  belli- 
gerents not  merelv  an  armistice, 
The  London  ?  e  • 

conference.     °ut  a  conference  in  London,  so 

that  an  accommodation  might  be 
reached  and  the  war  abridged.  The  confer- 
ence met  on  20  April.  The  queen  saw  many 
of  the  envoys  and  talked  to  them  with  free- 
dom. She  recommended  mutual  conces- 
sions. But  it  was  soon  seen  that  the  con- 
ference would  prove  abortive.  To  the  queen's 
annoyance,  before  it  dissolved,  her  govern- 
ment championed  with  new  vehemence  the 
cause  of  the  Danes,  and  warlike  opera- 
tions in  their  behalf  were  again  threat«-m-«I. 
Palmerston  told  the  Austrian  ambassador, 
Count  Apponyi,  that  if  the  Austrian  fleet 
went  to  the  Baltic  it  would  meet  the  Bri- 
tish fleet  there.  The  queen,  through  Lord 
Granville,  expressed  dissatisfaction  with  the 
Queen's  zeal  *nreat>  a?<J  appealed  to  the  cabi- 
forneu-  net  to  aid  her  against  the  prune 
traiity.  minister.  She  invited  the  private 
support  of  the  leader  of  the  opposition,  Ixjrd 
Derby,  in  the  service  of  peace,  and  hint«'<l 
that,  if  parliament  did  not  adopt  a  pacific 
and  neutral  policy,  she  would  have  report  to 
a  dissolution.  Meanwhile  her  German  rela- 
tives complained  to  her  of  the  encourage- 
ment that  her  ministers  and  subjects  were 
giving  the  Danes.  But  in  her  foreiK»cJ(M'?'' 
spondence,  as  the  situation  developed^M 
displayed  scrupulous  tact.  She  depiwcmt 
the  rumours  that  she  and  her  ministers  were 


Victoria 


456 


Victoria 


pulling  in  opposite  directions,  or  that  she  had 
it  in  her  power  to  take  a  course  to  which 
they  were  adverse.  In  May  the  London  con- 
ference broke  up  without  arriving  at  any 
decision.  The  war  was  resumed  in  June 
with  triumphant  results  to  the  German  allies, 
who  quickly  routed  the  Danes  and  occupied 
the  whole  of  the  disputed  duchies.  Through- 
out these  operations  England  maintained  the 
strictest  neutrality,  the  full  credit  of  which 
was  laid  in  diplomatic  circles  at  the  queen's 
door  (cf.  DUKE  ERNEST'S  Memoirs ;  COUNT 
VON  BEUST'S  Memoirs;  COUNT  VITZTHUM 
TON  ECXSTADT'S  Memoirs.') 

Much  of  this  agitation  waged  round  the 
princess  of  Wales,  and  while  it  was  at  its 
height  ft  new  interest  was  aroused  in  her. 
On  8  Jan.  1864  she  became,  at  Frogmore, 
the  mother  of  a  son  (Albert  Victor),  who 
was  in  the  direct  line  of  succession  to  the 
throne.  The  happy  event,  which  gave  the 
queen,  in  the  heat  of  the  political  anxiety, 
much  gratification,  was  soon  followed  by  her 
first  public  appearance  in  London  since  her 
bereavement.  On  30  March  she  attended  a 
flower  show  at  the  Horticultural  Gardens, 
while  she  permitted  her  birthday  on  24  May 
to  be  celebrated  for  the  first  time  since  her 
widowhood  with  state  formalities.  In  the 
autumn  Duke  Ernest  and  his  wife  were  her 
guests  at  Balmoral,  and  German  politics  con- 
tinued to  be  warmly  debated.  But  she  mainly 
devoted  her  time  to  recreation.  She  made, 
as  of  old,  many  excursions  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  her  highland  home.  For  the  second 
time  in  Scotland  she  unveiled  a  statue  of 
the  prince  consort,  now  at  Perth  ;  and  on 
her  return  to  Windsor  she  paid  a  private 
visit  to  her  late  husband's  foundation  of 
Wellington  College. 

A  feeling  was  growing  throughout  the 
country  that  the  queen's  seclusion  was  un- 
Compiaints  dul7  prolonged,  and  was  con- 
oftheqneen's  trary  to  the  nation's  interest, 
seclusion.  It  was  not  withm  the  knowledge 
of  the  majority  of  her  subjects  that  she  was 
performing  the  routine  business  of  her  sta- 
tion with  all  her  ancient  pertinacity,  and 
she  had  never  failed  to  give  public  signs  of 
interest  in  social  and  non-political  questions 
affecting  the  people's  welfare.  On  New  Year's 
Day  1865  she,  on  her  own  responsibility, 
addressed  a  letter  to  railway  companies,  call- 
ing their  attention  to  the  frequency  of  acci- 
dents, and  to  their  responsibilities  for  mak- 
ing better  provision  for  the  safety  of  their 
passengers.  In  London,  in  March,  she  visited 
the  Consumption  Hospital  at  Brompton. 
The  assassination  of  President  Lincoln  on 
14  April  called  forth  all  her  sympathy,  and 
she  at  once  sent  to  the  president's  widow 


an  autograph  letter  of  condolence,  which 
excited  enthusiasm  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  did  much  to  relieve  the  tension 
that  English  sympathy  with  the  Southern 
confederates  had  introduced  into  the  rela- 
tions of  the  governments  of  London  and 
Washington.  But  it  was  obvious  at  the 
same  time  that  she  was  neglecting  the  cere- 
monial functions  of  her  office.  On  three 
occasions  she  had  failed  to  open  parliament 
in  person.  That  ceremony  most  effectually 
brought  into  prominence  the  place  of  the 
sovereign  in  the  constitution  ;  it  was  greatly 
valued  by  ministers,  and  had  in  the  past  been 
rarely  omitted.  William  IV,  who  had  ex- 
cused his  attendance  at  the  opening  of  parlia- 
ment in  1837  on  the  ground  of  the  illness 
of  his  sister,  the  Duchess  of  Gloucester,  had 
been  warned  that  his  absence  contravened  a 
principle  of  the  constitution;  and  Lord 
Melbourne,  the  prime  minister,  wrote  to  Lord 
John  Russell  that  that  was  the  first  occasion 
in  the  history  of  the  country  on  which  a 
sovereign  had  failed  to  present  himself  at 
the  opening  of  parliament,  except  in  cases 
of  personal  illness  or  infirmity  (WALPOLE'S 
Russell,  i.  275).  The  queen  was  known  to  be 
in  the  enjoyment  of  good  health,  and,  despite 
her  sorrow,  had  regained  some  of  her  native 
cheerfulness.  When,  therefore,  early  inl8r>."> 
the  rumour  spread  that  she  would  resume 
her  place  on  the  throne  at  the  opening  of 
parliament,  signs  of  popular  satisfaction 
abounded.  But  she  did  not  come,  and  the  dis- 
appointment intensified  popular  discontent. 
Radicals,  who  had  no  enthusiasm  for  the 
monarchical  principle,  began  to  argue  that 
the  cost  of  the  crown  was  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  its  practical  use.  On  28  Sept.  1865 
a  cartoon  in  '  Punch '  portrayed  the  queen 
as  the  statue  of  Hermione  in  Shakespeare's 
'  Winter's  Tale,'  and  Britannia  figuring  as 
Paulina  was  represented  as  addressing  to  her 
the  words :  '  Tis  time  ;  descend  ;  be  stone 
no  more '  (v.  iii.  99).  On  the  other  hand, 
chivalrous  defenders  pointed  to  the  natural 
womanly  sentiment  which  explained  and 
justified  her  retirement.  In  the  first  number 
of  the  '  Pall  Mall  Gazette,'  which  appeared 
on  7  Feb.  1865,  the  day  of  the  opening  of 
the  new  parliament,  the  first  article,  headed 
'  The  Queen's  Seclusion,'  sympathetically 
sought  to  stem  the  tide  of  censure.  Simi- 
larly at  a  great  liberal  meeting  at  St.  James's 
Hall  on  4  Dec.  1866,  after  Mr.  A.  S.  Ayrton, 
member  of  parliament  for  the  Tower  Ham- 
JohnBright's  ^ets>  na(i  denounced  the.  queen  in 
defence  of  no  sparing  terms,  John  Bright, 
her-  who  was  present,  brought  his  elo- 

quence to  her  defence  and  said:  '  I  am  not  ac- 
customed to  stand  up  in  defence  of  those  who 


Victoria 


457 


Victoria 


are  the  possessors  of  crowns.  But  I  think 
there  has  been,  by  many  persons,  a  great 
injustice  done  to  the  queen  in  reference  to 
her  desolate  and  widowed  position ;  and  I 
venture  to  say  this,  that  a-  woman,  be  she 
the  queen  of  a  great  realm,  or  be  she  the 
wife  of  one  of  your  labouring  men,  who  can 
keep  alive  in  her  heart  a  great  sorrow  for  the 
lost  object  of  her  life  and  affection,  is  not  at 
all  likely  to  be  wanting  in  a  great  and 
generous  sympathy  with  you.'  Mr.  Ayrton 
endeavoured  to  explain  his  words,  but  was 
refused  a  hearing.  Nevertheless  the  agita- 
tion was  unrepressed.  A  year  later  there 
was  a  revival  of  the  rumour  that  court  life 
was  to  resume  its  former  brilliance  under 
the  queen's  personal  auspices.  Unmoved  by 
the  popular  outcry,  she  peremptorily  denied 
the  truth  of  the  report  in  a  communication  to 
the  '  Times'  newspaper.  She  said '  she  would 
Her  refusal  not  shrink  from  any  personal  sacri- 
to  leave  her  fice  or  exertion,  however  painful. 
eut-  She  had  worked  hard  in  the  pub- 
lic service  to  the  injury  of  her  health  and 
strength.  The  fatigue  of  mere  state  cere- 
monies, which  could  beequally  well  performed 
by  other  members  of  the  royal  family,  she 
was  unable  to  undergo.  She  would  do  what 
she  could — in  the  manner  least  trying  to  her 
health,  strength,  and  spirits — to  meet  the 
loyal  wishes  of  her  subjects  ;  to  afford  that 
support  and  countenance  to  society,  and  to 
give  that  encouragement  to  trade,  which  was 
desired  of  her.  More  the  queen  could  not 
do,  and  more  the  kindness  and  good  feeling 
of  her  people  would  surely  not  exact  of  her.' 
In  the  autumn  of  1865  domestic  matters 
largely  occupied  her.  Accompanied  by  her 
family,  she  paid  another  visit  to  her  hus- 
band's native  country,  in  order  to  unveil, 
in  the  presence  of  all  his  relatives,  a  statue 
to  him  at  Coburg  (26  Aug.)  While  at 
Coburg  she  approved  a  matrimonial  pro- 
ject affecting  her  third  and  eldest  unmarried 
daughter,  Helena,  who  had  of  late  years 
been  her  constant  companion.  In  view  of 
recent  events  in  Germany  the  match  was 
calculated  strongly  to  excite  political  feeling 
Betrothal  of  ^re.  Largely  at  the  instance  of 
tiie  Princess  Duke  Ernest,  the  princess  was 
Helena.  betrothed  to  Prince  Christian  of 
Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augusten- 
burg,  the  younger  brother  of  that  Duke 
Frederick  whose  claim  to  the  duchies  of 
Schleswig  and  Holstein  had  been  pressed  by 
the  smaller  German  states  on  Denmark  and 
on  the  Prussian-Austrian  alliance  with  re- 
sults disastrous  to  himself.  After  the  recent 
Schleswig-Holstein  war  Bismarck  had  de- 
prived Duke  Frederick  and  his  family  of  their 
property  and  standing,  and  the  claimant's 


younger  brother,  Prince  Christian,  who  had 
previously  been  an  officer  in  the  Prussian 
army,  had  been  compelled  to  retire.  The 
sympathy  felt  by  the  crown  prince  and  prin- 
cess for  the  injured  house  of  Augustenburg 
rendered  the  match  congenial  to  them  ;  but 
it  was  viewed  with  no  favour  at  Berlin,  and 
the  queen  was  freely  reproached  there  with 
a  wanton  interference  in  the  domestic  affairs 
of  Germany.  She  unmistakably  identified 
herself  with  the  arrangement,  and  by  her 
private  munificence  met  the  difficulty  in- 
cident to  the  narrow  pecuniary  resources  of 
the  young  prince.  She  returned  to  England 
in  good  health  and  spirits,  meeting  at  Ostend 
her  uncle  Leopold  for  what  proved  to  be  the 
last  time. 

Events  in  the  autumn  unfortunately  re- 
invigorated  her  sense  of  isolation.  In  the 
summer  of  1865  a  dissolution  of  parlia- 
ment had  become  necessary,  and  the  liberals 
slightly  increased  their  majority  in  the  new 
House  of  Commons.  But,  before  the  new 

parliament    met,   the    death    of 
PaTmer°ston    Palmerston,  the  prime  minist,  r. 

on  18  Oct.,  broke  for  the  queen 
another  link  with  the  past.  In  the  presence 
of  death  the  queen  magnanimously  forgot  all 
the  trials  that  the  minister  had  caused  her. 
She  only  felt,  she  said,  how  one  by  one  her 
servants  and  ministers  were  taken  from 
her.  She  acknowledged  the  admiration 
which  Lord  Palmerston's  acts,  even  those 
that  met  with  her  disapproval,  had  roused 
in  his  fellow-countrymen,  and,  justly  inter- 
preting public  sentiment,  she  directed  that 
a  public  funeral  should  be  accorded  him. 
She  afterwards  paid  Lady  Palmerston  a 
touching  visit  of  condolence.  "Without  hesi- 
tation she  turned  to  Lord  John,  the  oldeftt 
minister  in  her  service,  who  in  1861  had 
gone  to  the  House  of  Lords  as  Earl  Russell, 
and  bade  him  take  Palmerston's  place.  The 
change  was  rendered  grateful  to  her  by  the 
bestowal  of  the  office  of  foreign  secretary, 
which  Lord  Russell  had  hitherto  held,  on 
her  trusted  friend,  Lord  Clarendon.  But  at 
the  same  time  Gladstone,  the  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  became  leader  of  the  House 
of  Commons  in  succession  to  PalmentOB, 
and  she- was  thus  for  the  first  time  brought 
into  close  personal  relations  with  one  who 
was  to  play  a  larger  part  in  her  subsequen 
career  than  proved  congenial  to  h.-r. 
10  Dec.  the  queen  suffered  another  loss,  wl 
brought  her  acute  sorrow— the  death  of  K  \m 

Leopold.    She  bad  dep.-nd.-d  c 
Sjr°rfS,    him  almost  since  her  birth   f-«r 
Belgians.       advice  on  both  public  and  prr 
questions.    There  was  no  member  o      the 
Saxe-Coburg  family,  of  which  she  was  hen 


Victoria 


45s 


Victoria 


practically  the  head  henceforth,  who  could 
take  her  uncle's  place.  Her  brother-in-law 
Ernest,  who  was  vain  and  quixotic,  looked 
up  to  her  for  counsel,  and  in  his  judgment 
she  put  little  faith.  In  her  family  circle  it 
was  now,  more  than  before,  on  herself  alone 
that  she  had  to  rely. 

The  forthcoming  marriage  of  Princess 
Helena  coincided  with  the  coming  of  age  of 
her  second  son,  Prince  Alfred.  For  her  son 
and  daughter  the  queen  was  anxious  that  due 
pecuniary  provision  should  be  made  by  parlia- 
ment. This  circumstance,  coupled  with  the 
fact  that  a  new  parliament  was  assembling, 
led  her  to  yield  to  the  request  of  her  ministers 
and  once  more,  after  an  interval  of  five  years, 
open  the  legislature  in  person  (10  Feb.  1866). 
She  came  to  London  from  Windsor  only  for 
the  day,  and  she  deprived  the  ceremony  of 
much  of  its  ancient  splendour.  No  flourish 
of  trumpets  announced  her  entrance.  The 
The  queen  gilded  state  carriage  was  re- 
opens par-  placed  by  one  of  more  modern 
™  ^PSeao  build,  though  it  was  drawn  as  of 

10  Feb.  1866.      ,  ,      '       ,     °  .    . 

old  by  the  eight  cream-coloured 
horses.  The  queen,  instead  of  wearing  the 
royal  robes  of  state,  had  them  laid  on  a  chair 
at  her  side,  and  her  speech  was  read  not 
by  herself,  as  had  been  her  habit  hitherto, 
but  by  the  lord  chancellor.  The  old  pro- 
cedure was  never  restored  by  the  queen,  and 
on  the  six  subsequent  occasions  that  she 
opened  parliament  before  the  close  of  her 
reign,  the  formalities  followed  the  new  pre- 
cedent of  1866.  She  was  dressed  in  black, 
wearing  a  Marie  Stuart  cap  and  the  blue 
riband  of  the  garter.  During  the  ceremony 
she  sat  perfectly  motionless,  and  manifested 
little  consciousness  of  what  was  proceeding. 
A  month  later  she  showed  the  direction  that 
her  thoughts  were  always  taking  by  institut- 
ing the  Albert  medal,  a  new  decoration  for 
those  endangering  their  lives  in  seeking  to 
rescue  others  from  perils  of  the  &ea  (7  March 
1866). 

Later  in  the  year  she,  for  the  first  time  after 
the  prince's  death,  revisited  Aldershot,  going 
there  twice  to  review  troops — on  13  March 
and  on  5  April.  On  the  second  occasion  she 
gave  new  colours  to  the  89th  regiment, 
which  she  had  first  honoured  thus  in  1833, 
and  she  now  bestowed  on  the  regiment  the 
title  'The  Princess  Victoria's  Regiment,' 
permitting  the  officers  to  wear  on  their 
forage  caps  the  badge  of  a  princess's  coronet. 

The  summer  was  brightened  by  two  mar- 
riages. Not  only  her  daughter  Helena  but 
her  cousin  and  friend,  Princess  Mary  of 
Cambridge,  had  recently  become  engaged. 
The  latter  was  betrothed  to  the  Duke  of 
Teck,  who  was  congenial  to  the  queen  by 


reason  of  his  Saxe-Coburg  connections.  He 
was  her  second  cousin,  being  the  son,  by  a 
morganatic  marriage,  of  Duke  Alexander 
Constantino  of  Wiirtemberg,  whose  mother, 
of  the  Saxe-Coburg  family,  was  elder  sister 
of  the  Duchess  of  Kent,  and  thus  the  queen's 
aunt.  On  12  June,  dressed  in  deep  black, 
she  was  present  at  Princess  Mary's  wedding, 
which  took  place  at  Kew.  On  5  July  she 
attended  the  solemnisation  of  marriage  at 
Windsor  of  her  third  daughter,  Helena,  with 
Prince  Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein. 

Parliament  had  been  conciliatory  in  the 
matter  of  grants  to  her  children.  Princess 
Helena  received  a  dowry  of  30,000/.  and  an 
annuity  of  6,000/.,  while  Prince  Alfred  re- 
ceived an  annuity  of  15,000/.,  to  be  raised 
to  25,000/.  in  case  of  his  marriage.  There 
was  no  opposition  to  either  arrangement. 
But  throughout  the  session  the  position  of 
the  government  and  the  course  of  affairs  in 
Germany  filled  the  queen  with  alarm.  It 
was  clear  that  the  disputes  between  Prussia 
and  Austria  in  regard  to  the  final  allotment 
of  the  conquered  duchies  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  were  to  issue  in  a  desperate  con- 
War  between  flict  between  the  two  powers. 
Austria  and  Not  otherwise  could  their  long 
Prussia.  rivalry  for  the  headship  of  the 
German  states  be  finally  decided.  The  pro- 
spect of  war  caused  the  queen  acute  distress. 
The  merits  of  the  quarrels  were  blurred  in 
her  eyes  by  domestic  considerations.  The 
struggle  hopelessly  divided  her  family  in 
Germany.  The  crown  prince  was  wholly 
identified  with  Prussia,  but  her  son-in-law 
of  Hesse,  her  cousin  of  Hanover,  and  her 
brother-in-law  of  Saxe-Coburg  were  sup- 
porters of  Austria.  The  likelihood  that 
her  two  sons-in-law  of  Prussia  and  Hesse 
would  fight  against  each  other  was  especially 
alarming  to  her.  Her  former  desire  to  see 
Prussia  strong  and  self-reliant  was  now  in 
conflict  with  her  fear  that  Prussian  predomi- 
nance meant  ruin  for  all  the  smaller  states 
of  Germany,  to  which  she  was  personally 
attached.  In  the  early  months  of  1866  she 
eagerly  consulted  Lord  Clarendon  with  a 
view  to  learning  how  best  to  apply  her  in- 
fluence to  the  maintenance  of  peace.  She 
bade  Lord  Russell,  the  prime  minister, 
take  every  step  to  prevent  war;  and  in 
March  1866  her  ministry,  with  her  assent, 
proposed  to  the  king  of  Prussia  that 
she  should  act  as  mediator.  Bismarck,  how- 
ever, brusquely  declined  her  advances.  Her 
perplexities  were  increased  in  May  by  her 
government's  domestic  difficulties.  Lord 
Russell  warned  her  of  the  probable  de- 
feat of  the  government  on  the  reform  bill, 
which  they  had  lately  introduced  into  the 


Victoria 


459 


Victoria 


House  of  Commons.  The  queen  had  already 
acknowledged  the  desirability  of  a  prompt 
settlement  of  the  long-debated  extension  of 
the  franchise.  She  had  even  told  Lord 
Russell  that  vacillation  or  indifference  re- 
specting it  on  the  government's  part,  now 
that  the  question  was  in  the  air,  weakened 
the  power  of  the  crown.  But  the  continental 
complication  reduced  a  home  political  ques- 
tion to  small  dimensions  in  the  queen's  eye. 
She  declined  to  recognise  a  reform  bill  as  a 
matter  of  the  first  importance,  and  she  wrote 
with  some  heat  to  Lord  Russell  that,  what- 
ever happened  to  his  franchise  proposals  in 
the  commons,  she  would  permit  no  resignation 
of  the  ministers  until  the  foreign  crisis  was 
passed.  Her  ministers  begged  her  to  remain 
at  Windsor  in  May  instead  of  paying  her 
usual  spring  visit  to  Balmoral.  She  declined, 
with  the  remark  that  they  were  bound  at 
all  hazards  to  avert  a  ministerial  crisis.  In 
June  the  worst  happened,  alike  at  home  and 
abroad.  War  was  declared  between  Prussia 
and  Austria,  and  Lord  Russell's  government 
was  defeated  while  its  reform  bill  was  in 
committee  in  the  House  of  Commons.  On 
Disputes  19  June  Lord  Russell  forwarded 
with  Lord  his  resignation  to  Balmoral  and 
deprecated  dissolution.  The  queen 
wrote  protesting  that  she  was  taken  com- 
pletely by  surprise.  '  In  the  present  state  of 
Europe,'  she  said,  '  and  the  apathy  which 
Lord  Russell  himself  admits  to  exist  in  the 
country  on  the  subject  of  reform,  the  queen 
cannot  think  it  consistent  with  the  duty 
which  the  ministers  owe  to  herself  and  the 
country  that  they  should  abandon  their 
posts  in  consequence  of  their  defeat  on  a 
matter  of  detail  (not  of  principle)  in  a  ques- 
tion which  can  never  be  settled  unless  all 
sides  are  prepared  to  make  concessions ;  and 
she  must  therefore  ask  them  to  reconsider 
their  decision '  (WALPOLE,Zor<2  John  Russell, 
ii.  415).  Lord  Russell  retorted  that  his  con- 
tinuance in  office  was  impracticable,  and 
with  his  retirement  he  in  effect  ended  his 
long  public  life.  The  queen  in  her  anger 
regarded  his  withdrawal  as  amounting  to 
desertion,  and,  failing  to  hasten  her  depar- 
ture from  Balmoral,  suffered  the  government 
for  some  days  to  lie  in  abeyance.  At  length 
the  conservative  leader,  Lord  Derby,  accepted 
her  request  to  form  a  new  ministry,  with 
Disraeli  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and 
leader  of  the  House  of  Commons  (6  July 
1866). 

Meanwhile  the  Austro-Prussian  war  was 
waging  in  Germany,  and  many  of  the  queen's 
relatives  were  in  the  field,  the  crown  prince 
alone  fighting  for  Prussia,  the  rest  supporting 
Austria.  She  was  in  constant  communica- 


tion with  her  kindred  on  the  two  sides,  and 
her  anxiety  was  intense.  She  took  charge 
of  the  children  of  Princess  Alice  of  Heaae- 
Darmstadt,  and  sent  her  at  Darmstadt  much 
linen  for  the  wounded.  The  result  was  not 
long  in  doubt.  At  the  outset,  the  rapid 
Prussia  invasion  of  Hanover  by  Prussian 
seizes  troops  drove  the  queen's  cousin 

Hanover.        the    kjng    from    hu  ^^  and 

blotted  out  the  kingdom,  converting  it  into 
a  Prussian  province.  The  queen  felt  bitterly 
the  humiliation  of  the  dissolution  of  a> 
kingdom  which  had  long  been  identified 
with  England.  She  made  urgent  inquiries 
after  the  safety  of  the  expelled  royal  family 
of  Hanover.  The  king,  who  was  blind, 
made  his  residence  at  Paris,  and  in  the 
welfare  of  him  and  of  his  family,  especially  of 
his  daughter  Frederica,  whom  she  called  '  the 
poor  lily  of  Hanover,'  her  affectionate  in- 
terest never  waned.  Elsewhere  Prussia'* 
triumph  in  the  war  was  as  quickly  assured, 
and  the  queen  suffered  more  disappointments. 
Italy  had  joined  Prussia  against  Austria. 
Austria  was  summarily  deprived  of  Yenetia, 
her  last  hold  on  the  Italian  peninsula,  and 
the  union  of  Italy  under  Victor  Emanuel — 
a  project  with  which  the  queen  had  no 
sympathy — was  virtually  accomplished.  The 
Austrians  were  decisively  defeated  at  the 
battle  at  Sadowa  near  Koniggratz  on  3  July 
1866,  and  the  conflict  was  at  an  end  seven 
weeks  after  it  had  begun.  Thus  Prussia  was 
finally  placed  at  the  head  of  the  whole  of 
North  Germany ;  its  accession  to  an  imperial 
crown  of  Germany  was  in  sight,  and  Austria 
was  compelled  to  retire  from  the  German 
confederation.  It  was  with  mixed  feelings 
that  the  queen  saw  her  early  hopes  of  a 
strong  Prussia  realised.  The  price  of  the 
victory  was  abolition  of  the  kingdom  of  Han- 
over, loss  of  territory  for  her  son-in-law  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  reduction  of  power 
and  dignity  for  the  other  small  German  state* 
with  which  she  was  lineally  associated. 

The  queen's  withdrawal  to  the  quiet  of 
Balmoral  in  October  gave  welcome  relief 
after  such  severe  political  strains.      She  re- 
peated a  short  sojourn,  which  she  had  made 
the  year  before,  with  the  lately  widowed 
Duchess    of  Athol,    a    lady   of  the    bed- 
chamber, at  Dunkeld,  and  she  OgMM 
Aberdeen  waterworks  at  Invercanni.-  <  1  < 
1866),  when  for  the  first  time  in  her  widow- 
hood  she   herself  read  the  answer  to  t 
address  of  the  lord  provost.    Another  publ 
Theoneon      ceremonial  in    which   she  took 
at  wS-     part  after  her  return  south  re- 
hampton.       vealed  the  vast  store  of  loyaltj 
which,  despite  detraction  and  "it™). th. 
queen  still  had  at  her  command.  (. 


Victoria 


460 


Victoria 


she  visited  Wolverhampton  to  unveil  a  statue 
of  the  prince  consort  in  the  market-place. 
She  expressed  a  desire  that  her  route  should 
be  so  arranged  as  to  give  the  inhabitants, 
both  poor  and  rich,  full  opportunities  of 
showing  their  respect.  A  network  of  streets 
measuring  a  course  of  nearly  three  miles  was 
traversed.  The  queen  acknowledged  that 
'  the  heartiness  and  cordiality  of  the  recep- 
tion' left  nothing  to  be  desired,  and  her 
spirits  rose. 

But  the  perpetuation  of  her  husband's 
memory  was  still  a  main  endeavour  of  her 

The  bio-  ^e>   an^    sne    now    enlisted  bio- 

graphy of  graphy  in  her  service.  Under 
the  pnnce  ger  direction  her  private  secre- 

COUSort.  .-,  i      r~<  lii 

tary,  General  Grey,  completed 
in  1866  a  very  minute  account  of  the  early 
years  of  the  prince  consort.  She  designed  the 
volume,  which  was  based  on  confidential 
and  intimate  correspondence,  and  only 
brought  the  prince's  life  to  the  date  of  his 
marriage,  for  private  distribution  among 
friends  and  relatives.  But  in  1867  she 
placed  the  book  at  the  disposal  of  the  wider 
audience  of  the  general  public.  The  work 
was  well  received.  At  the  queen's  request 
Wilberforce  reviewed  it  in  the  '  Quarterly.' 
He  described  it  as  a  cry  from  the  queen's 
heart  for  her  people's  sympathy,  and  he  said 
that  her  cry  was  answered  (WILBERFORCE, 
iii.  236).  The  queen  resolved  that  the  bio- 
graphy should  be  continued,  and  on  General 
Grey's  death  in  May  1870  she  entrusted  the 
task,  on  the  recommendation  of  Sir  Arthur 
Helps,  clerk  of  the  council,  to  Sir  Arthur's 
friend,  (Sir)  Theodore  Martin.  Much  of  her 
time  was  thenceforth  devoted  to  the  sorting 
of  her  and  her  husband's  private  papers  and 
correspondence,  and  to  the  selection  of  ex- 
tracts for  publication.  Sir  Theodore  Martin's 
work  was  designed  on  an  ample  scale,  the 
first  volume  appearing  in  1874,  and  the  fifth 
and  last  in  1880.  Amazement  was  felt 
even  by  her  own  children  at  the  want  of 
reserve  which  characterised  the  prince's 
biography.  The  whole  truth  best  vindicated 
him,  she  explained,  and  it  was  undesirable 
to  wait  before  telling  it  till  those  who  had 
known  him  had  passed  away.  The  German 
side  of  his  character,  which  alienated  sym- 
pathy in  his  lifetime,  could  only  be  appre- 
hended in  a  full  exposition.  Both  she  and 
he  would  suffer,  she  said,  were  the  work 
not  carried  through  (Princess  Alices  Letters, 
pp.  333-5).  At  the  same  time  she  depre- 
cated indiscretion  or  levity  in  writing  of  the 
royal  family,  and  in  1874  she  was  greatly 
irritated  by  the  publication  of  the  first 
part  of  the  '  Greville  Memoirs.'  She  judged 
the  work,  by  its  freedom  of  comment  on 


her  predecessors,  to  be  disrespectful  to  the 
monarchy.  Henry  Reeve,  the  editor,  was 
informed  of  her  displeasure,  and  she  was 
not  convinced  by  his  defence  that  monarchy 
had  been  injured  by  George  IV's  depravity 
and  William  IV's  absurdity,  and  had  only- 
been  placed  on  a  sure  footing  by  her  own 
virtues  (LONGMAN,  Memoir  of  Henry  Reeve). 
To  illustrate  the  happy  character  of  her 
married  life,  she  privately  issued  in  1867 
some  extracts  from  her  diary  under  the 
title  of '  Leaves  from  a  Journal  of  our  Life 
in  the  Highlands  from  1848  to  1861.'  This, 
too,  she  was  induced  to  publish  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  following  year  (1868).  Its 
unaffected  simplicity  and  nai'vetS  greatly 
attracted  the  public,  who  saw  in  the  book, 
with  its  frank  descriptions  of  her  private 
life,  proof  of  her  wish  to  share  her  joys  and 
sorrows  with  her  people.  A  second  part 
followed  in  1883,  covering  the  years  1862 
to  1882. 

The  year  1867  abounded  in  political  inci- 
dents which  absorbed  the  queen's  attention. 

With  her  new  conservative  mini- 
1867.  sters  her  relations  were  invariably 

cordial.  Their  views  on  foreign 
politics  were  mainly  identical  with  her  own, 
and  there  was  none  of  the  tension  which  had 
marked  her  relations  with  Palmerston  and 
Lord  Hussell  in  that  direction.  As  proof 
of  the  harmony  existing  between  her  ad- 
visers and  herself,  she  consented  to  open  par- 
liament in  person  on  5  Feb.  In  May  she 
again  appeared  in  public,  when  she  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  Ixoyal  Albert  Hall,  which 
was  erected  in  her  husband's  memory.  Her 
voice,  in  replying  to  the  address  of  welcome, 
was  scarcely  audible.  It  had  been  with  a 
struggle,  she  said,  that  she  had  nerved  her- 
self to  take  part  in  the  proceedings. 

The  chief  event  of  the  year  in  domestic 
politics  was  the  passage  of  Disraeli's  reform 

bill  through  parliament.  The 
Disraeli's  ~  ueen  encouraged  the  government 

reform  bill. 

to  settle  the  question.  Although 
she  had  no  enthusiasm  for  sweeping  reforms, 
her  old  whig  training  inclined  her  to  regard 
extensions  of  the  franchise  as  favourable  to 
the  monarchy  and  to  the  foundations  of  her 
government. 

But  foreign  affairs  still  appealed  to  her 
more  strongly  than  home  legislation.  The 
European  sky  had  not  grown  clear,  despite 
the  storms  of  the  previous  year.  The  queen 
was  particularly  perturbed  in  the  early 
months  of  1867  by  renewed  fear  of  her  for- 
mer ally,  Napoleon  III.  Although  her  per- 
sonal correspondence  with  him  was  still  as 
amiable  as  of  old,  her  distrust  of  his  politi- 
cal intentions  was  greater  than  ever,  and  she 


Victoria 


461 


Victoria 


always  believed  him  to  be  secretly  foment- 
ing serious  disquiet.  He  now  professed  to 
The  detect  a  menace  to  France  in 

Luxemburg  the  semi-independence  of  the  fron- 
affair.  tier  state — the  duchy  of  Luxem- 

burg— seeing  that  the  new  conditions  which 
Prussian  predominance  created  in  north  Ger- 
many gave  that  power  the  right  to  fortify  the 
duchy  on  its  French  border.  He  therefore 
negotiated  with  the  suzerain  of  the  duchy, 
the  king  of  Holland,  for  its  annexation  to  his 
own  dominions,  or  he  was  willing  to  see  it 
annexed  to  Belgium  if  some  small  strip  ot 
Belgian  territory  were  assigned  to  him.  Prus- 
sia raised  protests  and  Belgium  declined  his 
suggestion.  The  queen  urgently  appealed  to 
her  government  to  keep  the  peace,  and  her 
appeal  had  its  efi'ect.  A  conference  met  in 
London  (1 1-14  May  1867)  with  the  result  that 
the  independence  of  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg 
was  guaranteed  by  the  powers,  though  its 
fortresses  were  to  be  dismantled.  Napoleon 
was  disappointed  by  his  failure  to  secure  any 
material  advantage  from  the  settlement,  and 
he  was  inclined  to  credit  the  queen  with 
thwarting  his  ambition. 

His  relations  with  her  endured  a  further 
strain  next  month  when  his  fatal  abandon- 
ment in  Mexico  of  her  friend  and 

Emperor  connection,  the  Archduke  Maxi- 
Alaxmiihan.  ...  ,  ,  T  n  „„ . 

milian,  became  known.  In  18o4 
Napoleon  had  managed  to  persuade  the  arch- 
duke, the  Austrian  emperor's  brother,  who 
had  married  the  queen's  first  cousin,  Princess 
Charlotte  of  Belgium,  and  had  frequently 
been  the  queen's  guest,  to  accept  the  imperial 
throne  which  a  French  army  was  setting  up 
in  republican  Mexico.  Few  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country  acknowledged  the  title 
of  the  new  emperor,  and  in  18ti6,  after  the 
close  of  the  American  civil  war,  the  go- 
vernment at  Washington  warned  Napoleon 
that,  unless  his  troops  were  summarily  with- 
drawn from  the  North  American  continent, 
force  would  be  used  to  expel  them.  The  em- 
peror pusillanimously  offered  no  resistance  to 
the  demand,  and  the  French  army  was  with- 
Her  distrust  drawn,  but  the  archduke  declined 
of  Xapo-  to  leave  with  it.  His  wife,  Prin- 
m-  cess  Charlotte  of  Belgium,  as 
soon  as  she  realised  her  husband's  peril,  came 
to  Europe  to  beg  protection  for  him,  and  to 
the  queen's  lasting  sorrow  her  anxieties  per- 
manently affected  her  intellect.  Meanwhile 
the  inhabitants  of  Mexico  restored  the  re- 
public, and  the  archduke  was  shot  by  order 
of  a  court-martial  on  20  June  1867.  The 
catastrophe  appalled  the  queen,  whose  per- 
sonal attachment  to  its  victims  was  great. 
She  wrote  a  frank  letter  of  condolence  to  the 
archduke's  brother,  the  emperor  of  Austria, 


and  for  the  time  spoke  of  Napoleon  a» 
politically  past  redemption.  But  she  still 
cherished  private  affection  for  the  emprea. 
ot  the  trench,  and  privately  entertained 
her  as  her  guest  at  Osborne  in  July  Nor 
when  misfortune  overtook  the  emperor  him- 
self in  18/0,  did  she  permit  her  repugnance 
to  his  political  action  to  repress  her  MOM 
of  compassion. 

While  the  Mexican  tragedy  was  nearing 
its  last  scene  the  second  great  exhibition  was 
taking  place  at  Paris,  and  Napoleon  III,  de- 
spite the  universal  suspicion  that  he  excited 
succeeded  in  entertaining  many  royal  person- 
ages—among them  the  tsar  Alexander  II 
the  king  of  Prussia,  Abdul  Aziz,  sultan  of 
Turkey,  Ismail  Pasha,  khedive  of  Egypt, 
and  the  prince  of  Wales.  The  queen's  mini- 
sters recommended  that  she  should  renew 
the  old  hospitalities  of  her  court  and  in- 
vite the  royal  visitors  in  Paris  to  be  her 
guests.  The  queen  of  Prussia  had  spent  seve- 
ral days  with  her  in  June,  but  she  demurred 
to  acting  as  hostess  in  state  on  a  large 
scale.  She  however  agreed,  with  a  view  to 
confirming  her  influence  in  Eastern  Europe, 
to  entertain  Abdul  Aziz,  the  sultan  of 
Turkey,  and  to  receive  Ismail  Pasha,  tli- 
khedive  of  Egypt,  who  had  announced  his 
intention  of  coming,  and  was  in  the  count  ry 
from  6  to  18  July.  No  sultan  of 
^^1867. S  Turkey  had  yet  set  foot  on 

lish  soil,  and  the  visit,  which 
seemed  to  set  the  seal  on  the  old  political 
alliance  between  the  two  government*, 
evoked  intense  popular  excitement, 
sultan  was  magnificently  received  on  his 
arrival  on  12  July,  and  was  lodg> 
Buckingham  Palace.  Though  the*  queen 
took  as  small  a  part  as  possible  in  the 
festivities,  she  did  not  withdraw  herself 
altogether  from  them.  Princess  Alice  helped 
her  in  extending  hospitalities  to  her  guest, 
who  lunched  with  her  at  Windsor  and 
highly  commended  her  attentions.  A  great 
naval  review  by  the  queen  at  Spitbe*d 
was  arranged  in  his  honour,  and  he  accom- 
panied his  hostess  on  board  her  yacht,  the 
Victoria  and  Albert.  The  weather  was  bad, 
and  amid  a  howling  storm  the  queen  invested 
the  sultan  with  the  order  of  the  gaiter  on 
the  yacht's  deck.  When  the  sultan  left  on 
23  July  he  exchanged  with  her  highly  com- 
plimentary telegrams. 

At  Balmoral,  in  the  autumn,  she  showed 
more  than  her  usual  energy.  On  her  way 
thither  she  made  an  excursion  in  the  Scot- 
tish border  country,  staying  for  two  days 
with  the  Duke  and  "Duchess  of  Koxlmrgh  at 
Floors  Castle,  near  Kelso  (:M  t 
On  the  22nd  she  -visited  Melrose  Abbey, 


Victoria 


462 


Victoria 


and  thence  proceeded  to  Abbotsford,  where 
she  was  received  by  Mr.  Hope  Scott,  and 
was  greatly  interested  in  the  memorials  oi 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  In  the  study,  at  her  host's 
request,  she  wrote  her  name  in  Scott's  jour- 
nal, an  act  of  which  she  wrote  in  her  diary  : 
*  I  felt  it  to  be  a  presumption  in  me  to  do.' 
Subsequently  she  unveiled  with  some  for- 
mality a  memorial  to  the  Prince  Albert  at 
Deeside,  and  visited  the  Duke  of  Richmond 
at  Glenfiddich  (24-7  Sept.) 

Early  in  1868  she  accepted,  for  the  seventh 
time  in  her  experience,  a  new  prime  minister, 
and  one  with  whom  her  intimacy  was  to  be 
greater  than  with  any  of  his  six  predecessors. 
In  February  Lord  Derby  resigned  owing  to 
failing  health.  The  choice  of  a  successor  lay 
between  Disraeli  and  Lord  Derby's 

Disraeli  T        •,     /-,,       •,  -p..          ,.. 

prime  son,    Lord    Stanley.      Disraelis 

minister,        steady  work  for  his  party  for  a 
•  quarter  of  a  century  seemed  to 

entitle  him  to  the  great  reward,  and  the 
queen  without  any  hesitation  conferred  it  on 
him.  Her  relations  with  him  had  been  steadily 
improving.  Though  she  acknowledged  that 
he  was  eccentric,  his  efforts  to  please  her 
convinced  her  of  his  devotion  to  the  crown. 
As  her  prime  minister  Disraeli  from  the 
first  confirmed  her  good  opinion  of  him, 
and  by  the  adroitness  of  his  counsel  in- 
creased her  sense  of  power  and  dignity. 
But  his  power  in  parliament  was  insecure, 
and  she  was  soon  brought  face  to  face  with 
a  ministerial  crisis  in  which  he  contrived 
that  she  should  play  not  unwillingly  an 
unwontedly  prominent  part. 

In  April  Gladstone  brought  forward  his 

first  and  main  resolution  in  favour  of  the 

disestablishment    of    the     Irish 

Gladstone          ,         .  _, 

and  the  Irish  church.  The  government  re- 
churcii.  sisted  him,  and  on  1  May  was 
sharply  defeated  by  a  majority  of  sixty-five. 
Next  day  Disraeli  went  to  Windsor  and 
tendered  his  resignation  to  the  queen.  Per- 
sonally the  queen  disliked  Gladstone's  pro- 
posal. She  regarded  the  established  church 
throughout  her  dominions  as  intimately  as- 
sociated with  the  crown,  and  interference 
with  it  seemed  to  her  to  impair  her  pre- 
rogative. But  as  a  constitutional  sovereign 
she  realised  that  the  future  of  the  church 
establishment  in  Ireland  or  elsewhere  was 
no  matter  for  her  own  decision;  it  was 
for  the  decision  of  her  parliament  and  people. 
In  the  present  emergency  she  desired  the 
people  to  have  full  time  in  which  to  make 
up  their  minds  regarding  the  fate  of  the 
Irish  church.  If  she  accepted  Disraeli's  re- 
signation she  would  be  compelled  to  confer 
office  on  Gladstone,  and  her  government 
would  be  committed  to  Irish  disestablish- 


ment. Disraeli  pointed  out  that  she  could  at 
least  defer  the  evil  moment  by  declining  to 
accept  his  resignation  and  by  dissolving  par- 
liament. An  immediate  dissolution  was 
undesirable  if  the  appeal  were  to  be  made, 
as  all  parties  wished,  to  the  new  consti- 
tuencies which  had  been  created  by  the 
late  reform  bill.  The  Scottish  and  Irish 
reform  bills  and  the  boundary  bills  which 
were  required  to  complete  that  measure 
had  yet  to  pass  through  their  final  stages. 
Consequently  the  queen's  refusal  to  accept 
the  existing  government's  resignation  meant 
its  continuance  in  office  during  the  six 
months  which  were  needed  before  all  the 
arrangements  for  the  appeal  to  the  newly 
enfranchised  electors  could  be  accomplished. 
If  the  opposition  failed  to  keep  the  govern- 
ment in  power  during  that  period,  it  ran  the 
risk,  in  the  present  temper  of  the  sovereign, 
of  provoking  a  dissolution  before  the  new 
electoral  reform  was  consummated.  Disraeli, 
while  explaining  the  situation  to  the  queen, 
left  her  to  choose  between  the  two  possible 
alternatives,  the  acceptance  of  his  resigna- 
tion now  and  the  appeal  to  the  country  six 
months  later.  After  two  days'  consideration, 
she  elected  to  take  the  second  course.  She 
.  was  prepared  to  accept  full  re- 

Her  right  to  *vf>I     *       T_        i      •   • 

dissolve         sponsibihty  for  her  decision,  and 

parliament  when  Disraeli  announced  it  to 
at  will.  parliament  on  5  May  he  described, 
with  her  assent,  the  general  drift  of  his 
negotiations  with  her.  Grave  doubts  were 
expressed  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  to 
whether  his  conduct  was  consistent  with 
that  of  the  ministerial  adviser  of  a  constitu- 
tional sovereign.  In  his  first  conversation 
with  the  queen  he  had  acted  on  his  own  ini- 
tiative, and  had  not  consulted  his  colleagues. 
This  self-reliance  somewhat  damped  enthu- 
siasm for  his  action  in  the  ranks  of  his  own 
party.  The  leaders  of  the  opposition  boldly 
argued  that  the  minister  was  bound  to  offer 
the  sovereign  definite  advice,  which  it  be- 
hoved her  to  adopt,  that  the  constitution 
recognised  no  power  in  the  sovereign  to  exer- 
cise personal  volition,  and  that  the  mini- 
ster was  faithless  to  his  trust  in  offering  her 
two  courses  and  abiding  by  her  voluntary 
selection  of  one.  But  the  argument  against 
the  minister  was  pushed  too  far.  The  queen 
tiad  repeatedly  exerted  a  personal  choice 
between  accepting  a  dissolution  and  a  re- 
signation of  a  ministry  in  face  of  an  adverse 
vote  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The  only 
new  feature  that  the  present  situation 
offered  was  Disraeli's  open  attribution  to 
the  queen  of  responsibility  for  the  final  de- 
cision. The  net  effect  of  his  procedure  was  to 
jring  into  clearer  relief  than  before  thepracti- 


Victoria 


463 


Victoria 


cal  ascendency,  -within  certain  limits,  which 
under  the  constitution  a  ministerial  crisis 
assured  the  crown,  if  its  wearer  cared  to 
assert  it.  The  revelation  was  in  the  main 
to  the  advantage  of  the  prestige  of  the 
throne.  It  conflicted  with  the  constitutional 
fallacy  that  the  monarch  was  necessarily 
and  invariably  an  automaton.  But  the 
queen  had  no  intention  of  exceeding  her 
constitutional  power,  and  when,  immediately 
after  the  settlement  of  the  ministerial  diffi- 
culty, the  House  of  Commons,  by  an  irresis- 
tible vote  of  the  opposition,  petitioned  her 
to  suspend  new  appointments  in  the  Irish 
church  in  the  crown's  control,  and  to  place 
royal  patronage  at  the  parliament's  disposal, 
she  did  not  permit  any  personal  predilec- 
tions to  postpone  her  assent  for  a  day. 

On  10  March  1868  the  queen,  for  the  first 
time  since  her  widowhood,  held  a  drawing- 
room  at  Buckingham  Palace.  On  20  June 
she  reviewed  twenty-seven  thousand  volun- 
teers in  Windsor  Park,  and  two  days  later 
gave  a  public  '  breakfast '  or  afternoon  party 
in  the  gardens  of  Buckingham  Palace.  She 
appeared  to  observers  to  enjoy  the  enter- 
tainment, but  she  had  no  intention  of  intro- 
ducing any  change  into  her  habitually 
secluded  mode  of  life.  By  way  of  illustrating 
her  desire  to  escape  from  court  functions,  she 
in  August  paid  a  first  visit  to  Switzerland, 
travelling  incognito  under  the  name  of  the 
Countess  of  Kent.  She  forbade  any  public 
demonstration  in  her  honour,  but  accepted  the 
Emperor  Napoleon's  courteous  offer  of  his  im- 
perial train  in  which  to  travel  through  France. 
On  the  outward  journey  she  rested  for  a 
day  at  the  English  embassy  in  Paris, 
where  the  Empress  Eugenie  paid  her  an  in- 
formal visit  (6  Aug.)  Next  day  she  reached 
Lucerne,  where  she  had  rented  the  Villa 
Pension  Wallace  near  the  lake. 

First  visit  to   01  j    .1  j  •      J.-L 

Switzerland.  siie  stayed  there,  engaged  m  the 
recreations  of  a  private  pleasure- 
seeker,  till  9  Sept.,  when  she  again  passed 
through  France  in  the  emperor's  train.     She 

Siused  at  Paris  on  10  Sept.  to  revisit  St. 
loud,  which  revived  sad  memories  of  her 
happy  sojourn  there  thirteen  years  before. 
The  emperor  was  absent,  but  courteous 
greetings  by  telegraph  passed  between  him 
and  the  queen.  Removing,  on  her  arrival 
in  England,  to  Balmoral,  she  there  gave 
additional  proof  of  her  anxiety  to  shrink  from 
publicity  or  court  formality.  She  took  up 
her  residence  for  the  first  time  in  a  small 
house,  called  Glassalt  Shiel,  which  she  had 
built  in  a  wild  deserted  spot  in  the  hills. 
She  regarded  the  dwelling  as  in  all  ways 
in  keeping  with  her  condition.  '  It  was,' 
she  wrote,  '  the  widow's  first  house,  not 


built  by  him,  or  hallowed  by  kU 
On  14  Dec.  1868  a  special  semce  ^ 
held  m  her  presence  at  the  Frogmore  man 
soleum,  where  a  permanent  sarcophajrtu  had 
now  been  placed.  It  was  destinedto  hold 
her  own  remains  as  well  as  those  of  th« 
prince.  The  whole  cost  of  the  completed 
mausoleum  was  200,000/. 

While  she  was  still  in  Scotland  the  general 
election  took  place,  and  Disraeli's  govrn- 
Views  on  ment  suffered  a  crushing  defeat 

Sire.     Th-  liberal8   Came  in  with    * 


contrary  to  precedent,  resigned  office  with- 
out waiting  for  the  meeting  of  parliament. 
His  last  official  act  excited  a  passing  differ- 
ence of  opinion  with  the  queen,  and  showed 
how  actively  she  asserted  her  authority  eyen 
in  her  relation  to  a  minister  with  whose 
general  policy  she  was  in  agreement.  The 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury  became  vacant 
on  28  Oct.,  owing  to  the  death  of  Archbishop 
Longley.  The  queen  at  her  own  instance 
recommended  for  the  post  Archibald  Camp- 
bell Tait,  bishop  of  London,  in  whom  aha 
had  long  taken  a  personal  interest.  Disraeli 
had  another  candidate.  But  the  queen 
persisted ;  Disraeli  yielded,  and  Tait  received 
the  primacy.  He  was  the  first  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  with  whom  she  maintained  a 
personal  intimacy.  Neither  with  Arch- 
bishop Howley,  who  held  office  at  her  acces- 
sion, nor  his  successors,  Archbishops  Stunner 
and  Longley,  had  she  sought  a  close  asso- 
ciation. Disraeli's  experience  in  regard  to 
the  appointment  of  Tait  was  not  uncommon 
with  preceding  or  succeeding  prime  mini- 
sters. Throughout  her  reign  the  queen  took 
a  serious  view  of  her  personal  responsibilities 
in  the  distribution  of  church  patronage ;  and 
though  she  always  received  her  ministers' 
advice  with  respect,  she  did  not  confine 
herself  to  criticism  of  their  favoured  candi- 
dates for  church  promotion ;  she  often  insisted 
on  other  arrangements  than  they  suggested. 
In  1845  she  refused  to  accept  Sir  Robert 
Peel's  recommendation  of  Buckland  for  the 
deanery  of  Westminster,  and  conferred  the 
post  on  a  personal  acquaintance,  Samuel 
Wilberforce.  Subsequently  Dean  Stanley 
owed  the  same  benefice  to  the  queen's  per- 
sonal regard  for  him.  To  the  choice  of 
bishops  she  attached  an  'immense  impor- 
tance,' and  the  principles  that  in  her  yiew 
•ht  to  govern  their  selection  were  sound 

.  _  A. i*i_~         c*l J ..__..._ *..!   •!.»  ~J1« 


ted  the  db- 


and  statesmanlike.  DM  deprecate* 
play  of  religious  or  political  partisanship  in 
the  matter.  'The  men  to  be  chosen,'  she 
wrote  to  Archbishop  Benson,  3  Jan.  1890, 
'  must  not  be  taken  with  reference  to  satis- 
fying one  or  the  other  party  in  the  cAurrA, 


Victoria 

or  with  reference  to  any  political  party, 
but  for  their  real  worth.  We  want  people 
who  cau  be  firm  and  conciliating,  else  the 
church  cannot  be  maintained.  We  want 
large  broad  views,  or  the  difficulties  will  be 
insurmountable.'  While  holding  such  wise 
views,  she  was  not  uninfluenced  by  her  per- 
sonal likes  or  dislikes  of  individuals,  and 
she  would  rather  fill  an  ecclesiastical  office 
with  one  who  was  already  agreeably  known 
to  her  than  with  a  stranger.  She  was  always 
an  attentive  hearer  of  sermons  and  a  shrewd 
critic  of  them.  She  chiefly  admired  in  them 
simplicity  and  brevity.  Any  failure  of  a 
preacher  to  satisfy  her  judgment  commonly 
proved  a  fatal  bar  to  his  preferment.  She 
was  tolerant  of  almost  all  religious  opinions, 
and  respected  those  from  which  she  differed; 
only  the  extreme  views  and  practices  of 
ritualists  irritated  her.  She  was  proud  of  her 
connection  with  the  presbyterian  establish- 
ment of  Scotland,  and,  without  bestowing 
much  attention  on  the  theology  peculiar  to 
it,  enjoyed  its  unadorned  services,  and  the 
homely  exhortations  of  its  ministers. 

On  Disraeli's  resignation  the  queen  at 
once  sent  for  Gladstone,  and  he  for  the  first 
Gladstone  t^me  became  her  prime  minister 
prime  mini-  in  December  1868.  Although 
ster,  1868.  g^g  fuHy  recognised  his  abilities, 
and  he  always  treated  her  personally  with 
deferential  courtesy,  he  did  not  inspire  her 
with  sympathy  or  confidence.  Her  politi- 
cal intuitions  were  not  illiberal,  but  the 
liberalism  to  which  she  clung  was  confined 
to  the  old  whig  principles  of  religious 
toleration  and  the  personal  liberty  of  the 
subject.  She  deprecated  change  in  the 
great  institutions  of  government,  especially 
in  the  army;  the  obliteration  of  class  dis- 
tinctions was  for  her  an  idle  dream.  Radi- 
calism she  judged  to  be  a  dangerous  com- 
promise with  the  forces  of  revolution ;  the 
theory  that  England  had  little  or  no  con- 
cern with  European  politics,  and  no  title  to 
exert  influence  on  their  course,  conflicted 
with  her  training  and  the  domestic  sen- 
timent that  came  of  her  foreign  family  con- 
nections. The  mutability  of  Gladstone's 
political  views,  and  their  tendency  to  move 
in  the  direction  which  the  queen  regarded 
as  unsafe,  tried  her  nerves.  During  Glad- 
stone's first  ministry  he  and  his  colleagues 
undertook  a  larger  number  of  legislative 
reforms  than  any  government  had  essayed 
during  her  reign,  and  the  obligation  which 
she  felt  to  be  imposed  on  her  of  studying 
the  arguments  in  their  favour  often  over- 
taxed her  strength.  New  questions  arose 
with  such  rapidity  that  she  complained  that 
she  had  not  the  time  wherein  to  form  a 


Victoria 

judgment.  Gladstone,  who  was  unwearied 
in  his  efforts  to  meet  her  protests  or  in- 
quiries, had  not  the  faculty  of  brevity  in 
exposition.  His  intellectual  energy,  his 
vehemence  in  argument,  the  steady  flow  of 
his  vigorous  language,  tormented  her.  With 
perfectly  constitutional  correctness  she  ac- 
knowledged herself  powerless  to  enforce  her 
opinion  against  his ;  but  she  made  no  secret 
of  her  private  reluctance  to  approve  his  pro- 
posals. Gladstone's  social  accomplishments, 
moreover,  were  not  of  a  kind  calculated  to 
conciliate  the  queen  in  intercourse  outside 
official  business,  or  to  compensate  for  the 
divergences  between  their  political  points  of 
view.  The  topics  which  absorbed  him  in  his 
private  life  were  far  removed  from  the  queen's 
sphere  of  knowledge  or  interest.  Some  of 
Gladstone's  colleagues  in  his  first  ministry 
were,  however,  entirely  congenial  to  her. 
She  was  already  on  friendly  terms  with  Lord 
Granville,  the  colonial  secretary,  and  with 
the  Duke  of  Argyll,  the  Indian  secretary,  and 
she  had  long  placed  implicit  confidence  in 
Lord  Clarendon,  who  now  resumed  the  post 
of  foreign  secretary. 

The  first  measure  which  Gladstone  as 
prime  minister  introduced  was  the  long- 
Her  views  threatened  bill  for  the  disesta- 
on  the  Irish  blishment  of  the  Irish  church, 
church  bill.  She  avowed  vehement  dislike  of 
it,  and  talked  openly  of  her  sorrow  that  Glad- 
stone should  have  started  'this  about  the  Irish 
church'(WiLBERFORCE'sZt/e,iii.97).  In  the 
correspondence  with  her  daughter  Alice  she 
argued  that  the  question  would  '  be  neither 
solved  nor  settled  in  this  way.  Injustice  to 
protestants  might  come  of  it.  The  settle- 
ment was  not  well  considered.'  She  told 
Gladstone  how  deeply  she  '  deplored  the 
necessity  under  which  he  conceived  him- 
self to  be  of  raising  the  question  as  he  had 
done.'  and  how  unable  she  was  to  divest 
herself  of  apprehensions  as  to  the  possible 
consequences.  But  she  was  under  no  illusion 
as  to  Gladstone's  resolve  and  power  to  pass 
the  bill  through  parliament.  She  frankly 
admitted  that  the  House  of  Commons  had 
been  '  chosen  expressly  to  speak  the  feeling 
of  the  country  on  the  question,'  and  she 
believed  that  if  a  second  appeal  were  made 
to  the  electorate  it  would  produce  the 
same  result.  Common  sense  taught  her  that 
the  quicker  the  inevitable  pill  was  swal- 
lowed the  better  for  the  country's  peace. 
But  she  saw  that  a  fruitless  and  perilous  re- 
sistance was  threatened  by  the  House  of  Lords. 
In  the  previous  session  they  had  thrown  out 
the  bill  suspending  further  appointments  in 
the  Irish  church  which  Gladstone  had  car- 
ried through  the  House  of  Commons,  and 


Victoria 


465 


Victoria 


Tait,  then  bishop  of  London,  had  voted  with 
the  majority.  A  collision  between  the  two 
houses  always  seemed  to  the  queen  to  shake 
the  constitution,  and  she  knew  that  in  a  case 
like  the  present  the  upper  house  must  invite 
defeat  in  the  conflict.  She  therefore,  on  her 
own  initiative,  proposed  to  mediate  between 
the  government  and  the  House  of  Lords. 
Gladstone  welcomed  her  intervention,  and 
was  conciliatory. 

Accordingly,  the  day  before  parliament 
opened,  15  Feb.  1869,  the  queen  asked  Tait 
whether  the  House  of  Lords  could  not 
be  persuaded  to  give  way.  Gladstone,  she 
said,  '  seems  really  moderate.'  The  prin- 
ciple of  disestablishment  must  be  conceded, 
but  the  details  might  well  be  the  subject 

of  future  discussion  and  nego- 
toThePiords.  tiation.  At  her  request  Tait  and 

Gladstone  met  in  consultation. 
After  the  bill  had  passed  through  the  House 
of  Commons  with  enormous  majorities 
(31  May),  she  importuned  Tait  to  secure 
the  second  reading  in  the  lords,  with  the  re- 
sult that  it  was  carried  by  33  (18  June). 
But  greater  efforts  on  the  queen's  part  were 
required  before  the  crisis  was  at  an  end. 
The  amendments  adopted  by  the  lords  were 
for  the  most  part  rejected  by  Gladstone. 
On  11  June  the  queen  pressed  on  both  sides 
the  need  of  concessions,  and  strongly  depre- 
cated a  continuance  of  the  struggle.  At 
length  the  government  gave  way  on  certain 
subsidiary  points,  and  the  bill  passed  safely 
its  last  stages  (Life  of  Tait,  ii.  passim). 
How  much  of  the  result  was  due  to  the 
queen's  interference,  and  how  much  to  the 
stress  of  events,  may  be  matter  for  argu- 
ment; but  there  is  no  disputing  that  through- 
out this  episode  she  oiled  the  wheels  of  the 
constitutional  machinery. 

During  this  anxious  period  the  queen's 
public  activities  were  mainly  limited  to  a 
review  of  troops  at  Aldershot  on  17  April. 
On  25  May  she  celebrated  quietly  her  fiftieth 
birthday,  and  at  the  end  of  June  enter- 
tained for  a  second  time  the  khedive  of 
Egypt.  On  28  June  she  gave  a  '  breakfast ' 
or  afternoon  party  in  his  honour  at  Bucking- 
ham Palace — the  main  festivity  in  which 
she  took  part  during  the  season.  In  the 
course  of  her  autumn  visit  to  Balmoral  she 
went  on  a  tour  through  the  Trossachs  and 
visited  Loch  Lomond.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  year,  6  Nov.,  she  made  one  of  her  rare 

Cages  through  London,  and  the  first  since 
widowhood.      She  opened  Blackfriars 
Bridge  and  Holborn  Viaduct,  but  she  came 
from  Windsor  only  for  the  day. 

The  queen  occasionally  sought  at  this 
period  a  new  form  of  relaxation  in  inter- 

VOL.  III.— 8XTP. 


course  with  some  of  the  men  of  lettea 
whose  fame  contributed  to  the  glory  of  bar 
intercourse  reign.  Her  personal  interval  in 
with  men  of  literature  was  not  strong,  and 
it  diminished  in  her  later  year* ; 
but  she  respected  its  producers  and  their 
influence.  With  Tennyson,  whose  work 
her  husband  had  admired,  and  whose  'In 
Memoriam '  gave  her  much  comfort  in  her 
grief,  she  was  already  in  intimate  correspon- 
dence, which  she  maintained  till  his  death ; 
and  when  he  visited  her  at  Windsor  and 
Osborne  she  treated  him  with  the  utmost 
confidence.  Through  her  friends,  Sir  Arthur 
Helps  and  Dean  Stanley,  she  had  come  to 
hear  much  of  other  great  living  writers. 
Lady  Augusta  Stanley  told  her  of  Carlyle, 
and  she  sent  him  a  message  of  condolence 
on  the  sudden  death  of  his  wife  in  1866. 
In  May  1869  the  queen  visited  the  West- 
minster deanery  mainly  to  make  Carlyle's 
personal  acquaintance.  The  Stanleys'  guests 
also  included  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Grote,  Sir  Charles 
and  Lady  Lyell,  and  the  poet  Browning. 
The  queen  was  in  a  most  gracious  humour. 
Carlyle  deemed  it  '  impossible  to  imagine 
a  politer  little  woman;  nothing  the  least 
imperious ;  all  gentle,  all  sincere  .  .  .  makes 
you  feel  too  (if  you  have  any  sense  in  you ) 
that  she  is  queen'  (FKOUDE,  Carlyle  in 
London,  ii.  379-80).  She  told  Browning 
that  she  admired  his  wife's  poetry  (It BID, 
Lord  Houffhton,  ii.  200).  Among  the  novels 
she  had  lately  read  was  George  Eliot's  'Mill 
on  the  Floss,'  but  Dickens's  work  was  the 
only  fiction  of  the  day  that  really  attracted 
her.  In  him,  too,  she  manifested  personal 
interest.  She  had  attended  in  1857  a  per- 
formance by  himself  and  other  amateurs  of 
Wilkie  Collins's  'The  Frozen  Deep'  at  the 
Gallery  of  Illustration,  and  some  proposals, 
which  came  to  nothing,  had  been  made  to 
him  to  read  the '  Christmas  Carol '  at  court  in 
1858.  At  the  sale  of  Thackeray's  property 
in  1864  she  purchased  for  25/.  10*.  the  copy 
of  the  'Christmas  Carol'  which  Dirk.-m 
had  presented  to  Thackeray.  In  March 
1870  Dickens,  at  Helps's  request,  lent  her 
some  photographs  of  scenes  in  the  American 
civil  war,  and  she  took  the  opportunity 
that  she  had  long  sought  of  making  his  per- 
sonal acquaintance.  She  summoned  him  to 
Buckingham  Palace  in  order  to  thank  him 
for  his  courtesy.  On  his  departure  she  asked 
him  to  present  her  with  copies  of  his  writ- 
ings, and  handed  him  a  copy  of  her  '  LeaTes 
with  the  autograph  inscription, '  From  the 
humblest  of  writers  to  one  of  the  greatest 
Other  writers  of  whom  she  thought  highly 
included  Dr.  Samuel  Smiles,  whose 'Lire* 
of  the  Engineers'  she  presented  to  her  i 

U  H 


Victoria 


466 


Victoria 


in-law  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  in  1865,  and 
whose  '  Life  of  Thomas  Edward,  the  Banff 
Naturalist,'  she  examined  in  1876  with  such 
effect  as  to  direct  the  bestowal  on  Edward 
of  a  civil  list  pension  of  501.  She  was  in- 
terested, too,  in  the  works  of  George  Mac- 
donald,  on  whom  she  induced  Lord  Beacons- 
field  to  confer  a  pension  in  1877. 

In  1870  European  politics  once  more  formed 
the  most  serious  topic  of  the  queen's  thought, 
and  the  death  in  July  of  her  old  friend,  Lord 
Clarendon,  the  foreign  secretary,  increased 
her  anxieties.  Despite  her  personal  attach- 
ment to  Lord  Granville,  who  succeeded  to 
Clarendon's  post,  she  had  far  smaller  faith 
in  his  political  judgment.  Although  she 
watched  events  with  attention,  the  queen 

was  hopeful  until  the  last  that 
Gennanwax.  tne  struggle  between  France  and 

Germany,  which  had  long  threa- 
tened, might  be  averted.  In  private  letters 
to  the  rulers  of  both  countries  she  con- 
stantly counselled  peace ;  but  her  efforts  were 
vain,  and  in  July  1870  Napoleon  declared 
war.  She  regarded  his  action  as  wholly 
unjustified,  and  her  indignation  grew  when 
Bismarck  revealed  designs  that,  Napoleon  was 
alleged  to  have  formed  to  destroy  the  inde- 
pendence of  Belgium,  a  country  in  whose 
fortunes  she  was  deeply  concerned  by  reason 
of  the  domestic  ties  that  linked  her  with  its 
ruler.  In  the  opening  stages  of  the  conflict 
that  followed  her  ruling  instincts  identified 
her  fully  with  the  cause  of  Germany.  Both 
her  sons-in-law,  the  crown  prince  and  Prince 
Louis  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  were  in  the  field, 
and  through  official  bulletins  and  the  gene- 
ral information  that  her  daughters  collected 
for  her,  she  studied  their  movements  with 
Her  sym-  painful  eagerness.  She  sent 
pathy  with  hospital  stores  to  her  daughter  at 
iany-  Darmstadt,  and  encouraged  her 
in  her  exertions  in  behalf  of  the  wounded. 
When  crushing  disaster  befell  the  French 
arms  she  regarded  their  defeat  as  a  righteous 
judgment.  She  warmly  approved  a  sermon 
preached  before  her  by  her  friend,  Dr.  Nor- 
man Macleod,  at  Balmoral  on  2  Oct.  1870, 
in  which  he  implicitly  described  France  as 
'  reaping  the  reward  of  her  wickedness  and 
vanity  and  sensuality'  (More  Leaves,  p. 
151).  But  many  of  her  subjects  sympathised 

with  France,  and  her  own  tender- 
Her  pity  for  f  •,  ,  -,  . .  ,,  , 

France.          ness  o*  heart  evoked  pity  lor  her 

French  neighbours  in  the  com- 
pleteness of  their  overthrow.  With  a 
view  to  relieve  their  sufferings,  she  en- 
treated her  daughter  the  crown  princess,  her 
son-in-law  the  crown  prince,  and  her  friend 
and  his  mother  the  queen  of  Prussia  to  avert 
the  calamity  of  the  bombardment  of  Paris. 


Bismarck  bitterly  complained  that  '  the 
petticoat  sentimentality  which  the  queen 
communicated  to  the  Prussian  royal  family 
hampered  the  fulfilment  of  German  designs. 
The  crown  prince's  unconcealed  devotion  to 
her  compromised  him  in  the  eyes  of  Bis- 
marck, who  deprecated  her  son-in-law's 
faith  in  her  genuine  attachment  to  German 
interests  (see  the  wince's  '  Diary,'  edited  by 
Professor  Geffeken,  in  Deutsche  Rundschau, 
1888).  Nor  did  the  queen  refrain  from 
pressing  her  ministers  to  offer  her  mediation 
with  the  object  not  merely  of  bringing  the 
war  to  an  early  close,  but  of  modifying  the 
vindictive  terms  which  Germany  sought  to 
impose  on  France.  But  her  endeavours 
were  of  small  avail.  English  influence  was 
declining  in  the  councils  of  Europe.  Russia 
had  made  the  preoccupation  of  France  and 
Germany  the  occasion  for  breaking  the  clause 
in  the  treaty  of  Paris  which  excluded  Rus- 
sian warships  from  the  Black  Sea.  And 
this  defiant  act  was  acquiesced  in  by  Glad- 
stone's government.  Yet  the  queen's  efforts 
for  France  were  well  appreciated  there. 
Some  years  later  (3  Dec.  1874)  she  accepted, 
with  sympathetic  grace,  at  Windsor  an 
address  of  thanks,  to  which  she  replied  in 
French,  from  representatives  of  the  French 
nation,  for  the  charitable  services  rendered 
by  English  men  and  women  during  the 
war ;  the  elaborate  volumes  of  photographs 
illustrating  the  campaigns,  which  accom- 
panied the  address,  she  placed  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Hatred  of  Napoleon's  policy  did  not 
estrange  her  compassion  from  him  in  the 
ruin  that  overtook  him  and  his  family.  The 
Empress  Eugenie  fled  to  England  in  Sep- 
[  tember  1870,  and  took  up  her  residence  at 
I  Chislehurst.  The  queen  at  once  sent  her  a 
kindly  welcome,  and  on  30  Nov.  paid  her  a 
i  long  visit,  which  the  exile  returned  at,  Wind- 
sor on  5  Dec.  Thenceforth  their  friendship 
was  unchecked.  When  Napoleon,  on  his 
release  from  a  German  prison,  joined  his 
wife  in  March  1871,  the  queen  lost  no  time 
in  visiting  him  at  Chislehurst,  and  until  his 
death  on  9  Jan.  1873  openly  showed  her 
fellow-feeling  with  him  in  his  melancholy 
fate. 

The  course  that  domestic  affairs  were 
taking  during  1870  was  hardly  more  agree- 
able to  her  than  the  course  of  foreign 
affairs.  In  April  the  attempt  by  a  Fenian  to 
assassinate  Prince  Alfred  while  on  a  visit  at 
Port  Jackson,  New  South  Wales,  greatly 
disturbed  her,  but  happily  the  prince  re- 
covered; and  she  had  no  reason  to  doubt 
the  genuineness  of  public  sympathy  which 
was  given  her  in  full  measure.  At  home 


Victoria 


467 


Victoria 


she  was  mainly  troubled  by  the  govern- 
ment's resolve  to  begin  the  reorganisation  of 
the  army,  which  had  been  long  contemplated. 
The  first  step  taken  by  Cardwell,  the  secre- 
tary of  state  for  war,  was  to  subordinate 
the  office  of  commander-in-chief  to  his  own. 
Twice  before  the  queen  had  successfully 
resisted  or  postponed  a  like  proposal.  She 
regarded  it  as  an  encroachment  on  the  royal 
prerogative.  Through  the  commander-m- 
chief  she  claimed  that  the  crown 
OsrdweU's  directly  controlled  the  army  with- 
out the  intervention  of  ministers 
"ms-  or  parliament ;  but  her  ministers 
now  proved  resolute,  and  she,  on  28  June 
1870,  signed  an  order  in  council  which  de- 
posed the  commander-in-chief  from  his  place 
of  sole  and  immediate  dependence  on  the 
crown  (Hansard,  ccii.  10  sq. ;  Parl.  Papers, 
1870,  c.  164).  Xext  session  the  government 
scheme  for  reorganising  the  army  was  pushed 
forward  in  a  bill  for  the  abolition  of  pro- 
motion by  purchase  which  passed  through 
the  House  of  Commons  by  large  majorities. 
In  the  House  of  Lords  the  Duke  of  Rich- 
mond carried  resolutions  which  meant  the 
ruin  of  the  measure.  Characteristically,  the 
queen  deprecated  a  conflict  between  the 
houses,  but  the  government  extricated  her  and 
themselves  from  that  peril  by  a  bold  device 
which  embarrassed  her.  They  advised  her  j 
to  accomplish  their  reform  by  exercise  of  her 
own  authority  without  further  endeavour  to 
win  the  approval  of  the  upper  house.  The 
purchase  of  commissions  had  been  legalised 
not  by  statute,  but  by  royal  warrant,  which 
could  be  abrogated  by  the  sovereign  on  the 
advice  of  her  ministers  without  express 
sanction  of  parliament.  In  the  special  cir- 
cumstances the  procedure  violently  strained 
the  power  of  the  prerogative  against  one 
branch  of  the  legislature,  and  the  queen 
accepted  the  ministerial  counsel  with 
mixed  feelings.  She  had  small  sympathy 
with  the  proposed  reform,  and  feared  to 
estrange  the  House  of  Lords  from  the 
crown  by  procedure  which  circumvented 
its  authority;  but  the  assertion  of  the  pre- 
rogative was  never  ungrateful  to  her,  and 
the  responsibility  for  her  action  was  her 
minister's. 

Despite  her  industrious  pursuit  of  public 
business,  the  mass  of  the  people  continued  to 
deplore  the  infrequency  of  her  public  appear- 
ances ;  of  the  only  two  public  ceremonies  in 
which  she  engaged  to  take  part  in  1870,  she 
fulfilled  no  more  than  one.  She  opened 
(11  May  1870)  the  new  buildings  of  London 
University  at  Burlington  House ;  but,  to  the 
general  disappointment,  indisposition  led  her 
to  delegate  to  the  prince  of  Wales  the  open- 


ing of  so  notable  a  London  improvement  ai 
the  Thames  Embankment  (13  July 
1  he  feeling  of  discontent  was  somewhat 
checked  by  the  announcement  in  October 
that  she  had  assented  to  the  engagement  of 
her  fourth  da  lighter,  Princess  Louise,  with  a 
subject,  and  one  who  was  in  the  eye  of  the 
law  a  commoner.  The  princess  had  giren 
her  hand  at  Balmoral  to  the  Marquis  of 
Lome,  eldest  son  of  the  Duke  of  Argyll. 
It  was  the  first  time  in  English  history  that 
the  sovereign  sanctioned  the  union  of  a 
Marriage  of  princess  with  one  who  was  not  a 
Princess  member  of  a  reigning  house  since 
Mary,  youngest  daughter  of 
Henry  \II  and  sister  of  Henry  VIII, 
married,  in  1515,  Charles  Brandon,  duke 
of  Suffolk.  James  H's  marriage  to  Anne 
Hyde  in  1660  did  not  receive  the  same 
official  recognition.  The  queen  regarded  the 
match  merely  from  the  point  of  view  of  her 
daughter's  happiness.  It  rendered  neces- 
sary an  appeal  to  parliament  for  her  daugh- 
ter's provision;  and  as  her  third  son  Arthur 
was  on  the  point  of  coming  of  age,  and  also 
needed  an  income  from  public  sources,  it 
seemed  politic  to  conciliate  popular  !'• 
by  opening  parliament  in  person.  Accord- 
ingly, on  9  Feb.  1871,  she  occupied  her 
throne  in  Westminster  for  the  third  time 
since  her  bereavement.  Although  Sir  Ilo- 
bert  Peel,  son  of  the  former  prime  mini-tt  r, 
denounced  as  impolitic  the  approaching  mar- 
riage of  a  princess  with  '  a  son  of  a 
member  of  Her  Majesty's  government '  (the 
Duke  of  Argyll,  the  Marquis  of  Lome's 
father,  being  secretary  for  India ;  Ham- 
sard,  cciv.  359),  the  dowry  of  30,0007. 
with  an  annuity  of  6,000/.  was  granted 
almost  unanimously  (350  to  1).  Less  satis- 
faction was  manifested  when  the  Queen 
requested  parliament  to  provide  for  1 ' 
Arthur.  An  annuity  of  15,000/.  was  be- 
stowed, but  although  the  minority  on  the 
final  vote  numbered  only  11,  as  many  as  61 
members  voted  in  favour  of  an  unsuccessful 
amendment  to  reduce  the  sum  to  lp.000/. 
(Hansard,  ccviii.  570-90).  Meanwhile  the 
court  cast  off  some  of  its  gloom.  The  mar- 
riage of  Princess  Louise  took  place  nt  St. 
George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  with  much  pomp, 
on  21  March  1871,  in  the  pn-M-iuv  »f  the 
queen,  who  for  the  occasion  lightened  hf  r 
usual  mourning  attire.  With  unaccustomed 
activity  in  the  months  that  followed  the 
opened  the  Albert  Hall  (W  March),  inau- 
gurated the  new  buildings  of  St.  Thomas's 
Hospital,  and  reviewed  the  household 
troops  in  Bushey  Park,  when  the  you 
prince  imperial  joined  the  royal  partj 
(30  June).  At  Balmoral  that  year,  although 
v  ii  11  - 


Victoria 


468 


Victoria 


the  queen  suffered  severely  from  rheumatic 
gout  and  neuralgia,  she  entertained  a 
large  family  party,  including  the  crown 
prince  and  princess  of  Prussia  and  Princess 
Alice. 

The  increasing  happiness  in  the  royal  circle 
•was  menaced  at  the  end  of  the  year  by  a  grief 
almost  as  great  as  that  which  befell  it  just 
ten  years  before.  At  the  end  of  November 
the  prince  of  Wales  fell  ill  of  typhoid  fever, 
at  his  house  at  Sandringham,  and  as  the 
illness  reached  its  most  critical  stage,  the 
gravest  fears  were  entertained.  The  queen 
illness  of  the  went  to  Sandringham  on  29  Nov., 
prince  of  and  news  of  a  relapse  brought 
Wales.  her  thither  again  on  8  Dec.  with 

her  daughter  Alice,  who  was  still  her 
guest.  Both  remained  for  eleven  days, 
during  which  the  prince's  life  hung  in 
the  balance.  Happily,  on  the  fateful 
14  Dec.,  the  tenth  anniversary  of  the  prince 
consort's  death,  the  first  indications  of  re- 
covery appeared,  and  on  the  19th,  when  the 
queen  returned  to  Windsor,  the  danger  was 
passed.  A  week  later  the  queen  issued  for 
the  first  time  a  letter  to  her  people,  thanking 
them  for  the  touching  sympathy  they  had 
displayed  during '  those  painful  terrible  days.' 
As  soon  as  her  son's  health  was  fully  re- 
stored the  queen  temporarily  abandoned  her 
privacy  to  accompany  him  in  a  semi-state 
Public  procession  from  Buckingham 

thanks-  Palace  to  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
giving.  there  to  attend  a  special  service 
of  thanksgiving  (27  Feb.  1872).  She  was 
dressed  in  black  velvet,  trimmed  with  white 
ermine.  For  the  last  time  the  sovereign 
was  received  by  the  lord  mayor  with  the 
traditional  ceremonies  at  Temple  Bar,  the 
gates  of  which  were  first  shut  against  her 
and  then  opened  (the  Bar  was  removed  in 
the  winter  of  1878-9).  Next  day  (28  Feb.) 
the  queen  endured  renewal  of  a  disagreeable 
experience  of  earlier  years.  A  lad,  Arthur 
O'Connor,  who  pretended  to  be  a  Fenian 
emissary,  pointed  an  unloaded  pistol  at  the 
queen  as  she  was  entering  Buckingham 
Palace.  He  was  at  once  seized  by  her  at- 
tendant, John  Brown,  to  commemorate  whose 
vigilance  she  instituted  a  gold  medal  as  a 
reward  for  long  and  faithful  domestic  service. 
She  conferred  the  first  that  was  struck  on 
Brown,  together  with  an  annuity  of  25/.  On 
the  day  following  O'Connor's  senseless  act 
the  queen  addressed  a  second  letter  to  the 
public,  acknowledging  the  fervent  demon- 
strations of  loyalty  which  welcomed  her  and 
her  son  on  the  occasion  of  the  public  thanks- 
giving. 

That    celebration,     combined     with     its 
anxious  cause,  strengthened  immensely  the 


bonds  of  sentiment  that  united  the  crowa 
and  thepeople.  There  was  need  of  strengthen- 
ing these  bonds.  Every  year  increased  the 
feeling  that  the  queen's  reluctance  to  resume 
her  old  place  in  public  life  was  diminishing 
the  dignity  of  the  crown.  The  formation  of 
a  republic  in  France  at  the  same  time  en- 
couraged the  tendency  to  disparage  monar- 
chical institutions.  Lord  Selborne,  the  lord 
chancellor,  when  the  queen's  guest  at 
Popular  cen-  Windsor,  was  bold  enough  to  tell 
sure  of  the  her  that  if  the  French  republic 
lgn'  held  its  ground  it  would  influence- 
English  public  opinion  in  a  republican  direc- 
tion (SELBOBNE,  Memorials,  vol.  ii.)  During- 
the  early  seventies  the  cry  against  the  throne 
threatened  to  become  formidable.  Mob- 
orators  prophesied  that  Queen  Victoria  would 
at  any  rate  be  the  last  monarch  of  England. 
The  main  argument  of  the  anti-royalists 
touched  the  expenses  of  the  monarchy, 
which  now  included  large  provision  for  the 
queen's  children.  Criticism  of  her  income 
and  expenditure  was  developed  with  a  per- 
tinacity which  deeply  wounded  her.  Pam- 
phlets, some  of  which  were  attributed  to 
men  of  position,  compared  her  income  with 
the  modest  10,000£  allowed  to  the  president 
of  the  United  States.  A  malignant  tract, 
published  in  1871,  which  enjoyed  a  great 
vogue,  and  was  entitled  'Tracts  for  the 
Times,  No.  I. :  What  does  she  do  with  it  ?  by 
Solomon  Temple,  builder,'  professed  to  make 
a  thoroughgoing  examination  of  her  private 
expenditure.  The  writer  argued  that  while 
the  queen  was  constantly  asking  parliament 
for  money  for  her  children,  she  was  not 
spending  the  annuity  originally  secured  to 
her  by  the  civil  list  act  on  the  purposes  for 
which  it  was  designed.  A  comparatively 
small  proportion  of  it  was  applied,  it  was- 
asserted,  to  the  maintenance  of  the  dignity 
of  the  crown,  the  sole  object  with  which, 
it  was  granted ;  the  larger  part  of  it  went 
to  form  a  gigantic  private  fortune  which 
was  in  some  quarters  estimated  to  have 
already  reached  5,000,000/.  To  these  sav- 
ings the  writer  protested  she  had  no  right ; 
any  portion  of  the  civil  list  income  that  at 
the  end  of  the  year  remained  unexpended 
ought  to  return  to  the  public  exchequer. 
Personally,  it  was  said,  the  queen  was  well 
off,  apart  from  her  income  from  the  civil  list- 
Besides  Neild's  bequest  she  had  derived  more 
than  half  a  million  from  the  estate  of  the 
prince  consort,  and  the  receipts  from  the 
duchy  of  Lancaster  were  steadily  increasing. 
The  assertions  in  regard  to  matters  of  fact 
were  for  the  most  part  false.  The  queen's 
savings  in  the  civil  list  were  rarely  20,000/. 
a  year,  and  her  opportunities  of  thrift  were 


Victoria 


469 


Victoria 


grossly  misrepresented.  But  in  the  hands  of 
the  advocates  of  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment the  pecuniary  argument  was  valuable 
and  it  was  pressed  to  the  uttermost.  Sir 
Charles  W.  Dilke,  M.P.  for  Chelsea,  when 
speaking  in  favour  of  an  English  republic  at 
Newcastle  on  6  Nov.  1871,  complained  that 
the  queen  paid  no  income  tax.  Ministers 
found  it  needful  to  refute  the  damaging 
allegations.  Sir  Algernon  West,  one  of  the 
treasury  officials,  was  directed  by  the  prime 
minister  to  prepare  an  answer  to  the  ob- 
noxious pamphlet.  Robert  Lowe,  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  announced  that 
income  tax  was  paid  by  the  queen.  Twice 
at  the  end  of  the  session  of  1871  Gladstone 
in  the  House  of  Commons  insisted  that  the 
whole  of  the  queen's  income  was  justly  at  her 
personal  disposal  (Hansard,  ccvii.  1124, 
ccviii.  158-9).  But  the  agitators  were  not 
readily  silenced.  Next  session,  on  19  March 
1872,  Sir  Charles  Dilke  introduced  a  motion 
for  a  full  inquiry  into  the  queen's  expendi- 
Debatc  on  ture  with  a  view  to  a  complete 
the  civil  list,  reform  of  the  civil  list.  His 
long  and  elaborate  speech 
abounded  in  minute  details,  but  he  in- 
jured his  case  by  avowing  himself  a  republi- 
can :  and  when  the  same  avowal  was  made 
by  Mr.  Auberon  Herbert,  who  seconded  his 
motion,  a  scene  of  great  disorder  followed. 
Gladstone  denied  that  the  queen's  savings 
were  on  the  alleged  scale,  or  that  the  ex- 
penses of  the  court  had  appreciably  di- 
minished since  the  prince's  death  (Hansard, 
ccx.  253  sq.)  Only  two  members  of  the 
house,  Mr.  G.  Anderson  and  Sir  Wilfrid 
Lawson,  voted  with  Sir  Charles  Dilke  and 
Mr.  Herbert,  and  their  proposal  was  rejected 
by  a  majority  of  274.  In  the  event  the 
-wave  of  republican  sentiment  was  soon  spent, 
but  the  conviction  that  the  people  paid 
an  unduly  high  price  for  the  advantages 
of  the  monarchy  remained  fully  alive  in 
the  minds  of  large  sections  of  the  population, 
especially  of  the  artisan  class,  until  the  queen 
conspicuously  modified  herhabits  of  seclusion. 
The  main  solvent  of  the  popular  grievance, 
however,  was  the  affectionate  veneration 
which  was  roused  in  course  of  time  through- 
out her  dominions,  by  the  veteran  endurance 
of  her  rule,  and  by  the  growth  of  the  new 
and  powerful  faith  that  she  embodied  in  her 
own  person  the  unity  of  the  British  empire. 

VI 

From  the  flood  of  distasteful  criticism  in 
1872  the  queen  escaped  for  a  few  weeks  in 
the  spring  (23  March  to  8  April)  by  cross- 
ing to  Germany  in  order  to  visit  at  Baden- 
Baden  her  stepsister,  whose  health  was 


failing.  After  her  return  home  the  German 
empress,  with  whose  dislike  of  war  the  queen 
Deaths  in  was  m  thorough  sympathy,  was  a 
the  royal  welcome  guest  (2  May) ;  and  in  the 
circle,i872-3.  game  montn  SQe  SOUgh(;  unusual  re- 
creation by  attending  a  concert  which  Gounod 
conducted  at  the  newly  opened  Albert  Hall. 
But  death  was  again  busy  in  her  circle  and 
revived  her  grief.  She  had  derived  im- 
measurable comfort  from  conversation  with 
Dr.  Norman  Macleod.  '  How  I  love  to  talk 
to  him,'  she  said, '  to  ask  his  advice,  to  speak 
to  him  of  my  sorrows,  my  anxieties ! '  (More 
Leaves,  pp.  143-161);  but  on  16  June  he 
passed  away.  Her  first  mistress  of  the 
robes  and  lifelong  friend,  the  Duchess  of 
Sutherland,  had  died  in  1868,  and  she  now 
visited  the  duchess's  son  and  daughter-in- 
law  at  Dunrobin  Castle  from  6  to  12  Sept. 
1872,  so  that  she  might  be  present  at  the  lay- 
ing of  the  first  stone  of  a  memorial  to  her  late 
companion.  In  the  same  month  her  step- 
sister, the  Princess  Feodore,  the  last  surviving 
friend  of  her  youth,  died  at  Baden-Baden 
(23  Sept.),  while  the  death  on  the  following 
9  Jan.  of  Napoleon  III,  whose  amiabi- 
lity to  her  and  her  family  was  never  con- 
quered by  disaster,  imposed  on  her  the  mourn- 
ful task  of  consoling  his  widow.  She  gave 
the  sarcophagus  which  enclosed  his  remains 
in  St.  Mary's  Church,  Chislehurst. 

The  year  that  opened  thus  sadly  witnessed 
several  incidents  that  stirred  in  the  queen 
more  pleasurable  sensations.  In 
?linreseoffice.  March  Gladstone's  Irish  univer- 
sity bill  was  rejected  by  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  he  at  once  resigned 
(11  March).  The  queen  accepted  his  resigna- 
tion, and  invited  Disraeli  to  take  his  place, 
but  Disraeli  declined  in  view  of  the  normal 
balance  of  parties  in  the  existing  House  of 
Commons.  Disraeli  was  vainly  persuaded  to 
follow  another  course.  Gladstone  pointed 
out  to  the  queen  that  the  refusal  of  Disraeli, 
who  had  brought  about  his  defeat,  to  assume 
office  amounted  to  an  unconstitutional  shirk- 
ing of  his  responsibilities.  Disraeli  was 
awaiting  with  confidence  an  appeal  to  the 
constituencies,  which  Gladstone  was  not  de- 
sirous of  inviting  at  once,  although  he  could 
not  now  long  delay  it.  In  face  of  Disraeli's 
obduracy  he  was,  at  the  queen's  request, 
compelled,  however  reluctantly,  to  return  for 
a  season  at  least  to  the  treasury  bencK 
(20  March).  His  government  was  greatly 
shaken  in  reputation,  but  they  succeeded 
in  holding  on  till  the  beginning  of  next 
year. 

When  the  ministerial  crisis  ended,  the 
queen  paid  for  the  first  time  an  official  visit 
to  the  east  end  of  London  in  order  to  opea 


Victoria 


470 


Victoria 


the  new  Victoria  Park  (2  AprilX  The  sum- 
mer saw  her  occupied  in  extending  hospita- 
First  virit  of  Uty  to  a  political  guest,  the  shah 
the  shah  of  of  Persia,  who,  like  the  sultan  of 
Turkey,  was  the  first  wearer  of  his 
crown  to  visit  England.  The  queen's  regal 
position  in  India  rendered  it  fitting  for  her  to 
welcome  oriental  potentates  at  her  court, 
and  the  rivalry  in  progress  in  Asia  be- 
tween Russia  and  England  gave  especial 
value  to  the  friendship  of  Persia.  The  shah 
stayed  at  Buckingham  Palace  from  19  June 
to  4  July,  and  an  imposing  reception  was 
accorded  him.  The  prince  of  Wales  for  the 
most  part  did  assiduous  duty  as  host  in  be- 
half of  his  mother,  but  she  thrice  entertained 
the  shah  at  Windsor,  and  he  wrote  with  en- 
thusiasm of  the  cordiality  of  her  demeanour. 
At  their  first  meeting,  on  20  June,  she  in- 
vested him  with  the  order  of  the  garter ;  at 
the  second,  on  24  June,  he  accompanied  her 
to  a  review  in  Windsor  Park ;  and  at  the 
third,  on  2  July,  he  exchanged  photographs 
with  her,  and  he  visited  the  prince  consort's 
mausoleum  at  Frogmore  (Diary  of  the  Shah, 
translated  by  Redhouse,  1874,  pp.  144  sq.) 

Meanwhile  the  governments  of  both  Russia 
and  England  were  endeavouring  to  diminish 
the  friction  and  suspicion  that  habitually 
impeded  friendly  negotiations  be- 
t"wreen  them.  At  the  opening  of  the 
year  Count  Schouvaloff  was  sent 
by  the  Tsar  Alexander  n  on  a  secret  mission 
to  the  queen.  He  assured  her  that  the  Rus- 
sians had  no  intention  of  making  further  ad- 
vances in  Central  Asia.  Events  proved  that 
assurance  to  be  equivocal :  but  there  was 
another  object  of  SchouvalofFs  embassy, 
which  was  of  more  immediate  interest  to  the 
q^ueen,  and  accounted  for  the  extreme  cordia- 
lity that  she  extended  to  him.  A  matrimo- 
nial union  between  the  English  and  Russian 
royal  houses  was  suggested.  The  families 
were  already  slightly  connected.  The  sister 
of  the  princess  of  Wales  had  married  the 
tsarevitch  (afterwards  Tsar  Alexander  III). 
The  proposal  was  regarded  by  the  queen  as 
of  great  political  promise,  and  at  the  date  of 
the  shah  s  visit  the  tsarevitch  and  his  wife 
were  staying  at  Marlborough  House  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  project.  In  July  the  queen 
assented  to  the  marriage  of  Prince  Alfred, 
her  second  son.  with  Grand  Duchess  Marie 
Alexandrovna,  the  Tsar  Alexander  IPs  only 
daughter,  and  the  sister-in-law  of  the 
tsarevna,  the  princess  of  Wales's  sister.  The 
queen  was  elated  by  the  formation  of  this 
new  tie  with  the  family  of  England's  present 
rival  in  Asia,  and  her  old  antagonist  on  the 
field  of  the  Crimea.  Subsequently  she  chose 
her  friend  Dean  Stanley  to  perform  at  St. 


Petersburg  the  wedding  ceremony  after  the 
Anglican  rite  (23  Jan.  1 874),  and  she  struggled 
Marriage  of  hard  to  read  in  the  dean's  own  il- 
the  Dake  of  legible  handwriting  the  full  and 
Edinburgh.  yivid  accounts  he  sent  ber  of  1 
experiences.  Inthe  following  May  the  coping- 
stone  seemed  to  be  placed  on  the  edifice  of 
an  Anglo-Russian  peace  by  her  entertainment 
at  Windsor  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  II,  her 
new  daughter-in-law's  father.  But  the  march 
of  events  did  not  allow  the  marriage  appre- 
ciably to  affect  the  political  issues  at  stake 
between  Russia  and  England,  and  within 
three  years  they  were  again  on  the  verge  of 
war. 

Meanwhile,  in  January  1874,  the  queen 
permitted  Gladstone  to  dissolve  parliament. 
The  result  was  a  triumphant  victory  for  the 
conservatives.  To  the  queen's  relief  Glad- 
stone's term  of  office  was  ended,  and  she  did 
not  conceal  the  gratification  with  which  she 
Disraeli  in  recalled  Disraeli  to  power.  Her 
power,  new  minister's  position  was  ex- 

1874-  ceptionally  strong.     He  enjoyed 

the  advantage,  which  no  conservative  mini- 
ster since  Peel  took  office  in  1841  had  en- 
joyed, of  commanding  large  majorities  in 
both  houses  of  parliament.  Despite  a  few 
grumblers,  he  exerted  supreme  authority  over 
his  party,  and  the  queen  was  prepared  to  ex- 
tend to  him  the  fullest  confidence.  Disraeli's 
political  views  strongly  commended  them- 
selves to  her.  His  elastic  conservatism  did 
not  run  counter  to  her  whiggish  sentiment. 
His  theory  of  the  constitution  gave  to  the 
crown  a  semblance  of  strength  and  dignity 
with  which  her  recent  ministers  had  been 
loth  to  credit  it.  Moreover  his  opinion  of 
the  crown's  relations  to  foreign  affairs  pre- 
cisely coincided  with  the  belief  which  her 
husband  had  taught  her,  that  it  was  the  duty 
of  a  sovereign  of  England  to  seek  to  influence 
the  fortunes  of  Europe.  In  his  social  inter- 
course, too,  Disraeli  had  the  advantage  of  a 
personal  fascination  which  grew  with  closer 
acquaintance,  and  developed  in  the  queen  a 
genuine  affection  for  him.  He  conciliated  her 
idiosyncrasies.  He  affected  interest  in  the 
topics  which  he  knew  to  interest  her.  He 
showered  upon  her  all  his  arts  and  graces  of 
conversation.  He  did  what  no  other  mini- 
in  the  reign  succeeded  in  doing  in  private  talk 
with  her — he  amused  her.  His  social  charm 
lightened  the  routine  of  state  business.  He 
briefly  informed  her  of  the  progress  of  affairs, 
but  did  not  overwhelm  her  with  details. 
Nevertheless,  he  well  understood  the  practical 
working  of  the  constitution,  and,  while  mag- 
nifying the  queen's  potential  force  of  sove- 
reignty, he  did  not  prejudice  the  supreme 
responsibilities  of  his  own  office.  His  gene- 


Victoria 


471 


Victoria 


ral  line  of  policy  being  congenial  to  her, 
argument  or  explanation  was  rarely  needful ; 
but  in  developing  his  policy  he  was  not 
His  relations  moved  by  her  suggestions  or 
with  the  criticism  in  a  greater  degree  than 
his  predecessors.  Even  in  the 
matter  of  important  appointments  he  did 
not  suffer  her  influence  to  go  beyond  pre- 
vious limits.  But  by  his  exceptional  tact 
and  astuteness  he  reconciled  her  to  almost 
every  decision  he  took,  whether  or  no  it 
agreed  with  her  inclination.  When  he  failed 
to  comply  with  her  wishes  he  expressed 
regret  with  a  felicity  which  never  left  a 
•wound.  In  immaterial  matters — the  grant 
of  a  civil  list  pension  or  the  bestowal  of  a 
subordinate  post  or  title — he  not  merely 
acceded  to  the  queen's  requests,  but  saw 
that  effect  was  given  to  them  with  prompt- 
ness. Comparing  his  attitude  to  the  queen 
with  Gladstone's,  contrasting  the  harmony 
of  his  relations  with  her  and  the  tension 
that  characterised  his  rival's,  he  was  in  the 
habit  of  saying,  'Gladstone  treats  the  queen 
like  a  public  department ;  I  treat  her  like  a 
woman.' 

Disraeli's  government  began  its  work 
quietly.  Its  main  business  during  its  first 
session  was  ecclesiastical  legislation,  with 
which  the  queen  was  in  full  sympathy.  Both 
the  churches  of  Scotland  and  England  were 
affected.  The  public  worship  regulation  bill, 
which  was  introduced  by  Archbishop  Tait, 
was  an  endeavour  to  check  in  England  the 
growth  of  ritualism,  which  the  queen  ab- 
horred, and  the  Scottish  church  patronage 
bill  substituted  congregational  election  for 
lay  patronage  in  the  appointment  of  mini- 
sters in  the  established  church  of  Scotland, 
whose  prosperity  the  queen  made  a  personal 
concern.  Resistance  by  the  Scottish  church  I 
leaders  to  this  reform  at  an  earlier  date  • 
had  led  to  the  disruption  of  the  established  | 
church  of  Scotland,  and  Scottish  dissenters, 
Continued  especially  those  who  had  left  the 
tion  church,  raised  stout  opposition  to 
a  concession  which  they  regarded 
as  too  belated  to  be  equitable.  To 
the  queen's  disgust  Gladstone  vehemently 
opposed  the  measure.  His  speech  against 
the  bill  excited  her  warm  displeasure.  She 
denounced  it  as  mere  obstruction.  '  He 
might  so  easily  have  stopped  away,'  she  re- 
marked to  her  friend,  Principal  Tulloch ;  but 
the  bill  was  carried  in  spite  of  Gladstone's 
protest. 

It  was  the  queen's  full  intention  to  have 
opened  parliament  in  person  in  February 
1876,  by  way  of  indicating  her  sympathy 
with  the  new  ministers;  but  the  serious  ill- 
ness of  Prince  Leopold  from  typhoid  fever 


with 

Glail.-toiu-. 


kept  her  away.  On  his  recovery,  in  con- 
formity with  the  views  that  bbe  and  her 
prime  minister  held  of  the  obligations  of 
intervention  in  European  politics  that  lay 
upon  an  English  monarch,  she  immersed 
herself  in  delicate  negotiations  with  foreign 
sovereigns.  Rumour  spread  abroad  that  the 
Franco-German  war  was  to  be  at  once  re- 
newed. Republican  France  had  been  push- 
ing forward  new  armaments,  and  it  was 
averred  that  she  was  bent  on  avenging  the 
humiliations  of  1870-1.  The  queen's  rela- 
tives at  Berlin  and  Darmstadt  informed  her 
in  the  spring  of  1875  that  Bismarck  was 
resolved  to  avoid  a  possible  surprise  on  the 
Fear  of  Part  °f  France  by  suddenly  be- 
another  ginning  the  attack.  Her  recent 

oSSSSwar.  friend>  Tsar  Alexander  II,  was 
travelling  in  Germany,  and  she 
wrote  appealing  to  him  to  use  his  influence 
with  the  German  emperor  (his  nephew)  to 
stay  violence.  On  20  June  1875  she  ad- 
dressed herself  directly  to  the  German  em- 
peror. She  insisted  that  her  fears  were  not 
exaggerated,  and  declaimed  against  the  ini- 
quity of  a  new  assault  on  France.  Bismarck 
wrote  to  his  master  expressing  cynical  resent- 
ment at  the  queen's  interference,  and  denied 
the  truth  of  her  information.  By  Bismarck's 
advice,  the  emperor  protested  to  her  against 
the  imputation  to  him  of  the  wickedness  of 
which  she  accused  his  policy.  That  there 
was  a  likelihood  of  an  outbreak  of  hostilities 
between  France  and  Germany  in  the  early 
months  of  1875  is  undoubted,  but  an  ac- 
commodation was  in  progress  before  the 
queen  intervened,  and  the  scare  soon  passed 
away.  Although  Bismarck  affected  to  scorn 
her  appeals,  they  clearly  helped  to  incline 
the  political  scales  of  central  Europe  in  the 
direction  of  peace  (BisMABCK,  Recollections, 
ii.  191  seq. ;  BUSCH,  Conversations  with  £is- 
marck ;  Princess  Alice's  Letters,  p.  339). 

It  was  agreeable  to  her  to  turn  from  Euro- 
pean complications  to  the  plans  whereby 
Disraeli  proposed  to  enhance  the  prestige  of 
her  crown,  and  to  strengthen  the  chain  that, 
since  the  legislation  of  1858,  personally 
linked  her  with  the  great  empire  of  India. 
Her  pride  in  her  relations  with  India  and 
her  interest  in  the  welfare  of  its  inhabitants 
were  always  growing.  She  therefore  readily 
agreed  that  the  prince  of  Wales  should,  as 
her  representative,  make  a  state  tour  through 
the  whole  territory,  and  should 
§S£Twl  visit  the  native  princes.  She  took 
an  affectionate  leaye  of  him  at 
Balmoral  on  17  Sept.  1875.  The  expedition 
was  completely  successful,  and  the  prince 
did  not  return  to  England  till  the  following 
May,  when  the  queen  welcomed  him  in 


Victoria 


472 


Victoria 


London  (11  May  1876).  Disraeli's  In- 
dian policy  also  included  the  bestowal  on 
her  of  a  title  which  would  declare  her 
Indian  sovereignty.  The  royal  titles  bill, 
which  conferred  on  her  the  designation  of 
empress  of  India,  was  the  chief  business  of 
the  session  of  1876,  and  she  fittingly  opened 
it  in  person  amid  much  popular  enthusiasm 
(8  Feb.)  The  opposition  warmly  criticised 
Disraeli's  proposal,  but  he  assured  the  House 
of  Commons  that  the  new  title  of  honour 
would  only  be  employed  in  India  and  in 
Indian  affairs.  The  bill  passed  through 
all  its  stages  before  1  May,  when  the  queen 
was  formally  proclaimed  empress  of  India 
in  London.  After  the  close  of  the  session 
she  was  glad  of  the  opportunity  of  mark- 
ing her  sense  of  the  devotion  that  Disraeli 
had  shown  her  by  offering  him  a  peerage 
(21  Aug.  1876) ;  his  health  had  suffered 
from  his  constant  attendance  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  he  entered  the  House 
of  Lords  next  year  as  Earl  of  Beacons- 
field.  On  1  Jan.  1877  at  Delhi  the  governor- 
general  of  India,  Lord  Lytton,  formally 
announced  the  queen's  assumption  of  her 
title  of  empress  to  an  imposing  assembly 
of  sixty-three  ruling  princes.  Memory 
of  the  great  ceremonial  was  perpetuated 
by  the  creation  of  a  new  Order  of  the 
Indian  empire,  while  a  new  imperial  Order 
of  the  Crown  of  India  was  established  as  a 
decoration  for  ladies  whose  male  relatives 
were  associated  with  the  Indian  government. 
The  queen  held  the  first  investiture  at 
Windsor  on  29  April  1878.  She  gloried  in 
her  new  distinction,  and  despite  Disraeli's 
assurances  soon  recognised  no  restrictions  in 
its  use.  She  at  once  signed  herself  '  Vic- 
toria R.  &  I. '  in  documents  relating  to  In- 
dia, and  early  in  1878  she  adopted  the  same 
form  in  English  documents  of  state.  In 
1893  the  words  '  Ind[iae]  Imp[eratrix] '  were 
engraved  among  her  titles  on  the  British 
coinage. 

Her  cheering  relations  with  Lord  Beacons- 
field  stimulated  her  to  appear  somewhat 
more  frequently  in  public,  and  she  played 
prominent  parts  in  several  military  cere- 
monials in  the  early  days  of  Disraeli's  govern- 
ment. The  queen  had  narrowly  watched  the 
progress  of  the  little  Ashanti  war  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  and  at  its  successful  conclu- 
sion she  reviewed  sailors,  marines,  and  sol- 
diers who  had  taken  part  in  it  in  the  Royal 
Clarence  Victualling  Yard  at  Gosport  on 
Public  ap-  23  April  1874.  At  the  end  of  the 
pearancea,  year,  too,  she  distributed  medals 
to  the  men.  On  2  May  1876  she 
reviewed  troops  at  Aldershot,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing September  presented  at  Balmoral 


colours  to  her  father's  regiment,  the  royal 
Scots.  She  reminded  the  men  of  her  mili- 
tary ancestry. 

She  suffered  a  severe  shock  in  the  autumn 
of  1875  when,  while  crossing  to  the  Isle  ot 
Wight,  her  yacht,  the  Albert,  ran  down 
another  yacht,  the  Mistletoe,  and  thus  caused 
three  of  its  occupants  to  be  drowned  in  her 
presence  (18  Aug.  1875) ;  but  during  the 
early  spring  of  1876  she  was  more  active 
than  usual  in  London.  She  attended  a 
concert  given  by  her  command  at  the 
Royal  Albert  Hall  (25  Feb.)  She  opened 
in  semi-state  a  new  wing  of  the  London 
Hospital  (7  March).  Two  days  later  she 
inspected  in  Kensington  Gardens  the 
gorgeous  Albert  Memorial,  the  most 
elaborate  of  the  many  monuments  to  her 
husband,  a  colossal  gilded  figure  of  whom 
fills  the  central  place.  Thence,  with  her  three 
younger  daughters,  she  went  to  the  funeral 
in  Westminster  Abbey  of  her  old  friend, 
Lady  Augusta  Stanley,  whose  death,  after  a 
thirty  years'  association,  deeply  moved  her ; 
in  memory  of  Lady  Augusta  she  erected  a 
monumental  cross  in  the  private  grounds  at 
Frogmore.  Later  in  the  season  of  1876 
she  left  for  a  three  weeks'  vacation  at 
Coburg  (31  March  to  20  April) ;  she  travelled 
from  Cherbourg  through  France,  but  avoided 
Paris,  and  on  the  return  journey  had  an  in- 

.  terview  at  LaVillette  station,  in 

Coburg.  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital, 
with  the  president  of  the  re- 
public, Marshal  MacMahon.  The  meeting 
was  a  graceful  recognition  on  her  part  of  the 
new  form  of  government.  The  German 
empress  was  once  more  her  guest  in  May. 
While  going  to  Balmoral  a  few  months 
later,  she  unveiled  at  Edinburgh  yet  another 
Albert  memorial  (17  Aug.)  »-  For  the  first 
time  since  the  prince  consort's  death  she  kept 
Christmas  at  Windsor,  owing  to  illness  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  transgressed  what 
seemed  to  be  her  settled  dislike  of  court  en- 
tertainments by  giving  a  concert  in  St. 
George's  Hall  (26  Dec.) 

During  the  two  years  that  followed  the 
queen  was  involved  in  the  intricacies  of 
European  politics  far  more  deeply  than  at 
Crisis  in  an7  ^me  since  the  Crimean  war. 
Eastern  The  subject  races  of  the  Turkish 
Europe.  empire  in  the  Balkans  threatened 
the  Porte  with  revolt  in  the  autumn  of  1875. 
The  insurrection  spread  rapidly,  and  there  was 
the  likelihood  that  Russia,  to  serve  her  own 
ends,  might  come  to  the  rescue  of  the  insur- 
gents. Disraeli  adopted  Palmerston's  policy 
of  1854,  and  declared  that  British  interests 
in  India  and  elsewhere  required  the  main- 
tenance of  the  sultan's  authority  invio- 


Victoria 


473 


Victoria 


late.  Turkey  endeavoured  to  suppress  the 
insurrection  in  the  Balkans  with  great  bar- 
barity, notably  in  Bulgaria ;  and  in  the 
autumn  of  1876  Gladstone,  who  had  lately 
announced  his  retirement  from  public  life, 
suddenly  emerged  from  his  seclusion  in  order 
to  stir  the  people  of  the  United  Kingdom  by 
the  energy  of  his  eloquence  to  resist  the 
bestowal  on  Turkey  of  any  English  favour 
or  support.  One  effect  of  Gladstone's  vehe- 
mence was  to  tighten  the  bond  between 
Beaconsfield  and  the  queen.  She  accepted 
unhesitatingly  Lord  Beaconsfield's  view 
that  England  was  bound  to  protect  Turkey 
from  permanent  injury  at  Russia's  hands, 
and  she  bitterly  resented  the  embarrass- 
ments that  Gladstone  caused  her  minister. 
But  she  did  not  readily  abandon  hope  that 
Russia  might  be  persuaded  to  abstain  from 
interference  in  the  Balkans.  The  occu- 
pants of  the  thrones  of  Russia  and  Ger- 
many were  her  personal  friends,  and  she 
believed  her  private  influence  with  them 

The  queen's  vu^-t  keeP  the  Peace-  Princess 
efforts  for  Alice  met  the  tsar  at  Darmstadt 
peace.  jn  july  1876,  and  he  assured  the 

queen  through  her  daughter  that  he  had  no 
wish  for  a  conflict  with  England.  Thus 
encouraged,  she  wrote  to  him  direct,  and 
then  appealed  to  the  German  emperor  to  use 
his  influence  with  him.  She  even  twice 
addressed  herself  to  Bismarck  in  the  same 
sense  (BuscH,  Conversations  with  Bismarck, 
ii.  277).  But  her  efforts  failed.  Russia  de- 
clared war  on  Turkey  on  24  April  1877,  and 
before  the  end  of  the  year  had  won  a  de- 
cisive victory. 

All  the  queen's  sympathy  with  Russia 
thereupon  vanished,  and  she,  no  less  than 
Lord  Beaconsfield,  was  resolved  that  England 
should  regulate  the  fruits  of  Russia's  success. 
Twice  did  she  openly  indicate  her  sym- 
pathy with  her  minister  in  the  course  of 
1877 — first  by  opening  parliament  in  person 
in  February,  and  secondly  by  paying  him  a 
visit  in  circumstances  of  much  publicity  at 
his  country  seat,  Hughenden  Manor,  Buck- 
inghamshire. On  21  Dec.  1877  she, 
Hughenden  w't^1  Princess  Beatrice,  travelled 
by  rail  from  Windsor  to  High  Wy- 
combe  station,  where  Beaconsfield  and  his 
secretary,  Mr.  Montagu  Corry,  met  her.  The 
mayor  presented  an  address  of  welcome.  Dri- 
ving with  her  host  to  Hughenden,  she  stayed 
there  two  hours,  and  on  leaving  planted  a  tree 
on  the  lawn.  A  poem  in  '  Punch '  on  29  Dec. 
1877,  illustrating  a  sketch  by  Mr.  Linley  Sam- 
bourne,  humorously  suggested  the  powerful 
impression  that  the  incident  created  both  in 
England  and  in  Europe. 
At  the  beginning  of  1878  the  sultan  made 


!  a  personal  appeal  to  the  queen  to  induce  the 
tsar  to  accept  lenient  terms  of  peace.  She 
telegraphed  to  the  tsar  an  entreaty  to  accele- 
rate negotiations ;  but  when  the  tsar  forced 
on  Turkey  conditions  which  gave  him  a  pre- 
ponderating influence  within  the  sultan's 
dominions,  she  supported  Lord  Beaconsfield 
in  demanding  that  the  whole  setttlement 
should  be  referred  to  a  congress  of  the 
European  powers.  Through  the  storms  that 
Her  support  succeeded  no  minister  received 
of  Beacons-  stauncher  support  from  his  sove- 

i's  policy.  reip;n  than  Lord  Beaconsfield  from 
the  queen.  The  diplomatic  struggle  brought 
the  two  countries  to  the  brink  of  war,  but 
the  queen  deprecated  retreat.  Before  the 
congress  of  Berlin  met  in  June  1878, 
Beaconsfield  warned  the  queen  that  his  de- 
termination to  prevent  Russia  from  getting 
a  foothold  south  of  the  Danube  might 
abruptly  end  in  active  hostilities.  The 
queen  declared  herself  ready  to  face  the  risk. 
When,  therefore,  at  an  early  session  of  the 
congress,  a  deadlock  arose  between  Lord 
Beaconsfield,  who  acted  as  the  English  en- 
voy, and  Prince  Gortschakoft',  the  Russian 
envoy,  and  Lord  Beaconsfield  threatened 
departure  from  Berlin  so  that  the  dispute 
might  be  settled  by  '  other  means,'  he  made 
no  empty  boast,  but  acted  in  accord  with  an 
understanding  which  he  had  previously 
reached  with  the  queen.  Russia  yielded  the 
specific  point  at  Bismarck's  persuasion ;  and 
although  both  the  material  and  moral  ad- 
vantages that  England  derived  from  her 
intervention  were  long  questioned,  the  queen 
welcomed  Lord  Beaconsfield  with  unstinted 
eulogy  when  he  returned  from  Berlin,  bring- 
ing, in  his  own  phrase, '  peace  with  honour.' 
On  22  July  1878  she  invested  him  at 
Osborne  with  the  order  of  the  garter.  \Ytir 
preparations  had  meantime  been  in  active 
progress  with  the  queen's  full  approval.  On 
13  May  1878  she  had  held  a  review  on 
a  great  scale  at  Aldershot  in  company 
with  the  crown  prince  and  princess  of 
Prussia,  who  were  her  guests ;  and  on 
13  Aug.  she  reviewed  at  Spithead  in  in- 
auspicious weather  a  strong  fleet  designed 
for  '  special  service.' 

The  situation  revived  at  all  stages  the 
queen's  memory  of  the  earlier  conflict  with 
Russia,  the  course  of  which  had  been  largely 
guided  by  her  husband's  resolution.  She 
had  lately  re-studied  closely  the  incidents  of 
the  Crimean  war  in  connection 

Sphy  of  with  the  '  L.ife '  of  the  prince  C0n" 
prince  con-  sort,  on  which  Sir  Theodore  Msir- 

sort-  tin  was  engaged  under  her  super- 

vision. At  the  end  of  1877  there  ap- 
peared the  third  volume  of  the  biography, 


Victoria 


474 


Victoria 


,  ISTS! 


which  illustrated  the  strength  of  court 
feeling  against  Russia  when  the  Crimean 
war  was  in  progress.  The  '  Spectator,'  a 
journal  supporting  Gladstone,  censured  the 
volume  as  '  a  party  pamphlet  '  in  favour  of 
Lord  Beaconsneld,  and  Gladstone  himself 
reviewed  it  in  self-defence. 

Domestic  incident  during  1878  was  hardly 
less  abundant  than  public  incident.  On 

22  Feb.  there  took  place  at  Berlin 
first  marriage  of  a  grandchild 

of  the  queen,  when  Charlotte, 
the  eldest  daughter  of  the  crown  prince  and 
princess,  married  the  hereditary  Duke  of 
Saxe-Meiningen.  But  it  was  mainly  death 
in  the  queen's  circle  that  marked  her  do- 
mestic year.  Her  former  ally,  Victor  Ema- 
nuel,  had  died  on  9  Jan.  Two  attempts  at 
Berlin  to  assassinate  the  old  German  emperor 
(11  May  and  2  June)  gave  her  an  alarming  im- 
pression of  the  condition  of  Germany,  where 
she  specially  feared  the  advance  of  socialism 
and  atheism.  On  4  June  died  Lord  Russell, 
and  she  at  once  offered  his  family,  through 
Lord  Beaconsfield,  a  public  funeral  in  West- 
minster Abbey  ;  but  the  offer  was  declined, 
and  he  was  buried  at  Chenies.  A  few  days 
later  (12  June)  there  passed  away  at  Paris 
her  first  cousin,  the  dethroned  and  blind  king 
of  Hanover.  She  gave  directions  for  his 
burial  in  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and 
herself  attended  the  funeral  (25  June).  But 
the  heaviest  blow  that  befell  her  in  the  year 
Death  of  was  ^e  ^oss  °^  ^er  sec°Qd  daugh- 
Princess  ter,  Princess  Alice,  who  had  been 
Alice.  }jer  companion  in  her  heaviest 

trials.  She  died  of  diphtheria  at  Darmstadt 
on  14  Dec.,  the  seventeenth  anniversary  of 
the  prince  consort's  death.  It  was  the  first 
loss  of  a  child  that  the  queen  had  expe- 
rienced, and  no  element  of  sorrow  was  ab- 
sent. The  people  again  shared  their  sove- 
reign's grief,  and  on  the  26th  she  addressed 
to  them  a  simple  letter  of  thanks,  describ- 
ing the  dead  princess  as  '  a  bright  example 
of  loving  tenderness,  courageous  devotion, 
and  self-sacrifice  to  duty.'  She  erected  a 
granite  cross  to  her  memory  at  Balmoral 
next  year,  and  showed  the  tenderest  in- 
terest in  her  motherless  family. 

1879  brought  more  happiness  in  its  train. 
Amid  greater  pomp  than  had  characterised 
royal  weddings  since  that  of  the  princess 
royal,  the  queen  attended  on  13  March  the 
marriage  at  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor, 
of  her  third  son,  the  Duke  of  Connaught. 
The  bride  was  daughter  of  Prince  Frederick 
Charles  of  Prussia  (the  red  prince),  a  nephew 
of  the  German  emperor,  and  the  new  con- 
nection with  the  Prussian  house  was 
thoroughly  congenial  to  the  queen. 


Twelve  days  later  the  queen  enjoyed  the 
new  experience  of  a  visit  to   Italy.     She 

First  visit  to  ?QayeAd  ??r  nea£]y  a  month  till 
Italy,  1879.  ^  April,  at  ±5aveno  on  I/ago 
Maggiore.  She  delighted  in  the 
scenery,  and  was  gratified  by  a  visit  from  the 
new  King  Humbert  and  Queen  Margherita  of 
Italy.  On  her  return  to  England  she  learned 
of  the  birth  of  her  first  great-graudchild,  the 
firstborn  of  the  hereditary  princess  of  Saxe- 
Meiningen.  Hardly  had  the  congratulations 
The  prince  ceased  when  she  suffered  a  terrible 
imperial's  shock  by  the  death,  1 9  June  1879, 
in  the  Zulu  war  of  the  prince  im- 
perial, the  only  child  of  the  ex-empress  of  the 
French.  He  had  gone  to  Africa  as  a  volun- 
teer in  the  English  army,  and  was  slain  when 
riding  almost  alone  in  the  enemy's  country. 
He  was  regarded  with  much  affection  by  the 
queen  and  by  the  Princess  Beatrice,  and  all 
the  queen's  wealth  of  sympathy  was  bestowed 
on  the  young  man's  mother,  the  widowed 
Empress  Eugenie.  While  the  prince's  re- 
mains were  being  interred  at  Chislehurst  the 
queen  was  the  empress's  sole  companion 
(12  July). 

At  the  time  the  political  situation  was 
not  promising,  and  was  a  source  of  grave 
anxiety  to  the  queen.  The  Zulu  war,  in 
which  the  prince  imperial  met  his  death, 
was  only  one  symptom  of  the  unrest  in 
South  Africa  which  the  high-handed  policy 
of  the  governor  of  the  Cape,  Sir  Bartle 
Frere,  had  brought  about.  Lord 
Beaconsfield  did  not  conceal  his 
disapproval  of  the  action  of  the 
governor,  but  his  preoccupation  with  Eastern 
Europe  had  not  permitted  him  to  control 
the  situation,  and  he  felt  bound  to  defend  the 
positions  into  which  the  government  had 
been  led  by  its  accredited  representative. 
Equal  difficulties  were  encountered  in  India, 
where  the  rival  pretensions  of  England  and 
Russia  to  dominate  the  amir  of  Afghanistan 
had  involved  the  Indian  government,  under 
Lord  Lytton's  viceroyalty,  in  two  succes- 
sive wars  with  the  Afghans  (November 
1878  and  December  1879).  The  strife  of 
political  parties  at  home  greatly  complicated 
the  situation,  and  gave  the  queen  additional 
cause  of  distress.  Gladstone,  during  the  au- 
tumn of  1879,  in  a  series  of  passionate  speeches 
delivered  in  Midlothian,  charged  the  govern- 
ment with  fomenting  disaster  by  their  blus- 
tering imperialism.  The  queen  resented  his 
campaign.  His  persistent  attacks  on  Lord 
Beaconsfield  roused  her  wrath,  and  in  private 
letters  she  invariably  described  his  denuncia- 
tions of  her  favourite  minister  as  shameless  or 
disgraceful.  Her  faith  in  Beaconsfield  was  un- 
quenchable. He  acknowledged  her  sympathy 


The  mini- 
stry's 
difficulties. 


Victoria 


475 


Victoria 


in  avowals  of  the  strongest  personal  attach- 
ment to  her.  He  was  ambitious,  he  told  her, 
of  securing  for  her  office  greater  glory  than 
it  had  yet  attained.  He  was  anxious  to 
make  her  the  dictatress  of  Europe.  '  Many 
things,'  he  wrote,  '  are  preparing  which  for 
the  sake  of  peace  and  civilisation  render  it 
most  necessary  that  her  majesty  should 
occupy  that  position.'  But  there  were 
ominous  signs  that  Beaconsfi  eld's  lease  of 
power  was  reaching  its  close,  despite  all  the 
queen  could  do  to  lengthen  it.  For  the 
fourth  time  while  he  was  prime  minister 
the  queen  opened  the  last  session  of  his  par- 
liament on  5  Feb.  1880.  The  ceremonial 
was  conducted  with  greater  elaboration  than 
at  any  time  since  the  prince's  death.  On 
24  March  parliament  was  dissolved,  and  the 
future  of  Lord  Beaconsfield  was  put  to  the 
hazard  of  the  people's  vote. 

Next  day  the  queen  left  on  a  month's  visit 
to  Germany.  She  spent  most  of  her  time  at 
her  late  half-sister's  Villa  Hohenlohe  at 
Baden-Baden,  but  went  thence  to  Darm- 
stadt to  attend  the  confirmation  of  two 
daughters  of  the  late  Princess  Alice.  In  the 

Visit  to  Ger-  l^  drcle  .°f  her  daughter 
many,  1880.  the  crown  princess,  she  iound 
while  abroad  much  to  gratify  her. 
Her  grandson,  Prince  William  of  Prussia 
(now  Emperor  William  II),  was  just  be- 
trothed to  Princess  Victoria  of  [Schles- 
wig-Holstein-Sonderburg]  Augustenburg, 
daughter  of  Duke  Frederick,  the  claimant  to 
the  duchy  of  Holstein,  who  had  fared  so 
disastrously  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
struggle,  and  had  died  in  the  previous 
January.  She  sympathised  with  the  sen- 
timent of  the  young  man's  parents  that 
poetic  justice  was  rendered  to  Duke 
Frederick,  whom  Bismarck's  Prussian  policy 
had  crushed,  by  the  entrance  of  his  daughter 
into  the  direct  line  of  succession  to  the 
imperial  crown  of  the  Prussian  ruler's  con- 
sort. But,  in  spite  of  her  joy  at  her  grandson's 
betrothal,  her  keenest  interests  were  absorbed 
in  the  progress  of  the  general  election  in 
England.  Telegrams  passed  constantly  be- 
tween her  and  the  prime  minister,  and  her 
spirits  sank  when  the  completeness  of  the 
defeat  of  the  conservative  party  proved  to 
her  that  he  could  serve  her  no  longer. 
Liberals  and  home  rulers  had  in  the  new 
House  of  Commons  no  less  a  majority  over 
the  conservatives  than  166.  On  21  April 
she  was  back  at  Windsor,  and  next  day  had 
two  hours'  conversation  with  her  vanquished 
minister.  As  in  1855  and  1859,  when  a 
ministerial  crisis  brought  her  in  view  of  the 
mortifying  experience  of  making  prime 
minister  one  whom  she  distrusted,  she  care- 


fully examined  all  possible  alternatives.  As 
soon  as  Lord  Beaconsfield  left  her  she 
summoned  by  his  advice  Lord  Hartington, 
who  was  nominal  leader  of  the  liberal 
party;  for  Gladstone  had  never  formally 
resumed  the  post  since  his  retirement  in 
1875.  She  invited  Lord  Hartington  to  form 
a  ministry  (22  April).  He  told  her,  to  her 
own  and  Lord  Beaconsfield's  disappointment, 
that  Gladstone  alone  had  won  the  victory 
and  that  he  alone  must  reap  the  rewards. 
Beaconsfield  said  that  Lord  Hartington 
showed  want  of  courage  in  hesitating  to 
take  office;  he 'abandoned  a  woman  in  her 
hour  of  need.'  On  returning  to  London 
Lord  Hartington  called  on  Gladstone. 
Next  morning  (23  April)  he  went  back  to 
Windsor  with  the  queen's  old  friend,  Lord 
Granville,  the  liberal  leader  of  the  House 
of  Lords.  Against  her  will  they  con- 
vinced her  that  Gladstone  alone  was  entitled 
to  power,  and,  making  the  best  of  the  diffi- 
cult situation,  she  entrusted  them  with  a 
message  to  him  requesting  an  interview. 
Gladstone  Gladstone  hurried  to  Windsor  the 
resumes  same  evening,  and  after  a  few 
office,  1880.  minutes'  conversation  he  accepted 
the  queen's  commission  to  assume  power. 
Gladstone's  second  government  was  soon  in 
being,  and,  although  some  of  its  personnel 
was  little  to  the  queen's  taste,  she  received 
her  new  advisers  with  constitutional  correct- 
ness of  demeanour. 

Two  acts  due  to  the  queen's  kindness  of 
heart  involved  her  in  some  public  censure 
as  soon  as  the  new  liberal  government  was 
installed.  She  felt  lifelong  compassion  for 
the  family  of  her  exiled  cousin,  the  king  of 
Hanover,  and  showed  great  tenderness  to 
his  daughter  Frederica,  whom  she  called 
'the  poor  lily  of  Hanover.'  She  not  only 
countenanced  her  marriage  with  Baron  von 
Pawell-Rammingen,  who  was  formerly  her 
father's  equerry,  but  arranged  for  the  wed- 
ding to  take  place  in  her  presence  in  her 
private  chapel  at  Windsor  (24  April  1880). 
A  few  months  later  she,  as  visitor  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  assented  to  a  proposal  to  place 
there  a  monument  in  memory  of  the  late 
prince  imperial.  The  House  of  Commons,  in 
spite  of-Gladstone's  remonstrance,  condemned 
the  scheme  on  the  ground  of  the  prince's 
nationality  (16  July  1880).  The  queen  at 
once  appointed  a  site  for  the  monument  in 
St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor  (21  July). 

The  misgivings  with  which  the  queen's 
new  advisers  inspired  her  stimulated  her 
critical  activity.  She  informed  Gladstone 
and  his  colleagues  that  she  insisted  on  a  full 
exercise  of  her  right  of  '  commenting  on  all 
proposals  before  they  are  matured.'  Ministers 


Victoria 


476 


Victoria 


must  take  no  decision  before  their  completed 
plans  were  before  her.  One  of  the  new  govern- 
ment's first  domestic  measures — the  burials 
bill — at  once  caused  her  disquietude.  The  bill 
was  designed  to  authorise  the  conduct  of 
funerals  by  nonconformist  ministers  in  parish 
churchyards,  and  the  queen  anxiously  sought 
the  opinion  of  Lord  Selborne,  like  herself 
&  devoted  adherent  of  the  Anglican  esta- 
blishment, respecting  the  forms  of  religious 
service  in  churchyards  that  were  to  be 
sanctioned.  She  was  more  seriously  per- 
Distrnstof  turbed  by  the  government's  plans 
ministerial  for  the  further  reorganisation  of 
measures.  ^  army>  the  control  of  wnich, 

despite  the  last  liberal  government's  legis- 
lation, she  persisted  in  treating  as  the 
crown's  peculiar  province.  In  May  she  stoutly 
protested  against  the  proposal  for  the  com- 
plete abolition  of  flogging  in  the  army,  to 
which  she  saw  no  possible  alternative  '  in 
extreme  cases  of  cowardice,  treachery,  plun- 
dering, or  neglect  of  duty  on  sentry.'  She 
objected  to  the  suspension  of  the  practice  of 
giving  honorary  colonelcies  with  incomes  as 
rewards  for  distinguished  officers;  any  abuse 
in  the  method  of  distribution  could  be  easily 
remedied.  When  Childers,  the  secretary  of 
war,  in  the  winter  of  1880  sketched  out  a 
scheme  for  linking  battalions  and  giving  regi- 
ments territorial  designations,  she  warmly 
condemned  changes  which  were  likely,  in 
her  opinion,  to  weaken  the  regimental  esprit 
de  corps.  Childers,  though  he  respectfully 
considered  the  queen's  suggestions,  rarely 
adopted  them,  and  in  a  speech  at  Ponte- 
fract  on  19  Jan.  1882  he  felt  himself  under 
the  necessity  of  openly  contesting  the  view 
that  the  crown  still  governed  the  army. 

During  the  first  months  of  Gladstone's 
second  administration  the  queen's  main  ener- 
gies were  devoted  to  urging  on  the  ministers 
the  duty  of  spirited  and  sustained  action  in 
bringing  to  an  end  the  wars  in  Afghanistan 
and  South  Africa,  which  their  predecessors 
had  left  on  their  hands.  The  Afghan  cam- 
paign of  1880  she  watched  with  the  closest 
attention.  After  the  defeat  of  the  English 
troops  at  Maiwand  (27  July  1880)  she  wrote 
to  Childers  of  her  dread  lest  the  government 
should  not  adequately  endeavour  to  retrieve 
the  disaster.  She  had  heard  ru- 

i8JoianiStan'  mours»  s^e  8ftid,  °f  an  intended 
reduction  of  the  army  by  the  go- 
vernment. She  thought  there  was  need  of 
increasing  it.  On  22  Aug.  she  proved  her 
anxiety  by  inspecting  the  troopship  Jumna 
which  was  taking  reinforcements  to  India. 
But,  to  her  intense  satisfaction  and  grati- 
tude, Sir  Frederick  (now  Earl)  Roberts,  by 
a  prompt  march  on  Kandahar,  reduced  the 


Afghans  to  submission.  The  new  amir, 
Abdur-Rahman,  was  securely  installed  on 
the  Afghan  throne,  and  to  the  queen's 
relief  he  maintained  to  the  end  of  her 
reign  friendly  relations  with  her  and  her 
government,  frequently  speaking  to  his 
family  and  court  in  praise  of  her  character 
and  rule  (AMIR  ABDUR-RAHMAX,  Autobio- 
graphy, 1900).  In  like  manner,  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  Boer  war  in  December  1880, 
and  the  defeat  and  death  of  General  Colley 
on  27  Feb.  1881  at  Majuba  Hill,  the  queen 
was  unremitting  in  her  admonitions  to  the 
Th  T  government  to  bestir  themselves, 

vaal,  I88i!"  She  recommended  Sir  Frederick 
Roberts  for  the  vacant  chief  com- 
mand in  the  Transvaal — a  recommenda- 
tion which  the  government  made  indepen- 
dently at  the  same  moment.  Her  ministers 
however,  decided  to  carry  to  a  conclusion 
the  peace  negotiations  which  had  previously 
been  opened  with  the  Boers,  and  before 
General  Roberts  landed  in  South  Africa  the 
war  was  ended  by  the  apparent  capitulation 
of  the  queen's  advisers  to  the  enemy.  The 
ministerial  action  conflicted  with  the  queen's 
views  and  wishes,  and  served  to  increase  her 
distrust  of  ministerial  policy. 

But,  whatever  her  opinion  of  her  govern- 
ment's diplomacy,  she  was  not  sparing  in 
signs  of  sympathy  with  the  sufferings  of  her 
troops  in  the  recent  hostilities.  By  her  de- 
sire the  colours  of  the  24th  regiment,  which 
had  been  temporarily  lost  during  the  Zulu 
war  at  the  battle  of  Isandhlwana,  but  were 
afterwards  recovered,  were  brought  to  Os- 
borne,  and  while  speaking  to  the  officers  in 
charge  of  the  bravery  of  the  regiment  and 
its  trials  in  South  Africa,  she  decorated  the 
colours  with  a  wreath  (28  July  1880). 
During  1882,  she  once  more  held  a  review 
at  Aldershot  (16  May),  and  she  presented 
at  Parkhurst,  Isle  of  Wight,  new  colours  to 
the  second  battalion  of  the  Berkshire 
regiment  (66th),  which  had  lost  their 
old  colours  at  Maiwand  in  Afghanistan 
(17  Aug.) 

Discontent  with  her  present  advisers  in- 
tensified the  grief  with  which  she  learned 
Death  of  of  the  death  of  Lord  Beaconsfield 
Beaconsfield,  — her '  dear  great  friend '  she  called 
UApriUML  him_on  19  Aprii  1881.  She  and 
all  members  of  her  family  treated  his  loss 
as  a  personal  bereavement.  Two  days  after 
his  death  she  wrote  from  Osborne  to  Dean 
Stanley :  '  His  devotion  and  kindness  to  me, 
his  wise  counsels,  his  great  gentleness  com- 
bined with  firmness,  his  one  thought  of  the 
honour  and  glory  of  the  country,  and  his 
unswerving  loyalty  to  the  throne  make  the 
death  of  my  dear  Lord  Beaconsfield  a  na- 


Victoria 


477 


Victoria 


tional  calamity.  My  grief  is  great  and 
lasting.'  She  knew,  she  added,  that  he 
would  wish  to  be  buried  beside  his  wife  at 
Hugheiiden,  but  she  directed  that  a  public 
monument  should  be  placed  to  his  memory 
in  Westminster  Abbey  (STANLEY,  ii.  565). 
At  the  funeral  at  Hughenden,  on  the  26th, 
she  was  represented  by  the  prince  of  Wales 
and  Prince  Leopold.  Of  two  wreaths  which 
she  sent,  one,  of  primroses,  bore  the  inscrip- 
tion, '  His  favourite  flower.  ...  A  tribute 
of  affection  from  Queen  Victoria,'  and  thus 
inaugurated  the  permanent  association  of 
the  primrose  with  Lord  Beaconsfield's  me- 
mory. But  such  marks  of  regard  did  not 
exhaust  the  queen's  public  acts  of  mourning. 
Four  days  after  the  burial  (30  April)  she 
and  the  Princess  Beatrice  visited  Lord 
Beaconsfield's  house  at  Hughenden,  and  the 
queen  placed  with  her  own  hands  a  wreath 
of  white  camellias  on  the  coffin,  which  lay 
in  the  still  open  vault  in  the  churchyard. 
Next  year,  on  a  site  chosen  by  herself  in 
the  church,  she  set  up  a  memorial  tablet — 
a  low-relief  profile  portrait  of  the  minister 
— with  an  inscription  from  her  own  pen : 
'  To  the  dear  and  honoured  memory  of 
Benjamin,  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  this  memo- 
rial is  placed  by  his  grateful  and  affectionate 
sovereign  and  friend  Victoria  R.I.  (",Kings 
love  him  that  speaketh  right." — Proverbs 
xvi.  13.)  February  27th,  1882.'  No  sove- 
reign in  the  course  of  English  history  had 
given  equal  proofs  of  attachment  to  a 
minister. 

The  queen's  generous  sympathies  were 
never  wholly  absorbed  by  her  own  subjects 
or  her  friends  at  home.  A  few  weeks  before 
Lord  Beaconsfield's  death  she  was  shocked 
by  the  assassination  of  the  Tsar  Alex- 
ander II,  father  of  her  daughter-in-law, 
the  Duchess  of  Edinburgh  (13  March),  and 
a  few  months  later  the  death  by  a  like  vio- 
lence of  President  Garfield  of  the  United 
States  drew  from  her  an  autograph  letter  of 
condolence  to  the  widow  which  the  veteran 
politician  Charles  Pelham  Villiers  described 
as  a  '  masterpiece '  of  womanly  consideration 
and  political  tact. 

Before  the  end  of  1881  the  government 
was  involved  in  grave  difficulties  in  Egypt. 
.  Arabi  Pasha,  the  khedive's  war 

Egypt"  1882.  minister,  fomented  a  rebellion 
against  the  khedive's  authority 
in  the  autumn,  and  by  the  summer  of  1882 
he  had  gained  complete  control  of  the 
Egyptian  government.  Grave  disorders  in 
the  administration  of  Egyptian  finance  had 
led  England  and  France  in  1878  to  form 
what  was  known  as  the  dual  control  of  the 
Egyptian  revenue,  and  this  arrangement  im- 


posed on  them  the  responsibility  of  preserving 
order  in  the  country.  France  now,  however, 
declined  to  join  England  in  active  defence 
of  the  khedive's  authority,  and  the  queen's 
government  undertook  to  repress  the  insur- 
rection of  Arabi  single-handed.  The  queen, 
quickly  convinced  of  the  need  of  armed 
intervention,  evinced  characteristic  solici- 
tude for  prompt  and  effectual  action.  On 
10  July,  when  hostilities  were  imminent, 
she  inquired  of  Childers  what  forces  were 
in  readiness,  and  deprecated  the  selec- 
tion of  a  commander-in-chief  until  she  had 
had  time  to  consider  the  government's  sugges- 
tions. The  condition  of  the  transport  and 
the  supply  of  horses  demanded,  she  pointed 
out,  immediate  consideration.  On  the  21st 
she  approved  the  appointment  of  Sir  Garnet 
Wolseley  as  commander-in-chief,  with  Sir 
John  Adye  as  chief  of  the  staff.  On  28  July 
she  asked  for  information  respecting  the 
press  regulations.  Her  concern  for  the  suc- 
cess of  the  expedition  was  increased  by  the 
appointment,  with  her  full  consent,  of  her 
son,  the  Duke  of  Connaught,  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  guards'  brigade  in  the  first 
division  of  the  army,  while  the  Duke  of  Teck 
filled  a  place  on  Wolseley's  staff.  Until  the 
whole  of  the  expeditionary  force 

The  queen  s  u     i     j     i. 

urgency.  was  embarked  she  never  ceased  to 
advise  the  war  office  respecting 
practical  points  of  equipment,  and  was 
peremptory  in  her  warnings  in  regard  to 
food  supplies  and  hospital  equipment.  The 
comfort  as  well  as  the  health  of  the  troops 
needed,  in  her  view,  attention.  In  a  single 
day  in  August  she  forwarded  no  less  than 
seventeen  notes  to  the  minister  of  war. 

The  opening  of  the  campaign  sharpened 
her  zeal.  On  12  Sept.  she  wrote  from  Bal- 
moral, '  My  thoughts  are  entirely  fixed  on 
Egypt  and  the  coming  battle.'  When  the 
news  of  the  decisive  victory  at  Tel-el-Kebir 
reached  her  (13  Sept.),  she  caused  a  bonfire 
to  be  lit  on  the  top  of  Craig  Gowan,  thus 
celebrating  the  receipt  of  the  news  in  the 
same  way  as  that  of  the  fall  of  Sebastopol 
in  1855.  But  her  joy  at  the  victory  was 
dashed  by  the  fear  that  the  government 
would  not  follow  it  up  with  resolution. 
She  was  aware  of  differences  of  opinion  in 
the  cabinet,  and  she  spared  no  exertion  to 
stiffen  the  backs  of  her  ministers.  On  19  Sept. 
she  protested  alike  against  any  present 
diminution  of  troops  in  Egypt,  and  against 
the  lenient  treatment  of  the  rebellious  Arabi. 
On  21  Sept.  1882  she  wrote  to  Childers 
(Life,  ii.  33) :  '  If  Arabi  and  the  other  prin- 
cipal rebels  who  are  the  cause  of  the  deaths 
of  thousands  are  not  severely  punished,  revo- 
lution and  rebellion  will  be  greatly  en- 


Victoria 


478 


Victoria 


couraged,  and  we  may  have  to  do  all  over 
again.  The  whole  state  of  Egypt  and  its 
future  are  full  of  grave  difficulties,  and  we 
must  take  great  care  that,  short  of  annexa- 
tion, our  position  is  firmly  established  there, 
and  that  we  shall  not  have  to  shed  precious 
blood  and  expend  much  money  for  nothing.' 
Finally  Egypt  was  pacified,  and  English 
predominance  was  secured,  although  dis- 
order was  suffered  to  spread  in  the  subsidiary 
provinces  of  the  Soudan  with  peril  to  the 
future.  In  the  last  months  of  the  year  the 
queen  turned  to  the  grateful  task  of  meting 
out  rewards  to  those  who  had  engaged 
in  the  recent  operations.  In  October  she 
devised  a  new  decoration  of  the  royal  red 
cross  for  nurses  who  rendered  efficient  ser- 
vice in  war;  the  regulations  were  finally 
issued  on  7  April  1883.  On  18  Nov.  she 
reviewed  in  St.  James's  Park  eight  thou- 
sand troops  who  had  just  returned  from 
Egypt ;  and  at  Windsor,  three  days  later, 
when  she  distributed  war  medals,  she  de- 
livered to  the  men  a  stirring  address  of 
thanks. 

But  it  was  not  only  abroad  that  anxieties 
confronted  the  queen  and  her  government 
during  1882.   For  the  fifth  time  the  queen's  life 
was  threatened  by  assassination.    A  lunatic, 
one  Roderick  Maclean,  fired  a  pistol  at  her — 
happily  without  hitting  her — on  2  March  at  j 
Windsor  railway  station,  as  she  was  return-  j 
ing  from   London.      Soon   afterwards  dis- 
affection in  Ireland  reached  a  climax  in  the  | 
murder  of  Lord  Frederick  Caven-  ! 
dish,  the  chief  secretary,  and  of  ; 
Thomas   Henry   Burke,  the  under-secretary  j 
(6  May).     Resolution  in  the  suppression  of 
disorder  always  won  the  queen's  admiration,  i 
and  she  had  given  every  encouragement  to  i 
W.  E.  Forster,  while  Irish  secretary,  in  his 
strenuous  efforts  to  uphold  the  law.     The 
more  conciliatory  policy  which  ultimately 
prevailed  with  Forster's   successors  awoke 
no  enthusiasm  in  her. 

Happily  the  queen  found  some  compen- 
sation for  her  varied  troubles  in  private 
life.  In  the  spring  she  spent  a  vacation 
abroad  for  the  first  time  in  the  Riviera,  stay- 
ing for  a  month  at  Mentone.  Once  more, 
too,  a  marriage  in  her  family  gladdened  her. 
Her  youngest  son,  Leopold,  duke  of  Albany, 
had  become  engaged  to  a  German  princess 
of  the  house  of  Waldeck-Pyrmont,  whose 
sister  was  second  wife  of  the  king  of  the 
Netherlands.  Parliament  was  invited  on 
23  March  to  increase  the  prince's  income,  as 
in  the  case  of  his  two  next  elder  brothers, 
from  15,000^.  to  25,000/.  Gladstone  pressed 
the  proposal  on  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  as  many  as  forty-two  members — mainly 


Irish  affairs. 


from  Ireland — voted  against  the  proposal, 
which  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  345. 
The  customary  corollary  that  in  case  of 
the  prince's  death  6,000/.  a  year  was  to  be 
allowed  his  widow  happily  passed  with- 
out dissent.  Shortly  after  the  queen's  re- 
turn from  Mentone  she  attended  the  mar- 
riage at  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor.  She 
purchased  in  perpetuity  the  crown  property 
Prince  °f  Claremont,  which  had  been 

Leopold's  granted  her  for  life  bv  parliament 
marriage.  Qn  the  death  in  "jggQ  of  itg 

former  holder,  King  Leopold,  and  generously 
presented  it  to  the  newly  married  pair  for 
their  residence.  Twice  during  the  year  she 
took  part  in  public  ceremonies  of  interest. 
On  6  May  she  went  to  Epping  Forest,  which 
the  corporation  of  London  had  recently 
secured  for  a  public  recreation  ground,  and 
she  dedicated  it  formally  to  public  use.  At 
the  end  of  the  year,  on  4  Dec.,  at  the  request 
of  the  lord  chancellor,  she  inaugurated  the 
new  law  courts  in  the  Strand. 

The  prevailing  note  of  the  queen's  life, 
owing  alike  to  public  and  private  causes, 
during  the  two  years  that  followed  was  one 
of  gloom.  At  the  close  of  1882  she  had  been 
Years  of  deprived  by  death  of  another 
gloom,  friend  in  whom  she  trusted — 

Archbishop  Tait.  Fortunately 
she  found  Gladstone  in  agreement  with  her- 
self as  to  the  fitness  of  Edward  White  Ben- 
son, the  first  headmaster  of  her  husband's 
foundation  of  Wellington  College,  and  after- 
wards first  bishop  of  Truro,  to  succeed  to  the 
primacy.  Benson's  acceptance  of  the  office 
was,  she  said,  '  a  great  support  to  herself,' 
and  with  him  her  relations  were  uninter- 
ruptedly cordial.  At  the  moment  that  he 
took  the  appointment,  the  queen  suffered  a 
new  sense  of  desolation  from  the  death,  on 
27  March  1883,  of  her  faithful  attendant, 
John  Brown.  She  placed  a  tombstone  to  his 
memory  in  Crathie  churchyard,  and  invited 
suggestions  from  Tennyson  for  the  inscrip- 
tion, which  she  prepared  herself.  At  Bal- 
moral she  caused  a  statue  of  Brown  to  be 
erected,  and  at  Osborne  a  granite  seat  was 
inscribed  with  pathetic  words  to  his  memory. 
Subsequently  an  accidental  fall  on  the  stair- 
case at  Windsor  rendered  her  unable  to 
walk  for  many  months  and  increased  her 
depression.  Even  in  January  1884  it  was 
formally  announced  that  she  could  not 
stand  for  more  than  a  few  minutes  ( Court 
Circular,  21  Jan.) 

In  the  summer  of  1883  she  consoled  her- 
self in  her  loneliness  by  preparing  for  publi- 
cation another  selection  from  her  journal — 
'  More  Leaves  from  a  Journal  of  Life  in  the 
Highlands,  1862-1882,'  and  she  dedicated  it 


Victoria 


479 


Victoria 


s  death. 


'  To  my  loyal  highlanders,  and  especially  to  ! 
the  memory  of  my  devoted  personal  atten-  ! 
dant  and  faithful  friend,  John  Brown.'  She  i 
still  took  a  justly  modest  view  of  the  lite-  ' 
rary  value  of  her  work.  When  she  sent  a  i 
copy  to  Tennyson  she  described  herself  as 
'  a  very  humble  and  unpretending  author, 
the  only  merit  of  whose  writing  was  its  sim- 
plicity and  truth.'  Unluckily  her  reviving 
spirit  was  dashed  by  the  second  loss  of  a 
child.  On  28  March  1884,  the 
-D1^  °f  Albany,  her  youngest 
and  her  lately  married  son,  died 
suddenly  at  Cannes.  This  trial  shook 
her  severely,  but  she  met  it  with  courage. 
'  Though  all  happiness  is  at  an  end  for  me 
in  this  world,'  she  wrote  to  Tennyson,  '  I 
am  ready  to  fight  on.'  In  a  letter  to  her 
people,  dated  from  "Windsor  Castle  14  April, 
she  promised  '  to  labour  on  for  the  sake  of 
my  children,  and  for  the  good  of  the  country 
I  love  so  well,  as  long  as  I  can  ;  '  and  she 
tactfully  expressed  thanks  to  the  people  of 
France,  in  whose  territory  her  son  had  died, 
for  the  respect  and  kindness  that  they  had 
shown.  Although  the  pacific  temper  and 
condition  of  the  prince's  life  rendered  the 
ceremony  hardly  appropriate,  the  queen 
directed  a  military  funeral  for  him  in  St. 
George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  on  G  April. 

The  conduct  of  the  government  during 

the  year  (1883-4)  gave  her  small  cause  for 

satisfaction.     Egypt,  which  was 

i.lan.  .      ,.    oJr  >.    . 

now  practically  administered  by 
England,  was  the  centre  of  renewed  anxiety. 
Since  Arabi's  insurrection,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Soudan  had,  under  a  fanatical 
leader,  the  Mahdi,  been  in  revolt  against 
Egyptian  rule,  and  they  were  now  menacing 
the  Egyptian  frontier.  During  1883  the 
English  ministry  had  to  decide  whether 
to  suppress  by  force  the  rebellion  in  the 
Soudan,  or  by  abandoning  the  territory  to 
the  insurgents  to  cut  it  off  from  Egypt 
altogether.  To  the  queen's  dismay  the 
policy  of  abandonment  was  adopted,  with 
a  single  qualification.  Some  Egyptian 
garrisons  still  remained  in  the  Soudan  in 
positions  of  the  gravest  peril,  and  these  the 
English  government  undertook  to  rescue. 
The  queen  recommended  prompt  and  ade- 
quate action,  but  her  words  fell  on  deaf  ears 
(January  1884).  In  obedience  to  journalistic 
clamour  the  government  confined  themselves 
to  sending  General  Gordon,  whose  influence 

with  the  Soudan  natives  had  in 
Gordcm.  tne  Pasfc  proved  very  great,  to 

Khartoum,  the  capital  of  the  dis- 
turbed districts,  in  order  to  negotiate  with 
the  rebels  for  the  relief  of  the  threatened 
garrisons.  The  queen  watched  Gordon's 


advance  towards  his  goal  with  the  gravest 
concern.  She  constantly  reminded  the 
government  of  the  danger  he  was  running. 
His  influence  with  the  natives  of  the 
Soudan  unluckily  proved  to  be  of  no  avail, 
and  he  was  soon  himself  besieged  in  Khar- 
toum by  the  Mahdi's  forces.  Thereupon  the 
queen  solemnly  and  unceasingly  warned  the 
government  of  the  obligations  they  were  under 
of  despatching  a  British  expedition  to  relieve 
him.  The  government  feared  to  involve 
itself  further  in  war  in  Egypt,  but  the  force  of 
public  opinion  was  with  the  queen,  and  in  the 
autumn  a  British  army  was  sent  out,  under 
Lord  Wolseley,  with  a  view  to  Gordon's 
rescue.  The  queen  reproached  the  govern- 
ment with  the  delay,  which  she  treated  as  a 
gross  neglect  of  public  duty.  The  worst 
followed.  The  expedition  failed  to  effect  its 
purpose;  Khartoum  was  stormed,  and  Gordon 
was  killed  before  the  relieving  force  arrived 
(26  Jan.  1885).  No  disaster  of  her  reign 
The  queen's  c*11186^  the  queen  more  pain  and 
view  of  indignation.  She  expressed  scorn 
death"1'8  *°r  ner  advisers  with  unqualified 
frankness.  In  a  letter  of  con- 
dolence, written  with  her  own  hand,  to 
Gordon's  sister  she  said  that  she  '  keenly 
felt  the  stain  left  upon  England- '  by  General 
Gordon's  '  cruel  but  heroic  fate '  (17  Feb. 
1885).  She  had  a  bust  of  Gordon  placed 
in  the  corridor  at  Windsor,  and  when  Miss 
Gordon  presented  her  with  her  brother's 
bible  she  kept  it  in  a  case  in  the  corridor 
near  her  private  rooms  at  Windsor,  often 
showing  it  to  her  guests  as  one  of  her  most 
valued  treasures.  She  greatly  interested 
herself  in  the  further  efforts  to  rescue  the 
Egyptian  garrisons  in  the  Soudan.  In 
February  1885  the  grenadier  guards,  who 
were  ordered  thither,  paraded  before  her 
at  Windsor,  and  she  was  gratified  by 
offers  of  men  from  the  Australian  colo- 
nies, which  she  acknowledged  with  warm 
gratitude,  although  the  government  de- 
clined them.  At  the  end  of  the  year 
she  visited  the  wounded  at  Netley,  and  she 
distributed  medals  to  non-commissioned 
officers  and  men  at  Windsor.  But  the 
operations  in  the  Soudan  brought  her  cold 
comfort.  They  lacked  the  decisive  success 
which  she  loved  to  associate  with  the 
achievements  of  British  arms,  and  she  re- 
gretfully saw  the  Soudan  relapse  into  bar- 
barism. 

Home  politics  had  meanwhile  kept  the 
queen  closely  occupied  through  the  autumn 
of  1884.  In  the  ordinary  session  of  that  year 
the  government  had  passed  through  the 
House  of  Commons  a  bill  for  a  wide  extension 
of  the  franchise :  this  the  House  of  Lords 


Victoria 


480 


Victoria 


had  rejected  in  the  summer,  whereupon 
the  government  announced  their  intention 
of  passing  it  a  second  time  through  the 
House  of  Commons  in  an  autumn  session. 
A  severe  struggle  between  the  two  houses 
was  thus  imminent.  The  queen  had  adopted 
Lord  Beaconsfield's  theory  that  the  broader 
the  basis  of  the  constitution,  the  more 
secure  the  crown,  and  she  viewed  the 
fuller  enfranchisement  of  the  labouring 
The  queen  classes  with  benevolence.  At 
and  the  the  same  time  she  always  re- 
buTissf  garded  a  working  harmony  be- 
tween the  two  houses  of  parlia- 
ment as  essential  to  the  due  stability  of  the 
monarchy,  and  in  the  existing  crisis  she  was 
filled  with  a  lively  desire  to  settle  the 
dispute  between  two  estates  of  the  realm 
with  the  least  possible  delay.  In  her  private 
secretary,  Sir  Henry  Pousonby,  she  had  a 
tactful  counsellor,  and  she  did  not  hesitate 
through  him  to  use  her  personal  influence 
with  the  leaders  of  both  parties  to  secure  a 
settlement.  Luckily  it  was  soon  apparent 
that  the  danger  of  conflict  looked  greater 
than  it  was.  Before  her  intervention  had 
gone  far,  influential  members  of  the  con- 
servative party,  including  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill  and  Sir  Michael  Hicks  Beach,  had 
independently  reached  the  conclusion  that 
the  House  of  Lords  might  safely  pass  the 
franchise  bill  if  to  it  were  joined  a  satis- 
factory bill  for  the  redistribution  of  seats. 
This  view  rapidly  gained  favour  in  the  con- 
servative ranks,  and  was  approved  by  some 
of  Gladstone's  colleagues,  although  he  him- 
self at  first  opposed  it.  The  queen  urged  on 
all  sides  a  compromise  on  these  lines,  and  her 
influence  with  leading  conservatives  of  the 
House  of  Lords  removed  what  might  have 
proved  to  be  a  strong  obstacle  to  its  accom- 
plishment. Before  the  end  of  the  year  (1884) 
the  franchise  bill  and  a  redistribution  of  seats 
bill  were  concurrently  introduced  into  parlia- 
ment, and  the  queen  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  averted  the  kind  of  warfare  that  she 
most  dreaded  within  the  borders  of  the 
constitution. 

The  queen  spent  the  spring  of  1885  at 
Aix-les- Bains,  and  on  her  return  journey 
The  princes  visited  Darmstadt  to  attend  the 
of  Batten-  confirmation  of  her  grandchild, 
berg.  Princess  Irene  of  Hesse-Darm- 

stadt. But  there  were  other  reasons  for  the 
visit.  Her  care  for  the  Hesse  family  had 
brought  her  the  acquaintance  of  the  grand 
duke's  first  cousins,  the  young  princes  of 
Battenberg.  They  were  sons  of  the  grand 
duke's  uncle,  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse, 
by  a  morganatic  marriage  with  the  Countess 
von  Hauke,  who  was  created  countess  of 


Battenberg  in  1851.  All  the  brothers  were 
known  to  the  queen,  had  been  her  guests, 
and  found  favour  with  her.  The  eldest, 
Prince  Louis,  joined  the  British  navy,  be- 
came a  naturalised  British  subject,  and  in 
1884  married  Princess  Alice's  eldest  daugh- 
ter and  the  queen's  granddaughter,  Princess 
Victoria  of  Hesse.  Thenceforth  the  relations 
of  the  three  brothers  with  the  royal  family 
Princess  grew  more  intimate,  with  the 
Beatrice's  result  that  in  1885  the  third  and 
I885riage>  y°ungest  of  them,  Prince  Henry 
of  Battenberg,  proposed  marriage 
to  the  queen's  youngest  daughter,  Princess 
Beatrice.  The  queen  readily  assented,  and,  in 
letters  announcing  the  engagement  to  her 
friends,  spoke  of  Prince  Henry's  soldierly  ac- 
complishment, although,  she  frankly  added, 
he  had  not  seen  active  service.  The  princess 
had  long  been  the  queen's  constant  com- 
panion, and  it  was  agreed  that  the  princess 
with  her  husband  should  still  reside  with 
her.  Parliament,  on  Gladstone's  motion, 
voted  the  princess  the  usual  dowry  of 
30,000/.,  with  an  annuity  of  6,000/.  The 
minority  numbered  38,  the  majority  337. 
But  the  match  was  not  popular  in  England, 
where  little  was  known  of  Prince  Henry 
except  his  German  origin,  nor  was  it  well 
received  at  the  court  of  Berlin,  where  the 
comparatively  low  rank  of  the  Battenbergs 
was  held  to  unfit  them  for  close  relations 
with  the  queen.'  The  marriage  took  place 
in  a  simple  fashion,  which  delighted  the 
queen,  at  Whippingham  church,  near  Os- 
borne,  on  23  July. 

All  the  queen's  nine  children  had  thus 
entered  the  matrimonial  state.  The  queen's 
mode  of  life  was  in  no  way  affected  by 
the  admission  of  Prince  Henry  into  the 
royal  circle.  She  always  enjoyed  the  society 
of  the  young,  and  in  course  of  time  she  was 
cheered  by  the  presence  in  her  household  of 
the  children  of  Princess  Beatrice. 

Much  else  happened  to  brighten  the 
queen's  horizon  in  the  summer  of  1885. 
Gladstone's  Princess  Beatrice's  marriage  fol- 
faii,  8  June  lowed  hard  upon  the  fall  of 
1885.  Gladstone's  government.  It  had 

been  effectually  discredited  by  its  inco- 
herent Egyptian  policy,  and  it  was  defeated 
on  its  budget  proposals  on  8  June  1885. 
Gladstone  at  once  resigned,  and  the  queen 
did  not  permit  differences  of  opinion  to  re- 
strain her  from  offering  him,  in  accordance 
with  her  practice  on  the  close  of  a  minister's 
second  administration,  a  reward  for  long 
service  in  the  form  of  an  earldom.  This 
honour  Gladstone  declined.  She  invited  the 
leader  of  the  conservative  party,  Lord  Salis- 
bury, to  form  a  ministry,  and  at  his  request 


Victoria 


481 


Victoria 


endeavoured  to  obtain  from  Gladstone  some 
definite  promise  of  parliamentary  support 
during  the  few  months  that  remained  before 
the  dissolution  of  parliament  in  November, 
in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  re- 
cent reform  bill.  Gladstone  replied  evasively, 
but  the  queen  persuaded  Lord  Salisbury  to 
rest  content  with  his  assurances,  and  to  take 
Coi;^  office  (24  June).  With  Lord  Salis- 

i<oru  sails-      ,  >  /  -, 

bury's  first  bury  she  was  at  once  on  good  terms, 
miuistry.  j^  wag  therefore  disappointing  to 
her  that  his  first  tenure  of  office  should  be 
threatened  by  the  result  of  the  general  elec- 
tions in  November,  when  250  conservative 
members  were  returned  against  334  liberals 
and  86  Irish  nationalists.  The  nationalists, 
by  joining  the  liberals,  would  leave  the  go- 
vernment in  a  hopeless  minority.  The  queen 
gave  public  proof  of  her  sympathy  with  her 
conservative  ministers  by  opening  parliament 
in  person,  as  it  proved,  for  the  last  time 
(21  Jan.  1886).  Five  days  later  Lord  Salis- 
bury's government  was  outvoted.  The  queen 
accepted  their  resignation  and  boldly  faced 
the  inevitable  invitation  to  Gladstone  to 
assume  power  for  the  third  time. 

The  session  that  followed  was  the  stormiest 
the  queen  had  watched  since  Peel  abolished 

the  corn  laws  in  1846.     But  her 
2merSe!°     attitude    to   Gladstone    through 

the  later  session  was  the  antithesis 
of  her  attitude  to  Peel  in  the  earlier.  Peel 
had  changed  front  in  1846,  and  the  queen 
had  encouraged  him  with  all  her  youthful 
enthusiasm  to  persevere  in  his  new  path. 
Gladstone  suddenly  resolved  to  grant  home 
rule  to  Ireland,  after  having,  as  it  was 
generally  understood,  long  treated  the  pro- 
posal as  a  dangerous  chimera.  To  Glad- 
stone's change  of  front  she  offered  a  strenuous 
resistance.  To  the  bestowal  of  home  rule 
on  Ireland  she  was  uncompromisingly  op- 
posed, and  she  freely  spoke  her  mind  to  all 
who  came  into  intercourse  with  her.  The 
grant  of  home  rule  appeared  to  her  to  be  a 
concession  to  the  forces  of  disorder.  She  felt 
that  it  amounted  to  a  practical  separation 
between  England  and  Ireland,  and  that  to 
sanction  the  disunion  was  to  break  the  oath 
that  she  had  taken  at  her  coronation  to 
maintain  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms. 
She  complained  that  Gladstone  had  sprung 
the  subject  on  her  and  on  the  country  with- 
out' giving  either  due  notice.  The  voters, 
whom  she  believed  to  be  opposed  to  it,  had 
had  no  opportunity  of  expressing  their  opinion. 
<  Gladstone  and  his  friends  replied  that  the 
•establishment  of  a  home  rule  parliament  in 
Ireland  increased  rather  than  diminished 
the  dignity  of  the  crown  by  making  it  the 
strongest  link  which  would  henceforth  bind 
VOL.  in. — SUP. 


the  two  countries  together.  But  the  queen 
was  unconvinced.  To  her  immense  relief 
Gladstone  was  deserted  by  a  large  number 
of  his  followers,  and  his  home  rule  bill  was 
decisively  rejected  by  the  House  of  Commons 
(7  June).  With  that  result  the  queen  was 
content ;  she  desired  the  question  to  sleep ; 
and,  although  she  did  not  fear  the  issue, 
she  deprecated  an  immediate  appeal  to  the 
country;  she  deemed  it  a  needless  disturb- 
ance of  her  own  and  of  the  country's  peace 
to  involve  the  people  in  the  excitement  of  a 
general  election  twice  within  nine  months. 
But  Gladstone  was  resolute,  and  parliament 
was  dissolved.  To  the  queen's  satisfaction 
the  ministry  was  heavily  defeated. 

Gladstone  resigned  without  meeting  the 
new  parliament,  and  in  July  Lord  Salisbury 
The  qneen  ^or  tne  second  time  was  entrusted 
and  Lord  by  the  queen  with  the  formation 
Salisbury.  of  a  government.  The  queen's 
political  anxieties  were  at  once  diminished. 
Although  the  unexpected  resignation  on 
20  Dec.  1886  of  the  new  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill,  roused  in  her  doubts  of  the 
stability  of  the  government,  and  caused  her 
to  scan  the  chances  of  yet  another  dissolu- 
tion, the  crisis  passed,  and  Lord  Salisbury's 
second  ministry  retained  office  for  a  full 
term  of  years.  Indeed,  with  an  interval  of 
less  than  three  (1892-5),  Lord  Salisbury  now 
remained  her  prime  minister  until  her  death, 
fourteen  and  a  half  years  later,  and  thus 
his  length  of  service  far  exceeded  that  of 
any  of  her  previous  prime  ministers.  Her 
relations  with  him  were  uniformly  cordial. 
She  knew  him  of  old  as  the  colleague  of 
Lord  Beaconsfield.  With  his  general  views 
of  policy  she  was  in  accord.  She  especially 
appreciated  his  deep  interest  in,  and  full 
knowledge  of,  foreign  affairs.  She  felt  con- 
fidence in  his  judgment  and  admired  his 
sturdy  common  sense.  Hence  there  was  none 
of  that  tension  between  him  and  the  queen 
which  was  inevitable  between  her  and 
Gladstone.  Lord  Salisbury's  second  and  third 
governments  gave  her  a  sense  of  security  to 
which  Gladstone  had  made  her  a  stranger. 
She  soon  placed  a  portrait  of  Lord  Salisbury 
in  the  vestibule  of  her  private  apartments 
at  Windsor  face  to  face  with  one  of  Lord 
Beaconsfield. 

Within  a  few  days  of  the  laying  of  the 
spectre  of  home  rule,  the  queen  began  the 
fiftieth  year  of  her  reign  (20  June  I 
The  entrance  on  her  year  of  jubilee,  and  the 
coming  close  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  of 
widowhood,  conquered  something  of  her 
reluctance  to  figure  in  public  life,  and 
she  resumed  much  of  her  earlier  public 

1 1 


Victoria 


482 


Victoria 


activity.  On  26  Feb.  1886  she  had  listened 
to  Gounod's  '  Mors  et  Vita  '  at  the  Albert 
Hall.  On  11  May  she  visited  Liverpool 
to  open  an  international  exhibition  of  navi- 
gation and  commerce.  But  her  public  ap- 
pearances were  mainly  timed  so  as  to  indi- 
cate her  sympathy  with  that  rising  tide 
of  imperialist  sentiment  which  was  steadily 
flowing  over  the  whole  British  empire,  and 
The  growth  was  strengthening  the  bonds  be- 
of  im-  tween  the  colonies  and  India  and 

perialism.  the  home  country.  In  the  early 
months  of  1886  the  prince  of  Wales  had 
actively  engaged  in  organising  a  colonial  and 
Indian  exhibition  at  South  Kensington.  In 
this  enterprise  the  queen  manifested  great 
interest,  and  on  1  May  she  visited  the  ex- 
hibition, which  drew  numerous  visitors  to 
England  from  India  and  the  colonies.  On 
2  July  she  attended  a  review  at  Aldershot 
held  in  honour  of  the  Indian  and  colonial 
visitors  whom,  three  days  later,  she  enter- 
tained at  lunch  at  Windsor.  On  8  July 
she  received  there  Indian  and  other  native 
workmen  who  had  taken  part  in  the  ex- 
hibition, and  she  accepted  gifts  from  them. 
In  August,  on  her  way  to  Balmoral,  she 
visited  another  international  exhibition  at 
Edinburgh,  and  later  in  the  year  she  ap- 
proved the  suggestion  made  by  the  prince 
of  Wales  to  the  lord  mayor  of  London 
to  commemorate  her  fifty  years  of  reign 
by  inviting  public  subscriptions  for  the 
erection  of  an  imperial  institute  which 
should  be  a  meeting-place  for  visitors  to 
England  from  India  and  the  colonies  and 
should  permanently  exhibit  specimens  of  the 
natural  products  of  every  corner  of  her  em- 
pire. 

During  the  next  year — her  year  of  jubilee 
— 1887,  the  queen  more  conspicuously  illus- 
trated her  attachment  to  India  by  includ- 
The  queen  'in§  native  Indians  among  her 
learns  personal  attendants,  and  from 

Hindustani.     Qne  Qf  them>  the   ^^1    Abdul 

Karim,  who  served  her  as  groom  of  the 
chamber,  she  began  taking  lessons  in 
Hindustani.  Although  she  did  not  make 
much  progress  in  the  study,  the  munshi 
remained  to  instruct  her  till  her  death. 

Since  the  prince  consort's  death  her 
visits  to  London  had  been  few  and  brief, 

rarely  exceeding  two  nights.  In 
The  jubilee,  crder  suitably  to  distinguish 

the  jubilee  year,  1887,  from  those 
that  preceded  it,  she  spent  in  the  opening 
quarter  the  exceptional  period  of  ten  suc- 
cessive days  in  her  capital  (19-29  March). 
The  following  month  she  devoted  to  the  con- 
tinent, where  she  divided  the  time  between 
Cannes  and  Aix-les-Bains.  On  returning 


to  England  she  paid  another  visit  to  Loi 
don,  and  on   14  May  opened  the  People' 
Palace  in  the  east  end.     The  enthusiast 
loyalty  which  was  displayed  on  her  lo: 
journey  through  the  metropolis  greatly  elate< 
her.     After  her  customary  sojourn  at  Bal 
moral  (May-June)  she  reached  London  o: 
20  June  to  play  her  part  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  her  jubilee.      Next   day,  21  June, 
the  chief  ceremony  took  place,  when  she 
passed  in  procession  to  Westminster  Abbey 
to   attend   a  special   thanksgiving  service. 
In  front  of  her  carriage  rode,  at  her  own 
suggestion,  a  cortege  of  princes  of  her  own 
house,  her  sons,  her  sons-in-law,  and  grand- 
sons, thirty-two  in  all.      In  other  proces- 
sions there  figured  representatives  of  Europe, 
India,  and  the  colonies,  all  of  whom  brought 
her  rich  gifts.     From  India  came  a  brilliant 
array  of  ruling  princes.    Europe  sent  amo 
its  envoys  four  kings  :  those  of  Saxony, 
Belgium,  of  the  Hellenes,  and  of  Denmar 
together  with  the  crown  princes  of  Prussi 
Greece,  Portugal,  Sweden,  and  Austria.  The 
pope  sent  a  representative,  the  courtesy  of 
whose  presence    the   queen    acknowledge'" 
next  year  by  presenting  the  pope  at  the  papt 
jubilee  with  a  rich  golden  basin  and  ewe 
The  streets  through  which  she  and  her  gues! 
passed  were  elaborately  decorated,  and 
reception  almost  overwhelmed   her   in 
warmth.    Her  route  on  the  outward  journe; 
from  Buckingham  Palace  lay  through  Con 
stitution  Hill,  Piccadilly,  Waterloo  Place, 
and  Parliament  Street,  and  on  her  return  she 
passed  down  Whitehall  and  Pall  Mall.   The 
first  message  that  she  received  on  reaching 
Buckingham  Palace  was  an  inquiry  after  her 
health  from  her  aged  aunt,  the  Duchess  of 
Cambridge.     The  queen  replied  at  once  that 
she  was  '  very  tired  but  very  happy.'    In  the 
evening  there  were  illuminations  on  a  lavish 
scale  in  all  the  chief  cities  of  her  dominions, 
and  at  a  signal  given  from  the  Malvern  Hills 
at  10  P.M.  beacon  fires  were  lit  on  the  prin- 
cipal promontories   and   inland   heights  of 
Great  Britain  from  Shetland  and  Orkney  to 
Land's  End. 

Next  day  the  queen  accepted  a  personal 
gift  of  76,0002.  subscribed  by  nearly  three 
The  million  women  of  England.  A 

women's        small  part  of  this  sum  she  applied 
&ift-  to  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  the 

prince  consort,  by  (Sir)  Edgar  Boehm,  aftei 
Marochetti,  to  be  erected  on  Smith's  Law- 
Windsor  Park,  where  she  laid  the  found 
tion-stone   on   15   July  (she  unveiled   the 
statue   12   May  1890).     The  bulk  of  the 
women's  gift  she  devoted  to  the  foundation 
of  a  sick  nurses'  institute  on  a  great  scale, 
which  was  to  provide  trained  attendants  for 


Victoria 


483 


Victoria 


the  sick  poor  in  their  own  homes.  Succeed- 
ing incidents  in  the  celebration,  in  which  she 
took  a  foremost  part,  included,  apart  from 
court  dinners  and  receptions,  a  fete  in  Hyde 
Park  on  22  June  to  twenty-six  thousand  poor 
school  children ;  a  visit  to  Eton  on  her 
return  to  Windsor  the  same  evening  ;  the 
laying  of  the  foundation-stone  of  the  Imperial 
Institute  on  6  July ;  a  review  at  Aldershot 
on  9  July  ;  and  a  naval  review  on  29  July. 
The  harmony  subsisting  between  her  and  her 
prime  minister  she  illustrated  by  attending 
a  garden  party  given  by  him  in  honour  of  her 
jubilee  at  his  house  at  Hatfield  on  13  July. 
The  processions,  reviews,  and  receptions 
proved  no  transient  demonstration.  Perma- 
nent memorials  of  the  jubilee  were  erected 
by  public  subscription  in  almost  every  town 
and  village  of  the  empire,  taking  the  form 
of  public  halls,  clock  towers,  fountains,  or 
statues.  The  celebration  had  historic  signi- 
ficance. The  mighty  outburst  of  enthusiasm 
which  greeted  the  queen,  as  loudly  in  the 
colonies  and  India  as  in  the  United  King- 
dom, gave  new  strength  to  the  monarchy. 
Thenceforth  the  sovereign  was  definitely  re- 
garded as  the  living  embodiment  of  the  unity 
not  merely  of  the  British  nation  but  of 
the  British  empire. 

VII 

But  amid  the  jubilee  festivities  a  new 
cloud  was  gathering  over  the  royal  house. 
Since  the  autumn  of  1886  the  crown  prince, 
to  whose  future  rule  in  Germany  the  queen 
had  for  nearly  thirty  years  been  looking 
forward  with  intense  hope,  was  attacked 
niness  of  the  Dv  a  mysterious  affection  of  the 
throat.  Early  in  June  1887  he 
and  the  crown  princess  came 
to  England  and  settled  at  Upper  Norwood 
in  the  hope  of  benefiting  by  change  of  en- 
vironment. He  was  well  enough  to  play  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  jubilee  procession, 
when  his  handsome  figure  and  his  white 
uniform  of  the  Pomeranian  cuirassiers  at- 
tracted universal  admiration.  Subsequently 
he  stayed  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  at  Brae- 
mar,  and  he  did  not  return  to  Germany  till 
14  Sept.  The  winter  of  1887-8  he  spent  at 
San  Remo,  and  it  there  became  apparent  that 
he  was  suffering  from  cancer.  The  queen, 
who  completely  identified  herself  with  the 
happiness  of  her  eldest  daughter,  was  con- 
stantly with  her  and  her  husband  while  they 
remained  in  England  or  Scotland,  and  she 
suffered  greatly  from  the  anxiety.  Nor  was 
it  lessened  when,  on  9  March  1888,  the 
queen's  old  friend,  the  Emperor  William  I, 
died,  and  the  crown  which  she  and  her 


daughter  had  through  earlier  days  longed  to 
see  on  the  crown  prince's  head  was  now  at 
length  placed  there  while  he  was  sinking  into 

!  the  grave.  But  the  queen  did  not  abstain 
from  rejoicings  in  another  of  her  children's 
households.  On  10  March  she  dined  with 
the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  at  Marl- 
borough  House  to  celebrate  their  silver 
wedding,  and  at  night,  on  her  return  to 
Windsor,  she  drove  through  London  to  wit- 
ness the  illuminations. 

On  22  March  she  left  England  for  a  month's 
holiday  at  Florence.  It  was  her  first  visit 
to  the  city,  and  it  and  its  surroundings 
charmed  her.  King  Humbert  courteously 
paid  her  a  visit  on  5  April,  and  the  attention 
pleased  her.  On  20  April  she  left  for  Ger- 
many, where  she  had  resolved  to  visit  the 
dying  Emperor  Frederick.  On  the  journey 
— at  Innsbruck — she  was  gratified  by  meet- 
ing the  emperor  of  Austria.  It  was  their 
second  interview ;  the  first  was  now  nearly 
a  quarter  of  a  century  old.  On  21  April  she 
drove  through  Berlin  to  Charlottenburg,  her 
son-in-law's  palace.  But  it  was  not  solely  to 
Family  ^id  farewell  to  the  stricken  prince 
quarrel  in  that  she  had  come.  It  was  to 
Berlin.  mediate  in  a  quarrel  in  her  daugh- 
ter's family,  which  was  causing  grave  em- 
barrassment in  political  circles  in  Berlin,  and 
for  which  she  was  herself  freely  held  respon- 
sible. Her  own  kindly  interest  in  the  young 
princes  of  Battenberg  was  shared  by  her  eldest 
daughter.  Of  the  three  brothers,  the  eldest 
had  married  her  granddaughter  and  the 
youngest  her  daughter.  The  second  brother, 
Alexander,  who  was  still  unmarried,  and  was 
still  no  more  than  thirty-one,  had  had  an  ad- 
venturous career.  For  seven  years  he  had  been 
prince  of  Bulgaria,  but  he  had  incurred  the 
distrust  of  the  tsar,  and  in  1886,  having  been 
driven  from  his  throne,  retired  to  private  life 
at  Darmstadt.  He,  like  his  brothers,  was 

I  personally  known  to  the  queen,  whose  guest 
he  was  at  Windsor  in  1879;  she  sympathised 

I  with  his  misfortunes,  and  she  encouraged 
the  notion  that  he  also,  like  his  brothers, 
might  marry  into  her  family.  An  opportu- 
nity was  at  hand.  The  second  daughter  of 
the  Emperor  Frederick,  Victoria,  Ml  in  lov.- 
with  him,  and  a  betrothal  was  arranged 
with  the  full  approval  of  the  young  prin- 
cess's mother  and  grandmother.  Hut  violent 
opposition  was  manifested  at  the  German 
court.  Prince  Bismarck,  chancellor  of  the 
empire,  who  had  always  been  on  !. 
terms  with  the  crown  princess,  denounced 
the  match  as  the  work  of  Queen  Victoria, 
who  had  taken  the  Battenbergs  under  her 
protection.  He  declared  that  such  a  union 
was  injurious  to  the  interest  of  the  German 

II  2 


Victoria 


484 


Victoria 


royal  family.  Not  merely  did  it  humiliate 
the  imperial  house  by  allying  it  with  a  prince 
of  inferior  social  standing,  hut  it  compro- 
mised the  good  relations  of  Berlin  with  St. 
Petersburg,  where  Prince  Alexander  was 
heartily  disliked.  Bismarck  even  credited  the 
queen  with  a  deliberate  design  of  alienating 
Russia  and  Germany  in  the  hope  of  bringing 
The  queen  shout  an  Anglo-German  alliance 
and  against  the  tsar.  When  the 

Bismarck,  queen  reached  Charlottenburg  this 
awkward  dispute  was  at  its  height.  The 
Empress  Frederick  stood  by  her  daughter, 
who  was  unwilling  to  abandon  Prince  Alex- 
ander. The  dying  emperor  and  his  son,  the 
Crown  Prince  William,  in  vain  endeavoured 
to  move  her.  Prince  Bismarck  threatened 
resignation  unless  Prince  Alexander  was  sum- 
marily dismissed.  On  24  April  the  queen, 
after  much  conversation  with  her  daughter, 
boldly  discussed  the  question  in  all  its  bear- 
ings with  Prince  Bismarck.  He  forced  her 
to  realise  the  complications  that  resistance 
to  his  will  would  raise,  and,  yielding  to  his 
power,  she  used  her  influence  with  her 
daughter  and  granddaughter  to  induce  them 
to  break  off  the  engagement  with  Prince 
Alexander.  Reluctantly  they  yielded.  The 
Crown  Prince  William,  who  had  stoutly 
opposed  his  mother,  was  by  the  queen's  per- 
suasion reconciled  to  her,  and  domestic  har- 
mony was  restored.  On  the  night  of  her 
interview  with  Bismarck,  the  queen  attended 
a  state  banquet  in  the  Charlottenburg  Palace, 
and  the  reconciliation  was  ratified.  None 
the  less  the  queen  always  took  a  kindly  in- 
terest in  Prince  Alexander,  whose  humilia- 
tion she  deplored ;  and  though  she  regretted 
his  marriage  next  year  (6  Feb.  1889)  to 
Fraiilein  Loisinger,  a  singer  at  the  Dresden 
and  Darmstadt  court  theatres,  she  used  no 
harsh  language,  merely  remarking  patheti- 
cally, '  Perhaps  they  loved  one  another.'  The 
prince  barely  survived  his  marriage  four 
years ;  he  died  on  17  Feb.  1893. 

On  15  June  1888  the  Emperor  Frederick 
died.  A  week  later  the  queen  wrote  from 
Windsor  to  her  friend,  Archbishop  Benson  : 
Death  of  '  ^ne  contrast  between  this  year 
Emperor  and  the  last  jubilee  one  is  most 
Frederick,  painful  and  remarkable.  Who 
could  have  thought  that  that  splendid,  noble, 
knightly  prince — as  good  as  he  was  brave 
and  noble — who  was  the  admiration  of  all, 
would  on  the  very  day  year — (yesterday)  be 
no  longer  in  this  world  ?  His  loss  is  indeed  a 
very  mysterious  dispensation,  for  it  is  such  a 
very  dreadful  public  as  well  as  private  misfor- 
tune' (Life  of  Archbishop  Benson,  ii.  211). 
Court  mourning  prevented  any  celebration 
of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  queen's 


coronation  on  28  June.  But  on  her  visit 
Balmoral  in  the  autumn  she  took  part  in 
several  public  ceremonials.  She  stayed  with 
Sir  Archibald  Campbell  at  Blythswood  in 
Renfrewshire  in  order  to  open  new  municipal 
buildings  at  Glasgow,  and  to  visit  the  exhi- 
bition there.  She  also  went  to  Paisley, 
which  was  celebrating  the  fourth  centenary 
of  its  incorporation  as  a  borough.  In  No- 
vember the  widowed  Empress  Frederick  was 
her  mother's  guest  at  Windsor  for  the  first 
of  many  times  in  succeeding  years ;  the  queen 
showed  her  the  unusual  attention  of  meeting 
her  on  her  landing  in  England  at  Port 
Victoria  (19  Nov.) 

During  1889  the  queen's  health  was  good 
and  her  activity  undiminished.  Her  spring 
holiday  was  spent  for  the  first 
SpainUeenm  t^me  at  Biarritz,  in  former  days 
the  favoured  health  resort  of  the 
queen's  friend,  the  Empress  Eugenie  (6  March 
to  1  April).  On  27  March  she  made  an  ex- 
cursion into  Spain  to  visit  the  queen-regent 
at  San  Sebastian.  This  was  another  new 
experience  for  an  English  sovereign.  None 
before  had  set  foot  on  Spanish  soil,  although 
Charles  I  and  Charles  II  went  thither 
princes.  On  her  return  to  England  she  w 
distressed  by  the  death  of  her  aunt,  t" 
Duchess  of  Cambridge,  at  the  age  of  ninety 
one  (6  April).  The  final  link  with  her  child 
hood  was  thus  severed.  The  queen  wish 
the  duchess  to  be  buried  at  Windsor,  but  her 
aunt  had  left  instructions  that  she  should  be 
buried  beside  her  husband  at  Kew.  The 
queen  was  present  at  her  funeral  on  the  13th, 
and  placed  a  wreath  on  the  coffin.  At  thi 
end  of  the  month  she  paid  a  visit  to  he: 
son  at  Sandringham,  and  on  the  26th  shi 
witnessed  there  a  performance  by  (Sir) 
Henry  Irving  and  his  company  of  '  The 
Bells '  and  the  trial  scene  from  '  The  Mer- 
chant of  Venice.'  It  was  the  second  time 
that  the  queen  had  permitted  herself  to  wit- 
ness a  dramatic  performance  since  the  prince 
consort's  death.  The  first  occasion,  which 
was  near  the  end  of  her  twentieth  year  of 
widowhood,  was  also  afforded  by  the  prince 
and  princess  of  Wales,  who,  when  at  Aber- 
geldie  Castle  in  1881,  induced  the  queen  to 
come  there  and  see  a  London  company  of 
actors  perform  Mr.  Burnand's  comedy  of 
'  The  Colonel'  (11  Oct.  1881). 

In  May  1889  she  laid  the  foundation-stone 
of  new  buildings  at  Eton  (on  the  18th),  and 
she  reviewed  troops  at  Aldershot  (on  the  31st). 
On  3  June  she  presented  at  Windsor  new 
colours  to  the  regiment  with  which  she  had 
already  closely  identified  herself,  Princess 
Victoria's  royal  Irish  fusiliers  ;  she  had  pre- 
sented colours  to  it  in  1833  and  1866.  Next 


Victoria 


485 


Victoria 


day,  4  June,  she  witnessed  at  Eton  for  the 
first  time  the  annual  procession  of  boats 
which  celebrated  George  Ill's  birthday. 

In  the  summer  came  difficulties  which 
tried  her  tact  and  temper.  She  turned  to 
consider  the  pecuniary  prospects  of  her  nu- 
merous grandchildren.  Provision  had  already 
been  made  by  parliament  for  every  one  of 

her  nine  children  and  for  her 
andhereen  three  first  cousins,  the  Duke  of 

Cambridge  and  his  sisters ;  and 
children.  although  the  deaths  of  Princess 
Alice  and  Prince  Leopold  had  caused  a 
net  reduction  of  2o,000l.,  the  sum  annually 
assigned  to  members  of  the  royal  family, 
apart  from  the  queen,  amounted  to  152,0001. 
No  responsibility  for  providing  for  the  Ger- 
man royal  family,  the  offspring  of  her  eldest 
daughter,  the  Empress  Frederick,  or  for 
the  family  of  the  Princess  Alice  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  attached  to  her ;  but  she  had 
twenty-two  other  grandchildren — domiciled 
in  England — for  whom  she  regarded  it 
as  her  duty  to  make  provision.  In  July  1889 
events  seemed  to  her  to  render  an  appeal  to 
parliament  in  behalf  of  the  third  generation 
of  her  family  appropriate.  The  elder  son  of 
the  prince  of  Wales  was  coming  of  age,  while 
his  eldest  daughter  was  about  to  marry  with 
the  queen's  assent  the  Earl  (afterwards  Duke) 
of  Fife.  She  therefore  sent  two  messages  to 
the  House  of  Commons  requesting  due  pro- 
vision for  the  two  elder  children  of  her  eldest 
son.  The  manner  in  which  her  request  was 
approached  was  not  all  she  could  have 
wished.  New  life  was  given  to  the  old  cry 
against  the  expenses  of  monarchy. 

The  queen's  financial  position  still  from 
time  to  time  excited  jealous  comments,  not 
only  among  her  subjects,  but  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. Exaggerated  reports  of  the  extent  of 
her  fortune  were  widely  current,  and  small 
heed  was  paid  to  her  efforts  to  correct  the 
false  impression.  In  1 885  it  was  stated  with 
•some  show  of  authority  that  she  had  lately 
invested  a  million  pounds  sterling  in  ground 
reports  rents  in  the  city  of  London, 
of  her  Through  Sir  Henry  Ponsonby  she 

denied  that  she  had  any  such  sum 
at  her  disposal.  At  Berlin,  Bismarck  often 
joked  coarsely  over  her  reputed  affluence,  to 
which  he  attributed  the  power  she  exerted 
over  the  Crown  Prince  Frederick  and  his 
household.  But  while  the  best  friends  of  the 
crown  deprecated  such  kind  of  criticism,  they 
deemed  it  inexpedient  for  the  country  to  un- 
dertake the  maintenance  indefinitely  of  the 
queen's  family  beyond  the  second  generation. 
Both  the  extreme  and  the  moderate  opinions 
found  free  expression  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  calm  observers  like  Lord  Selborne 


perceived  in  the  discussion  ominous  signs 
of  a  recrudescence  of  republican  sentiment. 
To  the  government's  proposal  to  appoint  a 
committee  representative  of  all  sections  of 
the  house  to  determine  the  principles  which 
should  govern  the  reply  to  the  queen's  mes- 
sages, a  hostile  amendment  to  refer  the 
whole  question  of  the  revenues  of  the  crown 
to  the  committee  was  moved  by  Mr.  Brad- 
laugh.  He  argued  that  the  queen's  savings 
on  the  civil  list  enabled  her  unaided  to  pro- 
vide for  her  grandchildren,  and  that  the 
royal  grants  were  an  intolerable  burden  on 
the  people.  The  amendment  was  rejected  by 
a  majority  of  188,  but  125  votes  were  cast 
in  its  favour. 

On  the  due  appointment  of  the  committee 
the  government  recommended,  with  the 
queen's  approval,  the  prospective  allocation  to 
the  prince  of  Wales  s  children  of  annuities 
amounting  on  their  marriages  to  49,000/., 
besides  a  sum  of  30,000/.  by  way  of  dowries. 
But  the  grant  immediately  payable  was  to  be 
21,0001.  annually  and  10,000/.  for  the  dowry 
of  the  Princess  Louise.  Precedent,  it  was 
shown,  justified  public  provision  for  all  the 
children  of  the  sovereign's  sons.  The  daugh- 
ters of  former  sovereigns  had  invariably  mar- 
ried foreign  reigning  princes,  and  their  chil- 
dren, not  being  British  subjects,  were  outside 
the  purview  of  the  British  parliament.  The 
question  whether  the  children  of  the  sove- 
reign's daughters  who  were  not  married  to 
foreign  reigning  princes  were  entitled  to  pub- 
lic provision  had  not  previously  arisen.  The 
queen  and  the  government  perceived  that 
public  opinion  was  not  in  the  mood  to  permit 
lavish  or  unconditional  grants,  and  it  was 
soon  apparent  that  a  compromise  would  be 
needful.  The  queen  disliked  the  debate,  but 
showed  a  wish  to  be  conciliatory.  She  at 
once  agreed  to  forego  any  demand  on  behalf  of 
her  daughters'  children ;  but  although  she 
demurred  to  a  formal  withdrawal  of  her 
claim  on  behalf  of  her  younger  son's  children, 
she  stated  that  she  would  not  press  it. 
Gladstone,  whose  faith  in  the  monarchy  was 
strong,  and  who  respected  the  royal  family 
as  its  symbol,  was  anxious  to  ward  off  agita- 
tion, and  he  induced  the  government  to 
modify  their  original  proposal  by  granting 
to  the*  prince  of  Wales  a  fixed  ami  mil  sum 
of  36.000/.,  to  be  paid  quarterly,  for  his 
children's  support.  This  proposal  was  ac- 
cepted by  a  majority  of  the  committee ;  but 
when  it  was  presented  to  parlia- 
pHn ''•  $  ment>  although  Gladstone  induced 
Wales'?  chil-  Parnell  and  the  Irish  nationalists 
dren,  1889.  to  8UppOrt  it,  it  met  with  oppo- 
sition from  the  radical  side  of  the  house. 
Mr.  Labouchere  invited  the  house  to  re- 


Victoria 


486 


Victoria 


fuse  peremptorily  any  grant  to  the  queen's 
grandchildren.  The  invitation  was  rejected 
by  398  votes  against  116.  Mr.  John  Morley 
then  moved  an  amendment  to  the  effect 
that  the  manner  of  granting  the  36,000/.  to 
the  prince  of  Wales  left  room  for  future 
applications  from  the  crown  for  further 
grants,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  give 
finality  to  the  present  arrangement.  Most 
of  Gladstone's  colleagues  in  the  late  govern- 
ment supported  Mr.  Morley,  but  his  amend- 
ment was  defeated  by  355  votes  against 
134,  and  the  grant  of  36,000/.  a  year  was 
secured  (Hansard,  3rd  ser.  cccxxxvii.  cols. 
1840  sq.)  In  the  course  of  the  debate  and 
inquiry  it  was  officially  stated  that  the 
queen's  total  savings  from  the  civil  list 
amounted  to  824,025/.,  but  that  out  of  this 
sum  much  had  been  spent  on  special  enter- 
tainments to  foreign  visitors.  In  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  the  queen  accepted 
the  arrangement  gratefully,  and  she  was  not 
unmindful  of  the  value  of  Gladstone's  inter- 
vention. For  a  season  she  displayed  unusual 
cordiality  towards  him.  On  25  July,  while 
the  negotiation  was  proceeding,  she  sent  to 
him  and  Mrs.  Gladstone  warm  congratula- 
tions on  their  golden  wedding.  Meanwhile, 
on  27  June,  she  attended  the  marriage  of 
her  granddaughter,  Princess  Louise  of 
Wales,  to  the  Earl  of  Fife  in  the  private 
chapel  of  Buckingham  Palace. 

After  the  thorny  pecuniary  question  was 
settled,  hospitalities  to  foreign  sovereigns 
absorbed  the  queen's  attention.  In  July 
1889  she  entertained,  for  a  second  time,  the 
shah  of  Persia,  and  in  August  she  welcomed 
her  grandson,  the  German  emperor  WTil- 
vuit  of  the  liam  HI  on  h^3  first  visit  to  this 
German  country  since  his  accession  to  his 
throne-  The  incident  greatly 
interested  her,  and  she  arranged 
every  detail  of  her  grandson's  reception. 
The  emperor  came  to  Cowes  on  his  way  to 
Osborne  in  his  yacht  Hohenzollern,  ac- 
companied by  twelve  warships.  The  queen 
held  a  naval  review  in  his  honour  at 
Spithead,  8  Aug.,  and  on  9  Aug.  reviewed 
the  seamen  and  marines  of  the  German  fleet 
at  Osborne.  All  passed  off  happily,  and  she 
congratulated  herself  on  the  cordial  relations 
which  the  visit  established  between  the  two 
countries.  The  young  emperor  gave  proof 
of  private  and  public  friendship  by  causing 
the  queen  to  be  gazetted  honorary  colonel 
of  his  first  regiment  of  horseguards,  on  which 
he  bestowed  the  title  of  Queen  of  England's 
Own  (12  Aug.)  The  emperor  repeated  his 
visit  to  Osborne  next  year,  when  a  sham 
naval  fight  took  place  in  his  presence,  and 
he  came  back  in  1891,  when  he  was  officially 


received  in  London,  in  1893, 1894,  and  1895. 
There  was  then  a  three  years'  interval  before 
he  saw  the  queen  again. 

During  the  last  eleven  years  (1889-1901) 
of  her  long  career  the  queen's  mode  of  life  fol- 
lowed in  all    essentials  the    fixed  routine. 
Three  visits  to  Osborne,  two  to  Balmoral, 
a  few  days  in  London  or  in  Alder- 

I889^i°90life'  8hot'  alternated  witn  her  spring 
vacation  abroad  and  her  longer 
sojourns  at  Windsor.  Occasionally,  in 
going  to  or  returning  from  Balmoral  or 
Osborne,  she  modified  her  route  to  fulfil  a 

?ublic  or  private  engagement.  In  August 
889,  on  her  way  to  Scotland,  she  made  a 
short  tour  in  Wales,  which  she  had  been 
contemplating  for  some  ten  years.  For  four 
days  she  stayed  at  Pal6  Hall,  near  Lake 
Bala.  On  the  26th,  '  the  dear  prince's  birth- 
day,' she  paid  a  visit  to  Bryntysilio  near 
Llangollen,  the  residence  of  Sir  Theodore 
and  Lady  Martin,  both  of  whom  were  con- 
genial acquaintances.  She  was  gratified  by 
the  loyalty  shown  by  the  Welsh  people, 
and  thoroughly  enjoyed  the  beauty  of  the 
scenery.  On  14  May  1890  she  paid  a  visit 
to  Baron  Ferdinand  de  Rothschild's  chateau 
at  Waddesdon  Manor.  On  26  July  following 
she  opened  the  deep-water  dock  at  South- 
ampton. On  26  Feb.  1891,  at  Portsmouth, 
she  christened  and  launched  the  Royal 
Sovereign,  the  largest  ironclad  in  her  fleet, 
and  the  Royal  Arthur,  an  unarmoured  cruiser 
of  new  design.  On  21  May  1891  she  laid 
the  foundation-stone  of  the  new  royal  in- 
firmary at  Derby.  On  21  May  1894  she 
revisited  Manchester  after  an  interval  of 
thirty-seven  years  in  order  to  open  officially 
the  great  ship  canal;  on  21  May  1897  she 
went  to  Sheffield  to  open  the  new  town 
hall ;  and  on  15  Nov.  1899  she  performed 
a  last  function  in  the  English  provinces, 
when  she  went  to  Bristol  to  open  the  con- 
valescent home  which  had  been  erected  to 
commemorate  her  length  of  rule. 

Only  in  her  foreign  tours  did  she  seek 
change  of  scene  with  any  ardour.  In  1890 
Foreign  ^er  destination  was  Aix-les- 
tours,  Bains;  in  1891,  Grasse ;  and  in 

1890-9.  1892  Costebelle,  near  Hyeres.  In 
1893  and  again  in  1894  she  passed  the  spring 
at  Florence  for  a  second  and  a  third  time, 
and  her  delight  in  the  city  and  neighbour- 
hood grew  with  closer  acquaintance.  Each 
of  these  years  King  Humbert  paid  her  a 
visit ;  and  in  1894  Queen  Margherita  accom- 
panied him.  In  1895  she  was  at  Cannes ; 
j  both  in  1896  and  1897  at  Nice ;  and  during 
the  two  successive  years,  1898  and  1899,  at 
Cimiez.  On  the  homeward  journey  in  1890, 
1892,  and  1895  she  revisited  Darmstadt.  On 


Victoria 


487 


Victoria 


her  return  in  1894  she  paid  a  last  visit  to 
Coburg — the  city  and  duchy  which  were  iden- 
tified with  her  happiest  memories.  There  she 
was  present,  on  19  April  1894,  at  the  inter- 
marriage of  two  of  her  grandchildren — the 
Princess  Victoria  Melita  of  Coburg,  the 
second  daughter  of  her  second  son,  Alfred, 
with  the  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse,  the  only 
surviving  son  of  her  second  daughter,  Alice. 
On  returning  from  Nice  in  March  1897, 
while  passing  round  Paris,  she  was  met  at 
the  station  of  Noisy-le-Sec  by  M.  Faure, 
the  president  of  the  French  Republic,  who 
greeted  her  with  every  courtesy.  On  5  May 

1899  she  touched  foreign  soil  for  the  last 
time  when  she  embarked  at  Cherbourg  on 
her  home-coming  from   Cimiez.     She   fre- 
quently acknowledged  with   gratitude  the 
amenities  which  were  extended  to  her  abroad, 
and  sought  to  reciprocate  them.    On  19  Aug. 
1891  she  welcomed  the  officers  of  the  French 
squadron  which  was  in  the  Channel  under 
Admiral  Gervais,  and  on  11  July  1895  she 
entertained  the  officers  of  an  Italian  squadron 
which  was  off  Spithead  under  the  Duke  of 
Genoa. 

The  queen's  court  in  her  last  years  regained 
a  part  of  its  pristine  gaiety.  Music  and  the 
Revival  of  drama  were  again  among  its  re- 
drama  and  cognised  recreations.  In  Febru- 
opera  at  arv  IQQQ  there  were  private  thea- 

court.  /     ,  ,        ,  ,  *•        _   , 

tncals  and  tableaux  at  Osborne, 
in  which  the  queen's  daughters  took  part, 
and  in  their  preparation  the  queen  took  great 
personal  interest.  Next  year,  for  the  first 
time  since  the  prince  consort's  death,  a  dra- 
matic performance  was  commanded  at  Wind- 
sor Castle,  6  March  1891,  when  Messrs.  Gil- 
bert and  Sullivan's  comic  opera  of '  The  Gon- 
doliers '  was  performed.  In  1894  the  Ita- 
lian actress,  Signora  Eleanora  Duse,  per- 
formed Goldoni's  '  La  Locandiera '  before  the 
queen  at  Windsor,  and  Mr.  Tree  acted  '  The 
Red  Lamp '  at  Balmoral.  Her  birthday  in 
1895  she  celebrated  by  a  performance  there  of 
Verdi's  opera  of  '  II  Trovatore  '  in  the  Water- 
loo Chamber.  On  26  June  1900  Mascagni's 
'  Cavalleria  Rusticana  '  with  a  selection  from 
'Carmen '  was  given  there,  and  on  16  July 

1900  the  whole  opera  of  '  Faust.' 
Domestic  incidents  continued  to  bring  the 

queen  alternations  of  joy  and  grief  in  abun- 
dant measure.  In  December  1891  she  was 
Betrothal  gratified  by  the  betrothal  of 
Sddeathof  Princess  Mary  (May),  daughter 
the  Duke  of  of  her  cousin  the  Duchess  of  Teck, 
rence-  to  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  elder  son 
of  the  prince  of  Wales,  who  was  in  the 
direct  line  of  succession  to  the  throne.  But 
death  stepped  in  to  forbid  the  union.  On 
14  Jan.  1892  the  duke  died.  The  tragedy 


for  a  time  overwhelmed  the  queen.  « Was 
there  ever  a  more  terrible  contrast?'  she 
wrote  to  Tennyson ;  « a  wedding  with  bright 
hopes  turned  into  a  funeral ! '  In  an  address 
to  her  people  she  described  the  occasion  as 
'  one  more  sad  and  tragical  than  any  but  one 
that  had  befallen  her.'  The  nation  fully 
shared  her  sorrow.  Gladstone  wrote  to  Sir 
William  Harcourt :  '  The  national  grief  re- 
sembles that  on  the  death  of  Princess  Char- 
lotte, and  is  a  remarkable  evidence  of 
national  attachment  to  the  queen  and  rovai 
family'  (6  Feb.  1892).  Lord  Selborne  fore- 
saw in  the  good  feeling  thus  evoked  a 
new  bond  of  affection  between  the  queen 
and  the  masses  of  her  people.  On  the  Duke 
of  Clarence's  death,  his  brother  George,  duke 
of  York,  became  next  heir  to  the  crown 
after  his  father;  and  on  3  May  1893 
The  Duke  tne  queen  assented  to  his  be- 
of  York's  trothal  to  the  Princess  May  of 

marriage.         Teck         Sorrow    was     thug     8UC. 

ceeded  by  gladness.  The  Duke  of  York's 
marriage  in  the  Chapel  Royal  at  St.  James's 
Palace  on  6  July  1893,  which  the  queen  at- 
tended, revived  her  spirits ;  and  she  wrote 
to  her  people  a  letter  full  of  hope,  thanking 
them  for  their  congratulations. 

Another  change  in  her  domestic  environ- 
ment followed.    On  22  Aug.  1893  her  brother- 
in-law,Duke  Ernest  of  Saxe-Coburg,died.  The 
cordiality  of  her  early  relations 

The  duchy          ..,     ,.  J  J    .    . 

of  Saxe-         with  him   was   not   maintained. 

Coburg-  She  had  never  thought  highly  of 
his  judgment,  and  his  mode  of 
life  in  his  old  age  did  not  commend  itself  to 
her.  His  death  gave  effect  to  the  arrange- 
ment by  which  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha  passed  to  her  second  son,  Alfred, 
duke  of  Edinburgh  ;  and  he  and  his  family 
thenceforth  made  Coburg  their  chief  home. 
Thus  the  German  principality,  which  waa  en- 
deared to  her  through  her  mother's  and  her 
husband's  association  with  it,  was  brought  per- 
manently under  the  sway  of  her  descendants. 
The  matrimonial  fortunes  of  her  grand- 
children occupied  much  of  her  attention  next 
Grand-  Jear-  At  the  time  of  the  Grand 
children's  Duke  of  Hesse's  marriage  with  a 
marriages,  daughter  of  the  new  Duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg,  which  she  herself  attended 
at  Coburg  (19  April  1894),  she  warmly 
approved  the  betrothal  of  the  Tsarevitch 
Nicholas  with  another  granddaughter — 
Alix,  sister  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse. 
This  was  the  most  imposing  match  that 
any  of  her  grandchildren  had  made,  or  in- 
deed any  of  her  children  save  her  eldest 
daughter.  Her  second  son  was  already  the 
husband  of  a  tsar's  daughter.  But  this 
union  brought  the  head  of  the  Russian  royal 


Victoria 


488 


Victoria 


family  into  far  closer  relations  with  her 
own.  Before  the  tsarevitch's  marriage,  the 
death  of  his  father,  Tsar  Alexander  III,  on 
1  Nov.  1894,  placed  him  on  the  Russian 
throne.  His  marriage  followed  on  23  Nov. 
The  queen  gave  an  appropriated  elaborate 
banquet  at  Windsor  in  honour  of*  the  event, 
and  made  the  new  Tsar  Nicholas  II — now 
the  husband  of  her  granddaughter — colonel- 
in-chief  of  the  second  dragoons  (Royal  Scots 
Greys).  Meanwhile,  on  23  June  1894,  the 
birth  of  a  first  son  (Edward)  to  the  Duke 
and  Duchess  of  York  added  a  new  heir  in 
the  fourth  generation  to  the  direct  succes- 
sion to  her  throne.  The  queen  was  present 
at  the  christening  at  White  Lodge,  Rich- 
mond, on  16  July.  A  year  later  she  gave  a 
hearty  welcome  to  a  foreign  kinsman  in  the 
third  generation,  Carlos,  king  of  Portugal, 
friendship  with  whose  father  and  grand- 
parents (Queen  Maria  II  and  her  consort, 
Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg)  she  had 
warmly  cherished.  She  celebrated  King 
Carlos's  visit  by  conferring  on  him  the  order 
of  the  Garter  (9  Nov.  1895). 

Politics  at  home  had  once  more  drifted 
in  the  direction  which  she  dreaded.  At  the 
Gladstone  en(^  °^  June  1892  the  twelfth  par- 
again  in  liament  of  the  reign  was  dissolved 
i&92%  after  a  life  of  just  six  years, 

and  a  majority  of  home  rulers 
was  returned  (355  to  315).  Lord  Salisbury 
waited  for  the  meeting  of  parliament  before 
resigning,  but  a  vote  of  want  of  confidence 
was  at  once  carried  against  him  and  he 
retired  (12  Aug.)  The  queen  had  no  choice 
but  to  summon  Gladstone  for  a  fourth  time 
to  fill  the  post  of  prime  minister,  and  with 
the  legislation  that  his  new  government 
prepared  the  queen  found  herself  in  no 
greater  sympathy  than  on  former  occasions. 
Her  objections  to  home  rule  for  Ireland 
were  rooted  and  permanent ;  but,  though  she 
was  depressed  by  the  passage  of  Gladstone's 
home  rule  bill  through  the  House  of  Com- 
mons (27  July  1893),  she  rejoiced  at  its 
rejection  by  the  House  of  Lords  on  8  Sept. 
by  the  decisive  majority  of  378.  As  far  as 
her  reign  was  concerned  the  scheme  then 
received  its  death-blow.  She  was  spared 
further  anxieties  in  regard  to  it,  and  the 
political  horizon  brightened  for  her.  On 
The  queen's  ^  March  1894  Gladstone  went 
farewell  of  to  Windsor  to  resign  his  office 
Gladstone.  owingto  his  age  and  failing  health, 
and  the  queen  accepted  his  resignation  with 
a  coldness  that  distressed  him  and  friends. 
She  did  not  meet  him  again.  On  19  May 
1898  he  died,  and  though  she  felt  sym- 
pathy with  his  relatives,  and  was  grateful 
for  the  proofs  he  had  given  of  attachment 


Lord 
Rosebery 
prime 
minister. 


to  the  monarchy,  she  honestly  refrained 
from  any  unequivocal  expression  of  admira- 
tion for  his  public  labours.  She  was  fully 
alive  to  the  exalted  view  of  his  achieve- 
ments which  was  shared  by  a  large  number 
of  her  subjects,  and  in  a  telegram  to 
Mrs.  Gladstone  on  the  day  of  his  funeral  in 
Westminster  Abbey  she  wrote  with  much 
adroitness  of  the  gratification  with  which 
his  widow  must '  see  the  respect  and  regret 
evinced  by  the  nation  for  the  memory  of 
one  whose  character  and  intellectual  abilities 
marked  him  as  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
statesmen  of  my  reign.'  But  she  did  not 
commit  herself  to  any  personal  appreciation 
beyond  the  concluding  remark :  '  I  shall 
ever  gratefully  remember  his  devotion  and 
zeal  in  all  that  concerned  my  personal  wel- 
fare and  that  of  my  family.' 

On  Gladstone's  resignation  in  1894,  the 
queen ,  by  her  own  act  and  without  seeking  any 
advice,  chose  the  Earl  of  Rosebery  to  succeed 
him  (3  March).  She  had  long 
known  him  and  his  family  (his 
mother  had  been  one  of  her 
bridesmaids),  and  she  admired  his 
abilities.  But  the  government's  policy  under- 
went small  change.  The  Welsh  disestablish- 
ment bill,  which  was  read  a  second  time  in 
the  House  of  Commons  on  1  April  1895,  ran 
directly  counter  to  her  personal  devotion  to 
church  establishments.  Nor  did  she  welcome 
the  changes  at  the  war  office,  which  relieved 
her  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Cambridge,  of  the 
commandership-in-chief  of  the  army,  and 
by  strictly  limiting  the  future  tenure  of  the 
post  to  a  period  of  five  years  gave  the  death- 
blow to  the  cherished  fiction  that  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  was  the  sovereign's  per- 
manent personal  deputy.  But  Lord  Rose- 
bery's  government  fell  in  June,  and  Lord 
Salisbury,  to  the  queen's  satisfaction,  re- 
sumed power  on  the  understanding  that  he 
would  be  permitted  an  early  appeal  to  the 
country.  In  the  new  ministry  the  conserva- 
tive leaders  coalesced  with  the  leaders  of 
liberal  unionists.  The  dissolution  of  parlia- 
ment was  followed  by  the  return  of  the 
unionists  in  a  strong  majority,  and  the 
unionist  party  under  Lord  Salisbury's  leader- 
ship retained  power  till  her  death.  With 
Lord  Salisbury  and  his  unionist  colleagues  her 
relations  were  to  the  last  harmonious.  Her 
sympathy  with  the  imperialist  sentiments, 
The  queen  which  Mr.  Chamberlain's  control 
and  Mr.  of  the  colonial  office  conspicu- 
cimmber-  ousl v  fostered,  was  whole-hearted. 

lain.  *'.          ,  •    v»     i       _9 

As  m  the  case  of  Peel  ana 
Disraeli,  her  first  knowledge  of  him  had  not 
prepossessed  her  in  his  favour.  When  he 
was  a  leader  of  a  radical  section  of  the 


Victoria 


489 


Victoria 


liberal  party  she  regarded  him  with  active 
distrust ;  but  his  steady  resistance  to  the 
policy  of  home  rule,  and  his  secession  from 
the  ranks  of  Gladstone's  followers,  dissipated 
her  fears,  and  his  imperialist  administration 
of  colonial  affairs  from  1895  till  her  death' was 
in  complete  accord  with  her  sentiment.  But, 
despite  her  confidence  in  her  advisers,  her 
energy  in  criticising  their  counsel  never  slack- 
ened. She  still  required  all  papers  of  state  to 
be  regularly  submitted  to  her ;  she  was  im- 
patient of  any  sign  of  carelessness  in  the  con- 
duct of  public  business,  and  she  pertinaciously 
demanded  full  time  for  the  consideration  of 
ministers' proposals.  She  had  lately  resumed 
her  early  practice  of  signing  commissions  in 
the  army,  and  when  in  1895  the  work  fell 
into  arrears  and  an  appeal  was  made  to  her  to 
forego  the  labour,  she  declined  the  sugges- 
tion. Her  resolve  to  identify  herself  with 
the  army  never  knew  any  diminution.  Her 
public  appearances  came  to  have  almost 
exclusively  military  associations.  On  10  May 
1892  she  opened  with  much  formality  the 
Imperial  Institute,  but  participation  in  civil 
ceremonial  was  rare  in  her  closing  years.  On 

4  July  1890  she  inspected  the  military  exhibi- 
tion at  Chelsea  hospital.  On  27  June  1892  she 
laid  the  foundation-stone  of  a  new  church  at 

Aldershot,  and  witnessd  the  march 
inThe'army.  Past  °f  ten  thousand  men.  Next 

year,  to  her  joy,  but  amid  signs 
of  public  discontent,  her  son  the  Duke  of 
Connaught  took  the  Aldershot  command. 
In  July  1894  she  spent  two  days  there ; 
on  the  llth  there  was  a  military  tattoo  at 
night  in  her  honour,  and  a  review  followed 
next  day.  In  July  1895,  July  1898,  and 
June  1899  she  repeated  the  agreeable  ex- 
perience. In  1898,  besides  attending  a  re- 
view, she  presented  colours  to  the  3rd  batta- 
lion of  the  Coldstream  guards. 

Early  in  1896  the  military  ardour  which 
she  encouraged  in  her  immediate  circle 
cost  it  a  sad  bereavement.  At  the  end 
of  1895  Prince  Henry  of  Battenberg,  her 
youngest  daughter's  husband,  who  resided 
under  her  roof,  volunteered  for  active  ser- 
vice in  Ashanti,  where  native  races  were 
in  revolt  against  British  rule.  Invalided 
home  with  fever,  the  prince  died  on  board 
H.M.S.  Blonde  on  the  way  to  Madeira  on 
20  Jan.  1896.  His  body  was  met  on  its 
arrival  at  Cowes  on  5  Feb.  by  the  queen 
and  her  widowed  daughter,  who  accom- 
panied it  to  its  last  resting-place  in  the 
church  at  Whippingham,  where  their  mar- 
riage took  place  less  than  eleven  years  be- 
fore. In  the  following  autumn  (22  Sept.- 

5  Oct.)  she  had  the  gratification  of  entertain- 
ing at  Balmoral  the  Tsar  Nicholas  II  and 


her  granddaughter  the  tsaritza  with 
infant  daughter.    The  tsar's  father,  frrand- 
father,  and  great-grandfather  had  all  been 
her  guests  in  earlier  days. 

On  23  Sept.  1896  the  queen  achieved  the 
distinction  of  having  reigned  longer  than 
any  other  English  sovereign.  She  had  worn 
her  crown  nearly  twice  as  long  as  any  con- 
temporary monarch  in  the  world,  excepting 
only  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  he  as- 
cended his  throne  more  than  eleven  years 
after  her  accession.  Hitherto  George  Ill's 
reign  of  fifty-nine  years  and  ninety-six 
days  had  been  the  longest  known  to  Eng- 
lish history.  In  1897  it  was  resolved  to 
Thedia-  celebrate  the  completion  of  her 
mondjubi-  sixtieth  year  of  rule — her  'dia- 
lee  of  1897.  mon(j  jUDilee ' — with  appropriate 
splendour.  She  readily  accepted  the  sugges- 
tion that  the  celebration  should  be  so  framed 
as  to  emphasise  that  extension  of  her  empire 
which  was  now  recognised  to  have  been  one 
of  the  most  imposing  characteristics  of  her 
sovereignty.  It  was  accordingly  arranged 
that  prime  ministers  of  all  the  colonies,  dele- 
gates from  India  and  the  dependencies,  and 
representatives  of  all  the  armed  forces  of  the 
British  empire  should  take  a  prominent  part 
in  the  public  ceremonies.  The  main  feature 
of  the  celebration  was  a  state  procession 
through  London  on  22  June.  The  queen 
made  almost  a  circuit  of  her  capital,  attended 
by  her  family,  by  envoys  from  foreign  coun- 
tries, by  Indian  and  colonial  officials,  and  by 
a  great  band  of  imperial  troops — Indian 
native  levies,  mounted  riflemen  from  Aus- 
tralia, South  Africa,  and  Canada,  and  coloured 
soldiers  from  the  West  Coast  of  Africa, 
Cyprus,  Hongkong,  and  Borneo.  From 
Buckingham  Palace  the  mighty  cortege 
passed  to  the  steps  at  the  west  end  of  St . 
Paul's,  where  a  short  religious  service  was 
conducted  by  the  highest  dignitaries  of  tin- 
church.  Thence  the  royal  progress  was 
continued,  over  London  Bridge,  through 
the  poorer  districts  of  London  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Thames.  Buckingham  Palace 
was  finally  reached  across  WMtauiMtaC 
Bridge  and  St.  James's  Park.  Alon. 
six  miles  route  were  ranged  millions  of  the 
queen's  subjects,  who  gave  her  a  rousing 
welcome  which  brought  tears  to  her  eyes. 
Her  feelings  were  faithfully  reflected  in  the 
telegraphic  greeting  which  she  sent  as  she 
set  out  from  the  palace  to  all  parts  of  the 
empire:  'From  my  heart  I  thank  my  be- 
loved people.  May  God  bless  them!'  In 
the  evening,  as  in  1887,  evrry  Hritish  city 
was  illuminated,  and  every  headland  or 
high  ground  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Wales,  from  Cornwall  to  Caithness,  was 


Victoria 


490 


Victoria 


ablaze  with  beacons.  The  festivities  lasted 
a  fortnight.  There  was  a  garden  party  at 
Buckingham  Palace  on  28  June ;  a  review 
in  Windsor  Park  of  the  Indian  and  colonial 
troops  on  2  July ;  a  reception  on  7  July  of 
the  colonial  prime  ministers,  when  they 
were  all  sworn  of  the  privy  council;  and  a 
reception  on  13  July  of  180  prelates  of 
English-speaking  protestant  peoples  who 
were  assembled  in  congress  at  Lambeth. 
By  an  error  on  the  part  of  officials,  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Commons,  when  they 
presented  an  address  of  congratulation  to 
the  queen  at  Buckingham  Palace  on  23  June, 
were  shown  some  want  of  courtesy.  The 
queen  repaired  the  neglect  by  inviting  the 
members  and  their  wives  to  a  garden  party 
at  Windsor  on  3  July.  The  only  offi- 
cial celebration  which  the  queen's  age  pre- 
vented her  from  attending  in  person  was  a 
great  review  of  battleships  at  Spithead 
(26  June),  which  in  the  number  of  as- 
sembled vessels  exceeded  any  preceding  dis- 
play of  the  kind.  Vessels  of  war  to  the  num- 
ber of  173  were  drawn  up  in  four  lines, 
stretching  over  a  course  of  thirty  miles.  The 
queen  was  represented  by  the  prince  of 
Wales.  Not  the  least  of  many  gratifying  inci- 
dents that  marked  the  celebration  was  the 
Sift  to  Great  Britain  of  an  ironclad  from 
ape  Colony.  On  18  July  the  close  of  the 
rejoicings  drew  from  the  queen  a  letter  of 
thanks  to  her  people,  simply  expressing  her 
boundless  gratitude.  The  passion  of  loyalty 
which  the  jubilee  of  1887  had  called  forth 
was  brought  to  a  degree  of  intensity  which 
had  no  historic  precedent;  and  during  the 
few  years  of  life  that  yet  remained  to  the 
queen  it  burned  with  undiminished  force 
throughout  the  empire  in  the  breasts  of 
almost  every  one  of  her  subjects,  whatever 
their  race  or  domicile. 

The  anxieties  which  are  inseparable  from 
the  government  of  a  great  empire  pursued 
Military  tne  queen  and  her  country  in  full 
expeditions,  measure  during  the  rest  of  her 
reign,  and  her  armies  were  en- 
gaged in  active  hostilities  in  many  parts  of 
the  world.  Most  of  her  energies  were  con- 
sequently absorbed  in  giving  characteristic 
proof  of  her  concern  for  the  welfare  of  her 
troops.  She  closely  scanned  the  military 
expeditions  on  the  frontier  of  India  (1897- 
1899).  The  campaign  of  English  and 
Egyptian  troops  under  Lord  Kitchener, 
which  finally  crushed  the  long-drawn-out 
rebellion  in  the  Soudan  at  the  battle  of 
Omdurman  on  2  Sept.  1898,  and  restored  to 
Egypt  the  greater  part  of  the  territory  that 
had  been  lost  in  1883,  was  a  source  of  im- 
mense gratification  to  her.  In  1898  she 


indicated  the  course  of  her  sympathies  by 
thrice  visiting  at  Net  ley  Hospital  the  wounded 
men  from  India  and  the  Soudan  (11  Feb., 
14  May,  and  3  Dec.)  When  at  Balmoral, 
29  Oct.  1898,  she  presented  colours  to  the 
newly  raised  2nd  battalion  of  the  Cameron 
highlanders.  On  1  July  1899  she  reviewed 
in  Windsor  Great  Park  the  Honourable  Ar- 
tillery Company,  of  which  the  prince  of 
Wales  was  captain-general,  and  a  few  days 
later  (15  July)  she  presented  in  Windsor 
Castle  colours  to  the  Scots  guards,  after- 
wards attending  a  march  past  in  the  park. 
On  10  Aug.,  while  at  Osborne,  she  inspected 
the  Portsmouth  volunteers  in  camp  at  Ash- 
ley, and  at  Balmoral  on  29  Sept.  she  pre- 
sented new  colours  to  the  2nd  battalion  of 
the  Seaforth  highlanders.  Her  chief  public 
appearance  during  1899,  which  was  uncon- 
nected with  the  army,  was  on  17  May  1 899, 
when  she  laid  the  foundation-stone  of  the 
new  buildings  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  at  Kensington.  The  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  as  the  institution  had 
hitherto  been  named,  had  been  brought  intp 
being  by  the  prince  consort,  and  was  always 
identified  in  the  queen's  mind  with  her  hus- 
band's public  services. 

All  other  military  experiences  which  had 
recently  confronted  the  queen  sank  into  in- 
significance  in  the  autumn  of 
BoeVweaar!  1899  in  the  presence  of  the  great 
Boer  war.  With  her  ministers' 
general  policy  in  South  Africa  before  the 
war  she  was  in  agreement,  although  she 
studied  the  details  somewhat  less  closely 
than  had  been  her  wont.  Failing  sight 
disabled  her  after  1898  from  reading  all  the 
official  papers  that  were  presented  to  her, 
but  her  confidence  in  the  wisdom  of  Lord 
Salisbury  and  her  faith  in  Mr.  Chamberlain's 
devotion  to  the  best  interests  of  the  empire, 
spared  her  any  misgivings  while  the  nego- 
tiations with  the  Transvaal  were  pending. 
As  in  former  crises  of  the  same  kind,  as  long 
as  any  chance  remained  of  maintaining  an 
honourable  peace,  she  cherished  the  hope 
that  there  would  be  no  war ;  but  when  she 
grew  convinced  that  peace  was  only  to  be 
obtained  on  conditions  that  were  derogatory 
to  the  prestige  of  her  government  she  focussed 
her  energies  on  entreaties  to  her  ministers  to 
pursue  the  war  with  all  possible  promptitude 
and  effect.  From  the  opening  of  active 
operations  in  October  1899  until  conscious- 
ness failed  her  on  her  deathbed  in  January 
1901,  the  serious  conflict  occupied  the  chief 
place  in  her  thoughts.  The  disasters  which 
befell  British  arms  at  the  beginning  of  the 
struggle  caused  her  infinite  distress,  but  her 
spirit  rose  with  the  danger.  Defeat  merely 


Victoria 


491 


Victoria 


visit,  Xo 

vember 

1899. 


added  fuel  to  the  zeal  with  which  she  urged 
her  advisers  to  retrieve  it.  It  was  with  her 
especial  approval  that  in  December  1899  re- 
inforcements on  an  enormous  scale,  drawn 
both  from  the  regular  army  and  the  volun- 
teers, were  hurriedly  ordered  to  South  Africa 
under  the  command  of  Lord  Roberts,  while 
Lord  Kitchener  was  summoned  from  the 
Soudan  to  serve  as  chief  of  the  staff.  In 
both  generals  she  had  the  fullest  trust. 

Offers-  of  assistance  from  the  colonies 
stirred  her  enthusiasm,  and  she  sent  many 
messages  of  thanks.  She  was 
wTiiiaTirs  consoled,  too,  by  a  visit  at  Wind- 
sor  from  her  grandson,  the  Ger- 
man emperor,  with  the  empress 
and  two  of  his  sons,  on  20  Nov. 
1899.  Of  late  there  had  been  less  harmony 
than  of  old  between  the  courts  of  London 
and  Berlin.  A  misunderstanding  between 
the  two  countries  on  the  subject  of  English 
relations  with  the  Boer  republics  of  South 
Africa  had  threatened  early  in  1896.  The 
German  emperor  had  then  replied  in  con- 
gratulatory terms  to  a  telegram  from  Presi- 
dent Kruger  informing  him  of  the  success 
of  the  Boers  in  repelling  a  filibustering  raid 
which  a  few  Englishmen  under  Dr.  Jameson 
had  made  into  the  Transvaal.  The  queen,  like 
her  subjects,  reprobated  the  emperor's  inter- 
ference, although  it  had  none  of  the  signifi- 
cance which  popular  feeling  in  England 
attributed  to  it.  The  emperor's  visit  to  the 
queen  and  prince  of  Wales  in  November 
1899  had  been  arranged  before  the  Boer  war 
broke  out,  but  the  emperor  did  not  permit 
his  display  of  friendly  feeling  to  be  post- 
poned by  the  opening  of  hostilities.  His 
meeting  with  the  queen  was  most  cordial, 
and  his  relations  with  the  English  royal 
family  were  thenceforth  unclouded.  By  way 
of  indicating  his  practical  sympathy  with  the 
British  army,  he  subscribed  300/.  to  the  fund 
for  the  relief  of  the  widows  and  orphans  of 
the  men  of  the  1st  royal  dragoons  \vho  were 
then  fighting  in  South  Africa — a  regiment 
of  which  he  was  colonel-in-chief. 

Throughout  1900  the  queen  was  in- 
defatigable in  inspecting  troops  who 
were  proceeding  to  the  seat  of 
sympathy  "  w&r>  in  sending  to  the  front  en- 
with  her  couraging  messages,  and  in  writ- 
iers-  ing  letters  of  condolence  to  the 
relatives  of  officers  who  lost  their  lives,  often 
requesting  a  photograph  and  inquiring  into 
the  position  of  their  families.  In  the  affairs 
of  all  who  died  in  her  service  she  took  a 
vivid  personal  interest.  Her  anxieties  at 
Christmas  1899  kept  her  at  Windsor  and 

Erecluded  her  from  proceeding  to  Osborne 
5r  the  holiday  season,  as  had  been  her  in- 


variable custom,  with  one  exception,  for 
nearly  fifty  years.  On  Boxing  day  she  en- 
tertained in  St.  George's  Hall,  Windsor,  the 
wives  and  children  of  the  non-commissioned 
officers  and  men  of  the  regiments  which  were 
stationed  in  the  royal  borough.  She  caused 
a  hundred  thousand  boxes  of  chocolate  to 
be  sent  as  her  personal  gift  to  every  soldier 
at  the  front,  and  on  New  Year's  day  ( 1JKX)) 
forwarded  greetings  to  all  ranks.  When 
the  news  of  British  successes  reached  her  in 
the  early  months  of  1900— the  relief  of  Kim- 
berley  (15  Feb.),  the  capture  of  General 
Cronje  (27  Feb.),  the  relief  of  Ladysmith 
(28  Feb.),  the  occupation  of  Bloemt'ontein 
(13  March),  the  relief  of  Mafeking(17May), 
and  the  occupation  of  Pretoria  (5  June) — 
she  exchanged  congratulations  with  her 
generals  with  abundant  enthusiasm. 

The  gallantry  displayed  by  the  Irish  sol- 
diers was  peculiarly  gratifying  to  her,  and 
she  acknowledged  it  in  a  most  emphatic 
fashion.  On  2  March  she  gave  permission  to 
her  Irish  troops  to  wear  on  St.  Patrick's  day, 
by  way  of  commemorating  their  achieve- 
ments in  South  Africa,  the  Irish  national 
emblem,  a  sprig  of  shamrock,  the  display 
of  which  had  been  hitherto  forbidden  in  the 
army.  On  7  March  she  came  to  London, 
and  on  the  afternoons  of  8th  and  S)th  she 
drove  publicly  through  many  miles  of  streets 
in  order  to  illustrate  her  watchful  care  of  the 
public  interests  and  her  participation  in  the 
public  anxiety.  Public  enthusiasm  ran  high, 
and  she  was  greeted  everywhere  by  cheering 
crowds.  On  22  March  she  went  to  the 
Herbert  Hospital,  at  Woolwich,  to  visit 
wounded  men  from  South  Africa.  But  the 
completest  sign  that  she  gave  of  the  depth 
of  her  sympathy  with  those  who  were  bear- 
ing the  brunt  of  the  struggle  was  her  deci- 
sion to  abandon  for  this  spring  her  customary 
visit  to  the  South  of  Europe  and  to  spend 
her  vacation  in  Ireland,  whence  the  armies 
in  the  field  had  been  largely  recruited. 
This  plan  was  wholly  of  her  own  devising. 
Fourth  visit  Nearly  forty  years  had  elapsed 
to  Ireland,  since  she  set  foot  m  Ireland.  In 
1900.  that  interval  political  disaffection 

had  been  rife,  and  had  unhappily  discouraged 
her  from  renewing  her  acquaintance  with 
the  country.  She  now  spout  in  Dublin,  »t 
the  viceregal  lodge  in  Phoenix  Park,  nearly 
the  whole  of  April— from  the  4th  to  t  h-  •_'.') t  h. 
She  came,  she  suid,  in  reply  to  an  address 
of  welcome  from  the  corporation  of  Duhlin, 
to  seek  change  and  rest,  and  to  revive  happy 
recollections  of  the  warm-hearted  welcome 
given  to  her,  her  husband,  and  children  in 
former  days.  Her  reception  was  all  that 
could  be  wished,  and  it  vindicated  her  con- 


Victoria 


492 


Victoria 


fidence  in  the  loyalty,  despite  political  agi- 
tation, of  the  Irish  people  to  the  crown. 
The  days  were  spent  busily  and  passed 
quickly.  She  entertained  the  leaders  of 
Irish  society,  attended  a  military  review  and 
an  assembly  of  fifty-two  thousand  school 
children  in  Phoenix  Park,  and  frequently 
drove  through  Dublin  and  the  neighbouring 
country.  On  5  April  she  gave  orders  for  the 
formation  of  a  new  regiment  of  Irish  guards. 
On  her  departure  on  26  April  she  thanked 
the  Irish  people  for  their  greeting  in  a  public 
letter  addressed  to  the  lord  lieutenant. 

After  her  return  to  Windsor  on  2  May 
1900  she  inspected  the  men  of  H.M.S. 
Powerful  who  had  been  besieged  in  Lady- 
smith,  and  warmly  welcomed  their  com- 
mander, Captain  Hedworth  Lambton.  On 
the  17th  she  visited  the  wounded  at  Netley. 
Lord  Roberts's  successes  in  South  Africa  at 
the  time  relieved  her  and  her  people  of 
pressing  anxieties,  and  ordinary  court  fes- 
tivities were  suffered  to  proceed.  On  4  May 
she  entertained  at  Windsor  the  king  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  who  had  often  been 
her  guest  as  Prince  Oscar  of  Sweden.  On 
10  May  she  held  a  drawing-room  at  Buck- 
ingham Palace ;  it  was  the  only  one  she 
attended  that  season,  and  proved  her  last. 
Next  day  she  was  present  at  the  christening 
of  the  third  son  of  the  Duke  of  York,  when 
she  acted  as  sponsor.  After  the  usual  visit 
to  Balmoral  (22  May  to  20  June)  she  gave 
several  musical  entertainments  at  Windsor. 
On  11  June  there  was  a  garden  party  at 
Buckingham  Palace,  and  on  28  June  at 
Windsor  a  state  banquet  to  the  khedive  of 
Egypt,  who  was  visiting  the  country.  Her 
old  friend  the  Empress  Eugenie  was  her 
guest  at  Osborne  in  September. 

Apart  from  the  war,  she  was  interested 
during  the  session  in  the  passage  through 

the  House  of  Commons  of  the 
federation  of  Australian  commonwealth  bill, 
Australia,  which  was  to  create  a  federal 

union  among  the  Australian 
colonies.  She  received  at  Windsor  on 
27  March  the  delegates  from  Australia,  who 
were  in  England  to  watch  the  bill's  progress. 
When  in  the  autumn  the  bill  received  the 
royal  assent,  she,  on  27  Aug.,  cordially  ac- 
cepted the  suggestion  that  her  grandson  the 
Duke  of  York,  with  the  duchess,  should  pro- 
ceedasher  representative  to  Austral  ia  in  1 901 , 
to  open  in  her  name  the  first  session  of  the 
new  commonwealth  parliament.  She  was 
especially  desirous  of  showing  her  apprecia- 
tion of  the  part  taken  by  colonial  troops  in 
the  Boer  war,  and  she  directed  that  the  duke 
should  be  attended  in  the  Australian  parlia- 
ment house  by  a  guard  of  honour  represent- 


ing  every  branch  of  the  army,  including  the 
volunteers. 

But  the  situation  in  South  Africa  re- 
mained the  central  topic  of  her  thought,  and 
in  the  late  summer  it  gave  renewed  cause  for 
concern.  Despite  Lord  Roberts's  occupation 
of  the  chief  towns  of  the  enemy's  territory, 
fighting  was  still  proceeding  in  the  open 
country,  and  deaths  from  disease  or  wounds 
in  the  British  ranks  were  numerous.  The 
queen  was  acutelv  distressed 

theStwaT*  °f  bv  the  rep01*8  of  suffering  that 
reached  her  through  the  summer, 
but,  while  she  constantly  considered  and 
suggested  means  of  alleviating  the  position 
of  affairs,  and  sought  to  convince  herself 
that  her  ministers  were  doing  all  that  was 
possible  to  hasten  the  final  issue,  she  never 
faltered  in  her  conviction  that  she  and  her 
people  were  under  a  solemn  obligation  to 
fight  on  till  absolute  victory  was  assured. 
Owing  to  the  prevailing  feeling  of  gloom 
the  queen,  when  at  Balmoral  in  October  and 
November,  allowed  no  festivities.  The  usual 
highland  gathering  for  sports  and  games  at 
Braemar,  which  she  had  attended  for  many 
years  with  the  utmost  satisfaction,  was  aban- 
doned. She  still  watched  closely  public 
events  in  foreign  countries,  and  she  found 
little  consolation  there.  The  assassination 
of  her  friend  Humbert,  king  of  Italy,  on 
29  July  at  Monza  greatly  disturbed  her 
equanimity.  In  France  a  wave  of  strong 
anti-English  feeling  involved  her  name,  and 
the  shameless  attacks  on  her  by  unprincipled 
journalists  were  rendered  the  more  offen- 
sive by  the  approval  they  publicly  won 
from  the  royalist  leader,  the  Due  d'Orleans, 
great-grandson  of  Louis  Philippe,  to  whom 
and  to  whose  family  she  had  proved  the 
staunchest  of  friends.  Happily  the  duke 
afterwards  apologised  for  his  misbehaviour, 
and  was  magnanimously  pardoned  by  the 
queen. 

In  October  a  general  election  was  deemed 
necessary  by  the  government —the  existing 
parliament  was  more  than  five  years  old — 
and  the  queen  was  gratified  by  the  result. 
Lord  Salisbury's  government, 
unionuT  which  was  responsible  for  the 
House  of  war  and  its  conduct,  received 
•QQ  from  England  and  Scotland  over- 
whelming support.  The  election 
emphatically  supported  the  queen's  view 
that,  despite  the  heavy  cost  of  life  and  trea- 
sure, hostilities  must  be  vigorously  pursued 
until  the  enemy  acknowledged  defeat.  When 
the  queen's  fifteenth  and  last  parliament  was 
opened  in  December,  Lord  Salisbury  was  still 
prime  minister ;  but  he  resigned  the  foreign 
secretaryship  to  Lord  Lansdowne,  formerly 


Victoria 


493 


Victoria 


minister  of  war,  and  he  made  with  the 
queen's  approval  some  unimpressive  changes 
in  the  personal  constitution  of  the  ministry. 
Its  policy  remained  unaltered. 

Death  had  again  been  busy  among  the 
queen's  relatives  and  associates,  and  cause  for 
private  sorrow  abounded  in  her  last  years. 
The  queen's    Her  cousin  and  friend  of  youth, 
latest  be-       the  Duchess  of  Teck,  had  passed 
reavements.     away  Qn  37  Qct.  1897.     Another 
blow  was  the  death  at  Meran  of  phthisis,  on 
6  Feb.  1899,  of  her  grandson,  Prince  Alfred, 
only   son    of  the    Duke    of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha.     The  succession  to  the  duchies   of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  which  was    thus   de- 
prived of  an  heir,  was  offered  by  the  diet 
of  the   duchies  to  the  queen's  third  son, 
the  Duke  of  Connaught ;  but,  although  he 
temporarily  accepted  it,  he,  in  accordance 
with  the  queen's  wish,  renounced  the  position 
in  his  own  behalf  and  in  that  of  his  son  a  few 
months  later  in  favour  of  his  nephew,  the 
Duke  of  Albany,  the  posthumous  son  of  the 
queen's  youngest  son,  Leopold.  To  the  queen's 
satisfaction  the  little  Duke  of  Albany  was 
adopted  on  30  June  1899  as  heir  presumptive 
to  the  beloved  principality.  The  arrangement 
unhappily  took  practical  effect  earlier  than  she 
anticipated.    A  mortal  disease  soon  attacked 
the  reigning  duke  of  Saxe-Coburg,  the  queen's 
second  son,  Alfred,  and  he  died  suddenly  at 
Rosenau  on  30  July  1900,  before  a  fatal 
issue  was  expected.     The  last  bereavement 
in  the  royal  circle  which  the  queen  suffered 
was  the  death,  on  29  Oct.  1900,  of  her  grand- 
son, Prince  Christian  Victor  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein,  eldest  son  of  Princess  Helena,  the 
queen's  second  daughter.     The  young  man 
had  contracted  enteric  fever  on  the  battle- 
fields of  South  Africa.    But  even  more  dis- 
tressing was  it  for  the  queen  to  learn,  in  the 
summer  of  1900,  that  her  eldest  child,  the 
Empress  Frederick,  was  herself  the  victim 
of  a  malady  that  must  soon  end  in  death. 
Although     the    empress    was    thenceforth 
gravely  disabled,  she  survived  her  mother 
rather  more  than  six  months. 

On  7  Nov.  the  queen  returned  to  Windsor 
from  Balmoral  in  order  to  console  Princess 
Final  migra-  Christian  on  the  death  of  her  son, 
tions  of  the  and  twice  before  the  end  of  the 
month  she  took  the  opportunity 
of  welcoming  home  a  few  of  the  troops  from 
South  Africa,  including  colonial  and  Cana- 
dian detachments.  On  each  occasion  she 
addressed  a  few  words  to  the  men.  On 
12  Dec.  she  made  her  last  public  appear- 
ance by  attending  a  sale  of  needlework  by 
Irish  ladies  at  the  Windsor  town  hall.  On 
14  Dec.  she  celebrated  the  thirty-ninth  anni- 
versary of  the  prince  consort's  death  at  Frog- 


,  and  on  the 


Throughout  life  the  queen's  phy8ical  con- 
dition was  robust.    She  always  believed  in 
The  queen's      "»•    efficacy  of   fresh   air  and 
health  in  old    abundant  ventilation,  and  those 
who  waited  on  her  had  often 
occasion  to  lament  that  the  queen  never  felt 
cold.      She    was    long    extremely    careful 
about  her  health,  and  usually  consulted  her 
resident  physician,  Sir  James  Reid,  many 
times  a   day.     Although  she  suffered  no 
serious  ailments,  age  told  on  her  during  the 
last  five   or  six  years  of  her  life.     Since 
1895  she   suffered  from  a   rheumatic  stiff- 
ness of  the  joints,  which  rendered  walking 
difficult,    and    from    1898    incipient   cata- 
ract greatly  affected    her    eyesight.     The 
growth  of  the  disease  was  steady,  but  it  did 
not  reach  the  stage  which  rendered  an  opera- 
tion expedient.     In  her  latest  year  she  was 
scarcely  able  to  read,  although  she  could  still 
sign  her  name  and  could  write  letters  with 
difficulty.  It  was  not  till  the  late  summer  of 
1900  that  symptoms  menacing  to  life  made 
themselves  apparent.     The    anxieties    and 
sorrows  due  to  the  South  African  war  and 
to  deaths  of  relatives  proved  a  severe  strain 
on  her  nervous  system.    She  manifested  a 
tendency  to  aphasia,  but  by  a  strong  effort  of 
will  she  was  for  a  time  able  to  check  its 
growth.  She  had  longjustlyprided  herself  on 
the  strength  and  precision  of  her  memory, 
and  the  failure  to  recollect  a  familiar  name 
or  word  irritated  her,  impelling  increased 
mental  exertion.    No  more  specific  disease 
declared  itself,  but  loss  of  weight  and  com- 
plaints of  sleeplessness  in  the  autumn  of 
1900  pointed  to  a  general  physical  decay. 
She  hoped  that  a  visit  to  the  Riviera  in  the 
spring  would  restore  her  powers,  but  when 
she  reached  Windsor  in  November  her  phy- 
sicians feared  that  a  journey  abroad  might 
have  evil  effects.     Arrangements  for  the  re- 
moval of  the  court  early  next  year  to  the 
Riviera  were,  however,  begun.    At  Osborne 
her  health  showed  no  signs  of  improvement, 
but  no  immediate  danger  was  apprehended. 
On  Christmas  morning  her  lifelong  frit-mi 
and  lady-in-waiting,  Jane  Lady  Churchill, 
passed  away  suddenly  in  her  sleep. 
The  queen  wa9  greatly  distressed, 
and  at  once  made  a  wreath  for  the 
coffin  with  her  own  hands.    On  2  Jan.  1901 
she  nerved  herself  to  welcome  Lord  Roberts 
on  his  return  from  South  Africa,  where  the 
command-in-chief  had    devolved  on  Lord 
Kitchener.    She  managed  by  an  effort  of  will 
briefly  to  congratulate  him  on  his  successes, 
and  she  conferred  on  him  an  earldom  and 


Victoria 


494 


Victoria 


the  order  of  the  Garter.  On  the  10th  Mr. 
Chamberlain  had  a  few  minutes'  audience 
with  her,  so  that  she  might  learn  the  imme- 
diate prospect  of  South  African  affairs.  It 
was  her  last  interview  with  a  minister.  The 
widowed  duchess  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 
arrived  on  a  visit,  and,  accompanied  by  her, 
the  queen  drove  out  on  the  15th  for  the  last 
time.  By  that  date  her  medical  attendants 
recognised  her  condition  to  be  hopeless.  The 
brain  was  failing,  and  life  was  slowly  ebbing. 
On  the  19th  it  was  publicly  announced  that 
she  was  suffering  from  physical  prostration. 
The  next  two  days  her  weakness  grew,  and 
the  children  who  were  in  England  were 
summoned  to  her  deathbed.  On  21  Jan.  her 
grandson,  the  German  emperor,  arrived,  and 
in  his  presence  and  in  the  presence  of  two 
sons  and  three  daughters  she 

d^tk.Ueen  *  Passed  awav  at  half-past  six  in 
the  evening  of  Tuesday,  22  Jan. 
She  was  eighty-one  years  old  and  eight 
months,  less  two  days.  Her  reign  had  lasted 
sixty-three  years,  seven  months,  and  two 
days.  She  had  lived  three  days  longer  than 
George  III,  the  longest-lived  sovereign  of 
England  before  her.  Her  reign  exceeded  his, 
the  longest  yet  known  to  English  history,  by 
nearly  four  years.  On  the  day  following  her 
death  her  eldest  son  met  the  privy  council 
at  St.  James's  Palace,  took  the  oaths  as  her 
successor  to  the  throne,  and  was  on  the  24th 
proclaimed  king  under  the  style  of  Ed- 
ward VII. 

In  accordance  with  a  dominant  sentiment 
of  her  life  the  queen  was  accorded  a  military 
funeral.  On  1  Feb.  the  yacht 
Alberta,  passing  between  long 
lines  of  warships  which  fired  a 
last  salute,  carried  the  coffin  from  Cowes  to 
Gosport.  Early  next  day  the  remains  were 
brought  to  London,  and  were  borne  on  a  gun 
carriage  from  Victoria  station  to  Paddington. 
In  the  military  procession  which  accom- 
panied the  cortege,  every  branch  of  the  army 
was  represented,  while  immediately  behind 
the  comn  rode  King  Edward  VII,  supported 
on  one  side  by  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
Connaught,  and  on  the  other  by  his  nephew, 
the  German  emperor.  They  were  followed 
by  the  kings  of  Portugal  and  of  Greece, 
most  of  the  queen's  grandsons,  and  members 
of  every  royal  family  in  Europe.  The  funeral 
service  took  place  in  the  afternoon,  with  im- 
posing solemnity,  in  St.  George's  Chapel, 
Windsor.  On  Monday,  4  Feb.,  the  coffin 
was  removed  privately,  in  the  presence  only 
of  the  royal  family,  to  the  Frogmore  mau- 
soleum, and  was  there  placed  in  the  sarco- 
phagus which  already  held  the  remains  of 
Prince  Albert. 


, 


No  British  sovereign  was  more  sincerely 
mourned.  As  the  news  of  the  queen's  death 
The  uni-  spread,  impassioned  expressions  of 
versai  grief  came  from  every  part  of  the 

United  Kingdom,  of  the  British 
empire,  and  of  the  world.  Native  chieftains 
in  India,  in  Africa,  in  New  Zealand,  vied  with 
their  British-born  fellow-subjects  in  the 
avowals  of  a  personal  sense  of  loss.  The  de- 
monstration of  her  people's  sorrow  testified 
to  the  spirit  of  loyalty  to  her  person  and  posi- 
tion which  had  been  evoked  by  her  length  of 
life  and  reign,  her  personal  sorrows,  and  her 
recent  manifestations  of  sympathy  with  her 
subjects'  welfare.  But  the  strength  and 
popularity  which  the  grief  at  the  queen's 
death  proved  the  monarchy  to  enjoy  were 
only  in  part  due  to  her  personal  character 
and  the  conditions  of  her  personal  career.  A 
force  of  circumstances  which  was  not  subject 
to  any  individual  control  largely  contributed 
to  the  intense  respect  and  affection  on  the 
part  of  the  people  of  the  empire  which  en- 
circled her  crown  when  her  rule  ended. 
The  passion  of  loyalty  with  which  she  in- 
Tbe  queen  spired  her  people  during  her  last 
and  imperial  years  was  a  comparatively  late 
unity.  growth.  In  the  middle  period 

of  her  reign  the  popular  interest,  which  her 
youth,  innocence,  and  simplicity  of  domestic 
life  had  excited  at  the  beginning,  was  ex- 
hausted, and  the  long  seclusion  which  she 
maintained  after  her  husband's  death  de- 
veloped in  its  stead  a  coldness  between  her 
people  and  herself  which  bred  much  disre- 
spectful criticism.  Neither  her  partial  re- 
sumption of  her  public  life  nor  her  venerable 
age  fully  accounts  for  the  new  sentiment  of 
affectionate  enthusiasm  which  greeted  her 
declining  days.  It  was  largely  the  outcome 
of  the  new  conception  of  the  British 
monarchy  which  sprang  from  the  develop- 
ment of  the  colonies  and  dependencies  of 
Great  Britain,  and  the  sudden  strengthening 
of  the  sense  of  unity  between  them  and  the 
mother  country.  The  crown  after  1880 
became  the  living  symbol  of  imperial  unity, 
and  every  year  events  deepened  the  impres- 
sion that  the  queen  in  her  own  person  typi- 
fied the  common  interest  and  the  common 
sympathy  which  spread  a  feeling  of  brother- 
hood through  the  continents  that  formed  the 
British  empire.  She  and  her  ministers 
in  her  last  years  encouraged  the  identifica- 
tion of  the  British  sovereignty  with  the  unify- 
ing spirit  of  imperialism,  and  she  thoroughly 
reciprocated  the  warmth  of  feeling  for 
herself  and  her  office  which  that  spirit  en- 
gendered in  her  people  at  home  and  abroad. 
But  it  is  doubtful  if,  in  the  absence  of  the 
imperial  idea  for  the  creation  of  which  she 


Victoria 


495 


Victoria 


was  not  responsible,  she  could  under  the 
constitution  have  enjoyed  that  popular  re- 
gard and  veneration  of  which  she  died  in 
unchallenged  possession. 

The  practical  anomalies  incident  to  the 
position     of     a     constitutional     sovereign 
who   is  in   theory  invested  with    all  the 
semblance  of  power,  but  is  denied  any  of  its 
reality  or  responsibility,  were  brought  into 
strong  relief  by  the  queen's  personal  charac- 
ter and  the  circumstances  of  her  life.     Pos- 
sessed   of    no     commanding     strength    of 
intellect   but    of    an  imperious    will,    she 
laboriously  studied  every  detail  of  govern- 
ment business,  and  on   every  question  of 
policy  or  administration  she  formed  for  her- 
self decided   opinions,   to  which   she    ob- 
Her  attitude  stinately  adhered,  pressing  them 
to  business     pertinaciously   on  the  notice  of 
her    ministers.       No    sovereign 
of  England  ever  applied  himself  to  the  work 
of  government  with  greater  ardour  or  greater 
industry.      None  was   a  more  voluminous  j 
correspondent  with    the    officers  of   state.  ! 
Although  the  result   of  her  energy  could 
not  under  the  constitution  be  commensurate 
with  its  intensity,  her  activity  was  in  the 
main     advantageous.        The     detachment 
from  party  interests  or  prepossessions,  which 
her  elevated  and  isolated  position  came  to  j 
foster  in  her,  gave  her  the  opportunity  of  j 
detecting  in  ministerial  schemes  any  national  ; 
peril  to  which  her  ministers  might  at  times  ' 
be  blinded  by  the  spirit  of  faction,  and  her 
persistence  occasionally  led  to  some  modifi-  ' 
cation  of  policy  in  the  direction  that  she  ' 
urged  withhappy  result.  Her  length  of  sove-  ! 
reignty,  too,  rendered  in  course  of  years  her 
personal  experiences  of  government  far  wider 
and  far  closer  than  that  of  any  of  her  mini- 
sters, and  she  could  recall  much  past  pro-  ' 
cedure  of  which  she  was  the  only  surviving 
witness.     Absolutely  frank  and  trustful  in 
the  expression  of  her  views  to  her  ministers, 
she  had  at  the  same  time  the  tact  to  acquiesce 
with  outward  grace,  however  strong  her  pri-  ' 
vate  objections,  in  any  verdict  of  the  popular 
vote,  against  which  appeal  was  seen  to  be 
hopeless.     In  the  two  instances  of  the  Irish 
church  bill  of  1869  and  the  franchise  exten-  ; 
sion  bill  of  1884  she  made  personal  efforts, 
in  the  interest  of  the  general  peace  of  the  | 
country,  to  discourage  an  agitation  which 
she  felt  to  be  doomed  to  failure.     While, 
therefore,  she  shrank  from  no  exertion  where-  ' 
by  she  might  influence  personally  the  ma- 
chinery  of  the  state,  she  was  always  con- 
scious of  her  powerlessness  to  enforce  her 
opinions  or  her  wishes.     With  the  principle 
of  the  constitution  which  imposed  on  the 
sovereign  the   obligation   of  giving  formal 


assent  to  every  final  decision  of  his  advisers 
however  privately  obnoxious  it  might  be  to 
him,  she  had  the  practical  wisdom  to  avoid 
any  manner  of  conflict. 

Partly  owing  to  her  respect  for  the  con- 
stitution in  which  she  was  educated,  partly 
The  decay  owing  to  her  personal  idiosyn- 
crasies and  partly  owing  to  the 
growth  of  democratic  principles 
among  her  people,  the  active  force  of  such 
prerogatives  as  the  crown  possessed  at  her 
accession  was,  in  spite  of  her  toil  and  energy 
diminished  rather  than  increased  during  her 
reign.  Parliament  deliberately  dissolved 
almost  all  the  personal  authority  that  the 
crown  had  hitherto  exercised  over  the  army. 
The  prerogative  of  mercy  was  practicallv 
abrogated  when  the  home  secretary  was 
in  effect  made  by  statute  absolute  controller 
of  its  operations.  The  distribution  of  titles 
and  honours  became  in  a  larger  degree  than 
in  former  days  an  integral  part  of  the  ma- 
chinery of  party  politics.  The  main  outward 
signs  of  the  sovereign's  formal  supremacy  in 
the  state  lost,  moreover,  by  her  own  acts, 
their  old  distinctness.  Conservative  as  was 
her  attitude  to  minor  matters  of  etiquette,  she 
was  self-willed  enough  to  break  with  large 
precedents  if  the  breach  consorted  with  her 
private  predilections.  During  the  last  thirty- 
nine  years  of  her  reign  she  opened  parliament 
in  person  only  seven  times,  and  did  not 
prorogue  it  once  after  1854.  It  had  been 
the  rule  of  her  predecessors  regularly  to 
attend  the  legislature  at  the  opening  and 
close  of  each  session,  unless  they  were  dis- 
abled by  illness,  and  her  defiance  of  this 
practice  tended  to  weaken  her  semblance  of 
hold  on  the  central  force  of  government. 
Another  innovation  in  the  usages  of  the 
monarchy,  for  which  the  queen,  with  a  view 
innovations  <*>  increasing  her  private  am- 
in  royal  venience,  was  personally  respon- 
practice.  sible,  had  a  like  effect.  Her  three 
immediate  predecessors  on  the  throne  never 
left  the  country  during  their  reigns.  Only 
three  earlier  sovereigns  of  modern  times 
occasionally  crossed  the  seas  while  wearing 
the  crown,  and  they  were  represented  at 
home  in  their  absence  by  a  regent  or  by 
lords-justices,  to  whom  were  temporarily 
delegated  the  symbols  of  sovereign  power, 
while  a  responsible  minister  was  the  sove- 
reign's constant  companion  abroad.  Queen 
Victoria  ignored  nearly  the  whole  of  this 
procedure.  She  repeatedly  visited  foreign 
countries  ;  no  regent  nor  lords-justices  were 
called  to  office  in  her  absence ;  she  was  at 
times  unaccompanied  by  a  responsible  mini- 
ster, and  she  often  travelled  privately  and 
informally  under  an  assumed  title  of  inferior 


Victoria 


496 


Victoria 


rank.  The  mechanical  applications  of  steam 
and  electricity  which  were  new  to  her  era 
facilitated  communication  with  her,  but  the 
fact  that  she  voluntarily  cut  herself  off'  from 
the  seat  of  government  for  weeks  at  a  time 
— in  some  instances  at  seasons  of  crisis — 
seemed  to  prove  that  the  sovereign's  control 
of  government  was  in  effect  less  constant 
and  essential  than  of  old,  or  that  it  might, 
at  any  rate,  incur  interruption  without  in 
any  way  impairing  the  efficiency  of  the  go- 
vernment's action.  Her  withdrawal  from 
parliament  and  her  modes  of  foreign  travel 
alike  enfeebled  the  illusion  which  is  part 
of  the  fabric  of  a  perfectly  balanced  mo- 
narchy that  the  motive  power  of  government 
resides  in  the  sovereign. 

In  one  other  regard  the  queen,  by  conduct 

which  can  only  be  assigned  to  care  for  her 

personal  comfort  at  the  cost  of  the 

The  queen  public  advantage,  almost  sapped 
and  Ireland.  *,  .  „  P.  ',  ,  « 

the  influence  which  the  crown  can 

legitimately  exert  on  the  maintenance  of  a 
healthy  harmony  among  the  component  parts 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  Outside  England 
she  bestowed  markedly  steady  favour  on 
Scotland.  Her  sojourns  there,  if  reckoned 
together,  occupied  a  period  of  time  approach- 
ing seven  years.  She  spent  in  Ireland  in 
the  whole  of  her  reign  a  total  period  of  less 
than  five  weeks.  During  fifty-nine  of  her 
sixty-three  years  of  rule  she  never  set  foot 
there  at  all.  Her  visit  in  her  latest  year 
was  a  triumph  of  robust  old  age  and  a  proof 
of  undiminished  alertness  of  sympathy.  But 
it  brought  into  broad  relief  the  neglect  of 
Ireland  that  preceded  it,  and  it  emphasised 
the  errors  of  feeling  and  of  judgment  which 
made  her  almost  a  complete  stranger  to  her 
Irish  subjects  in  their  own  land  during  the 
rest  of  her  long  reign. 

The  queen's  visits  to  foreign  lands  were 
intimately  associated  with  her  devotion  to 
The  queen's  her  family  which  was  a  ruling 
foreign  principle  of  her  life.  The  kins- 
relations.  men  an(j  kin8women  with  whom 

her  relations  were  closest  were  German, 
and  Germany  had  for  her  most  of  the  asso- 
ciations of  home.  She  encouraged  in  her 
household  many  German  customs,  and  with 
her  numerous  German  relatives  maintained 
an  enormous  and  detailed  correspondence. 
Her  patriotic  attachment  to  her  own  country 
of  England  and  to  her  British  subjects 
could  never  be  justly  questioned,  and  it  was 
her  cherished  conviction  that  England 
might  and  should  mould  the  destinies  of  the 
world ;  but  she  was  much  influenced  in  her 
view  of  foreign  policy  by  the  identification 
of  her  family  with  Germany,  and  by  her 
natural  anxiety  to  protect  the  interests  of 


ruling  German  princes  who  were  lineally 
related  to  her.  It  was  '  a  sacred  duty,'  as 
she  said,  for  her  to  work  for  the  welfare  of 
Prussia,  because  her  eldest  daughter  had 
married  the  heir  to  the  Prussian  crown.  As 
a  daughter  and  a  wife  she  felt  bound  to  en- 
deavour to  preserve  the  independence  of  the 
duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  whence  her 
mother  and  husband  sprang.  Her  friendship 
for  Belgium  was  a  phase  of  her  affection  for 
her  uncle,  who  sat  on  its  throne.  The  spirit 
of  patriotic  kingship  was  always  strong 
enough  in  her  to  quell  hesitation  as  to  the 
path  she  should  follow  when  the  interest  of 
England  was  in  direct  conflict  with  that 
of  her  German  kindred,  but  it  was  her  con- 
stant endeavour  to  harmonise  the  two. 

Although  the  queen  disliked  war  and  its 
inevitable  brutalities,  she  treated  it  as  in 
certain  conditions  a  dread  necessity  which 
no  ruler  could  refuse  to  face.  Thoroughly 
as  she  valued  peace,  she  deemed  it  wrong  to 
purchase  it  at  the  expense  of  national  rights 
or  dignity.  But  she  desired  that  warfare 
should  be  practised  with  all  the  humanity 
that  was  possible,  and  she  was  deeply  inte- 
rested in  the  military  hospitals  and  in  the 
training  of  nurses.  The  queen's  wealth  of 
domestic  affection  was  allied  to  a 
perament.  tenderness  of  feeling  and  breadth 
of  sympathy  with  mankind  gene- 
rally, which  her  personal  sorrows  accen- 
tuated. She  spared  no  exertion  personally 
to  console  the  bereaved,  to  whatever  walk 
of  life  they  belonged,  and  she  greatly  valued 
a  reciprocation  of  her  sympathy.  Every 
instance  of  unmerited  suffering  that  came 
to  her  notice — as  in  the  case  of  Captain 
Dreyfus  in  France — stirred  her  to  indigna- 
tion. Nor  were  animals — horses  and  dogs 
— excluded  from  the  scope  of  her  compassion. 
To  vivisection  she  was  strenuously  opposed, 
denouncing  with  heat  the  cruelty  of  wounding 
and  torturing  dumb  creatures.  She  counte- 
nanced no  lenity  in  the  punishment  of  those 
guilty  of  cruel  acts. 

The  queen  was  not  altogether  free  from 
that  morbid  tendency  of  mind  which  comes 
of  excessive  study  of  incidents  of  sorrow 
and  suffering.  Her  habit  of  accumulating 
sepulchral  memorials  of  relations  and  friends 
was  one  manifestation  of  it.  But  it  was 
held  in  check  by  an  innate  cheerfulness  of 
disposition  and  by  her  vivacious  curiosity 
regarding  all  that  passed  in  the  domestic  and 
political  circles  of  which  she  was  the  centre. 
She  took  a  deep  interest  in  her  servants. 
She  was  an  admirable  hostess,  personally 
consulting  her  guests'  comfort.  The  in- 
genuousness of  youth  was  never  wholly 
extinguished  in  her.  She  was  easily  amused, 


Victoria 


497 


Victoria 


and  was  never  at  a  loss  for  recreation. 
Round  games  of  cards  or  whist  she  ex- 
changed in  later  years  for  patience;  but 
she  sketched,  played  the  piano,  sang,  did 
needlework  until  old  age. 

The  queen's  artistic  sense  was  not  strong. 
In  furniture  and  dress  she  preferred  the 
fashions  of  her  early  married  years  to  any 
other.  She  was  never  a  judge  of  painting, 
and  she  bestowed  her  main  patronage  on 
portrait  painters  like  Winterhalter  and  Von 
Angeli,  and  on  sculptors  like  Boehm,  who 
had  little  beyond  their  German  nationality 
to  recommend  them.  '  The  only  studio  of  a 
master  that  she  ever  visited  was  that  of 
Leighton,  whose  "  Procession  of  Cimabue " 
the  prince  consort  had  bought  for  her,  and 
whom  she  thought  delightful,  though  perhaps 
more  as  an  accomplished  and  highly  agree- 
able courtier  than  as  a  painter.'  In  music 
she  showed  greater  taste.  Staunch  to  the 
heroes  of  her  youth,  she  always  appreciated 
the  operas  of  Rossini,  Bellini,  and  Donizetti, 
but  Handel  and  Mendelssohn  also  won  her 
early  admiration,  and  Gounod  and  Sullivan 
fascinated  her  later.  She  never  understood 
or  approved  Wagner  or  his  school.  She  was 
devoted  to  the  theatre  from  girlhood,  and 
all  her  enthusiasm  revived  when  in  her  last 
years  she  restored  the  dramatic  performances 
at  court,  which  her  mourning  had  long  in- 
terrupted. She  was  not  well  read,  and 
although  she  emulated  her  husband's  respect 
for  literature,  it  entered  little  into  the  busi- 
ness or  recreation  of  her  life. 

In  talk  she  appreciated  homely  wit  of  a 
quiet  kind,  and  laughed  without  restraint 
when  a  jest  or  anecdote  appealed  to  her. 
Subtlety  or  indelicacy  offended  her,  and 
sometimes  evoked  a  scornful  censure.  Al- 
though she  naturally  expected  courtesy  of 
address,  and  resented  brusque  expression  of 
contradiction  or  dissent,  she  was  not  con- 
ciliated by  obsequiousness.  '  It  is  useless 

to  ask 's  opinion,'  she  would  say ;  '  he 

only  tries  to  echo  mine.'  Her  own  con- 
versation had  often  the  charm  of  naivetS. 
When  told  that  a  very  involved  piece  of 
modern  German  music,  to  which  she  was 
listening  with  impatience,  was  a  '  drinking 
song '  by  Rubinstein,  she  remarked,  '  Why, 
you  could  not  drink  a  cup  of  tea  to  that.' 
Her  memory  was  unusually  sound,  and 
errors  which  were  made  in  her  hearing  on 
matters  familiar  to  her  she  corrected  with 
briskness  and  point. 

The  queen's  religion  was  simple,  sincere, 
and  undogmatic.  Theology  did  not  interest 
her,  but  in  the  virtue  of  religious  toleration 
she  was  an  ardent  believer.  When  Dr. 
Creighton,  the  last  bishop  of  London  of  her 

VOL.  III. — STJP. 


reign,  declared  that  she  was  the  best  liberal 
he  knew,  he  had  in  mind  her  breadth  of 
religious  sentiment.  On  moral  questions 
her  views  were  strict.  She  was  opposed 
to  the  marriage  of  widows.  To  the  move- 
ment for  the  greater  emancipation  of  women 
she  was  thoroughly  and  almost  blindly 
antipathetic.  She  never  realised  that  her 
own  position  gave  the  advocates  of  women's 
rights  their  strongest  argument.  With  a 
like  inconsistency  she  regarded  the  greatest 
of  her  female  predecessors,  Queen  Elizabeth, 
with  aversion,  although  she  resembled  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  her  frankness  and  tenacity  of 
purpose,  and  might,  had  the  constitution  of 
the  country  in  the  nineteenth  century  per- 
mitted it,  have  played  as  decisive  a  part  in 
history.  Queen  Victoria's  sympathies  were 
with  the  Stuarts  and  the  Jacobites.  She 
declined  to  identify  Prince  Charles  Edward 
with  his  popular  designation  of  '  the  Young 
Pretender,'  and  gave  in  his  memory  the 
baptismal  names  of  Charles  Edward  to  her 
grandson,  the  Duke  of  Albany.  She  was 
deeply  interested  in  the  history  of  Mary 
Stuart ;  she  placed  a  window  in  Carisbrooke 
Church  in  memory  of  Charles  I's  daughter 
Elizabeth  (1850),  and  a  marble  tomb  by 
Marochetti  above  her  grave  in  the  neigh- 
bouring church  of  St.  Thomas  at  Newport 
(1856).  She  restored  James  II's  tomb  at 
St.  Germain.  Such  likes  and  dislikes  re- 
flected purely  personal  idiosyncrasies.  It 
was  not  Queen  Elizabeth's  mode  of  rule  that 
offended  Queen  Victoria  ;  it  was  her  lack  of 
feminine  modesty.  It  was  not  the  Stuarts' 
method  of  government  that  appealed  to  her ; 
it  was  their  fall  from  high  estate  to  manifold 
misfortune.  Queen  Victoria's  whole  life  and 
action  were,  indeed,  guided  by  personal 
sentiment  rather  than  by  reasoned  principles. 
But  her  personal  sentiment,  if  not  alto- 
gether removed  from  the  commonplace,  nor 
proof  against  occasional  inconsistencies,  bore 
ample  trace  of  courage,  truthfulness 
sympathy  with  suffering.  Far  from  being 
an  embodiment  of  selfish  whim,  the  queen  s 
personal  sentiment  blended  in  its  mam  cur- 
rent sincere  love  of  public  justice  with 
staunch  fidelity  to  domestic  duty,  and  rip.* 
experience  came  in  course  of  years  to  imbue 
it  with  the  force  of  patriarchal  wisdom. 
In  her  capacity  alike  of  monarch  and  woman, 
the  queen's  personal  sentiment  proved,  on 
the  whole,  a  safer  guide  than  the  best  devised 
system  of  moral  or  political  philosophy. 

VIII 

Of  her  nine  children  (four  sons— Albert 
Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  Alfred,  Arthur, 
and  Leopold— and  five  daughters— Victona, 


Victoria 


498 


Victoria 


Alice,  Helena,  Louise,  and  Beatrice),  two 
sons,  Leopold  and  Alfred,  and  one  daughter, 

Alice,  died  in  the  queen's  lifetime. 

Sne  was  survived  by  two  sons— 

the  prince  of  Wales  and  Arthur 
duke  of  Connaught — and  by  four  daughters — 
Victoria,  Empress  Frederick,  Helena,  Prin- 
cess Christian,  Louise,  Duchess  of  Argyll, 
and  Beatrice,  Princess  Henry  of  Battenberg. 
The  eldest  daughter,  Victoria  (Empress 
Frederick),  died  on  5  Aug.  1901  at  her 
seat,  Friedrichshof,  near  Frankfort.  All  her 
children  were  married,  and  all  except  the 
Princess  Louise  had  issue.  The  queen's  grand- 
children numbered  thirty-one  at  the  date  of 
her  death — nine  died  in  her  lifetime — and 
her  great-grandchildren  numbered  thirty- 
seven.  Seventeen  of  her  grandchildren  were 
married.  In  two  instances  there  was  inter- 
marriage of  first  cousins — viz.  Grand  Duke 
of  Hesse  (Princess  Alice's  only  surviving 
son)  with  Princess  Victoria  Melita  (Prince 
Alfred's  second  daughter),  and  Prince  Henry 
of  Prussia  (Princess  Royal's  second  son)  with 
Princess  Irena  Marie  (Princess  Alice's  third 
daughter).  Other  marriages  of  her  grand- 
children connected  her  with  the  chief 
reigning  families  of  Europe.  The  third 
daughter  of  the  Princess  Royal  (Empress 
Frederick),  Princess  Sophie  Dorothea,  mar- 
ried in  1889  the  Duke  of  Sparta,  son  of  the 
king  of  Greece.  Princess  Alice's  youngest 
daughter  (Princess  Alix  Victoria)  married 
in  1894  Nicholas  II,  tsar  of  Russia,  while 
Princess  Alice's  second  daughter  (Elizabeth) 
married  the  Grand  Duke  Serge  of  Russia, 
a  younger  son  of  Tsar  Alexander  II  and 

uncle  of  Tsar  Nicholas  II.  Prince 
oMttSr"  Alfred's  eldest  daughter  (Princess 

Marie)  married  in  1893  Ferdi- 
nand, crown  prince  of  Roumania.  Princess 
Maud,  youngest  daughter  of  the  prince  ot 
Wales,  married  in  1896  Prince  Charles  of 
Denmark.  Only  one  grandchild  married  a 
member  of  the  English  nobility,  the  prince 
of  Wales's  eldest  daughter,  who  became  the 
wife  of  the  Duke  of  Fife.  The  remaining 
seven  marriages  of  grandchildren  were  con- 
tracted with  members  of  princely  families 
of  Germany.  The  Emperor  William  II 
married  Princess  Victoria  of  Augustenburg. 
The  Princess  Royal's  daughters,  the  Prin- 
cesses Charlotte,  Frederika  Victoria,  and 
Margaretta  Beatrice,  married  respectively 
the  hereditary  Prince  of  Saxe-Meiningen  (in 
1878),  Prince  Adolphe  of  Schaumburg-Lippe 
(in  1890),  and  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of 
Hesse-Cassel  (in  1893).  Princess  Alice's 
eldest  daughter  (Victoria)  married  in  1884 
Prince  Louis  of  Battenberg.  Prince  Alfred's 
third  daughter  (Alexandra)  married  in  1896 


the  hereditary  Prince  of  Hohenlohe-Lan- 
genburg.  Princess  Helena's  elder  daughter 
(Louise  Augusta)  married  in  1891  Prince. 
Aribert  of  Anhalt. 

There  was  one  marriage  in  the  queen's 
lifetime  in  the  fourth  generation  of  her 
family.  On  24  Sept.  1898  the  eldest  of  her 
great-grandchildren,  F6odora,  daughter  of 
the  hereditary  Princess  of  Saxe-Meiningen. 
(Princess  Royal's  eldest  daughter),  married 
Prince  Henry  XXX  of  Reuss. 

The  queen's  portrait  was  painted,  drawn, 
sculptured,  and  photographed  several  hun- 
dred times  in  the  course  of  the  reign.  None 
are  satisfactory  presentments.  The  queen's 
.  features  in  repose  necessarily  omit 
ti°e  queen.0  suggestion  of  the  animated  and 
fascinating  smile  which  was 
the  chief  attraction  of  her  countenance. 
Nor  is  it  possible  graphically  to  depict  the 
exceptional  grace  of  bearing  which  com- 
pensated for  the  smallness  of  her  stature. 
Among  the  chief  paintings  or  drawings  of 
her,  those  of  her  before  her  accession  are 
by  Sir  William  Beechey,  R.A.  (with  the 
Duchess  of  Kent),  1821 ;  by  Richard  Westall, 
R.A.,  1830;  by  Sir  George  Hayter,  1833; 
and  by  R.  J.  Lane,  A.R.A.,  1837.  Those 
after  her  accession  are  by  Alfred  Chalon,  in 
state  robes  (engraved  by  Cousins),  1838 ;  by 
Sir  George  Hayter,  1838;  by  Sir  David 
AVilkie,  1839  (in  Glasgow  Gallery) ;  by  Sir 
Edwin  Landseer  (drawing  presented  by  the 
queen  to  Prince  Albert),  1839  ;  by  F.  Wiii- 
terhalter,  1845  and  other  years ;  by  Winter- 
halter  (group  with  Prince  Arthur  and  Duke 
of  Wellington),  1848  ;  by  Sir  Edwin  Land- 
seer,  1866 ;  by  Baron  H.  von  Angeli,  1875 
(of  which  many  replicas  were  made  for  pre- 
sents, and  a  copy  by  Lady  Abercromby  is 
in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery,  London), 
1885  and  1897 ;  by  Mr.  W.  Q.  Orchardson, 
R.A.  (group  with  prince  of  Wales,  Duke  of 
York,  and  Prince  Edward  of  York),  1900 ; 
and  by  M.  Benjamin  Constant,  1900.  There 
are  several  miniatures  by  Sir  W.  C.  Ross, 
R.A.,  and  one  by  Robert  Thorburn,  A.K.A. 
(with  prince  of  SVales  as  a  child).  There  is 
a  clever  caricature  lithographic  portrait,  by 
Mr.  William  Nicholson,  1897.  Every  leading 
episode  in  the  queen's  life  was  commemo- 
rated on  her  commission  by  a  painting  in 
which  her  portrait  appears.  Most  of  these 
memorial  paintings,  many  of  which  have 
been  engraved,  are  at  Windsor ;  a  few  are  at 
Buckingham  Palace  or  Osborne.  They  in- 
clude Sir  David  Wilkie's  '  The  Queen's  First 
Council,'  1837 ;  C.  R.  Leslie's  '  The  Queen 
receiving  the  Sacrament  at  her  Coronation,' 
1838,  and  '  The  Christening  of  the  Princess 
Royal,'  1841 ;  Sir  George  Hayter's '  Corona- 


Victoria 


499 


Victoria 


tion,'  'The  Queen's  Marriage,'  1840,  and 
1  Christening  of  the  Prince  of  Wales ; ' 
F.  Winterhalter's  '  The  Reception  of  Louis 
Philippe,'  1844 ;  E.  M.  Ward's  '  The  Queen 
investing  Napoleon  III  with  the  Garter' 
and  '  The  Queen  at  the  Tomb  of  Napoleon,' 
1855 :  G.  H.  Thomas's  '  Review  in  Paris,' 
1855 ;  J.  Phillip's  '  Marriage  of  Princess 
Royal,'  1859;  G.  H.  Thomas's  'The  Queen 
at  Aldershot,'  1859 ;  W.  P.  Frith's  '  Mar- 
riage of  the  Prince  of  Wales,'  1863 ;  G. 
Magnussen's  '  Marriage  of  Princess  Helena,' 
186b';  Sydney  P.  Hall's  'Marriage  of  the 
Duke  of  Connaught,'  1879  ;  Sir  James  Lin- 
ton's  '  Marriage  of  the  Duke  of  Albany,' 
1882  ;  R.  Caton  W^oodville's  '  Marriage  "of 
the  Princess  Beatrice,'  1885 ;  Laurenz 
Tuxen's  '  The  Queen  and  Royal  Family  at 
Jubilee  of  1887  ; '  Sydney  P.  Hall's  '  Mar- 
riage of  the  Duchess  of  Fife,'  1889 ;  Tuxen's 
'  Marriage  of  the  Duke  of  York,'  1893.  The 
sculptured  presentations  of  the  queen,  one 
or  more  examples  of  which  is  to  be  found 
in  almost  every  city  of  the  empire,  include 
a  bust  by  Behnes,  1829  (in  possession  of 
Lord  Ronald  Gower)  ;  an  equestrian  statue 
by  Marochetti  at  Glasgow ;  a  statue  by 
Boehm  at  Windsor;  a  large  plaster  bust 
by  Sir  Edgar  Boehm  (in  National  Portrait 
Gallery,  London)  ;  a  statue  at  Winchester 
by  Mr.  Alfred  Gilbert,  R.A. ;  a  statue  at 
Manchester  by  Mr.  Onslow  Ford,  R.A.,  1900. 
A  national  memorial  in  sculpture,  to  be  de- 
signed by  Mr.  Thomas  Brock,  R.A.,  is  to 
be  placed  in  the  Mall  opposite  the  entrance 
to  Buckingham  Palace. 

The  portrait  head  of  the  queen  on  the 
coinage  followed  three  successive  types  in 

the  course  of  the  reign.  Soon 
™d  m^\l  after  her  accession  William  Wyon 

designed  from  life  a  head  which 
appears  in  the  silver  and  gold  coinage  with 
the  hair  simply  knotted,  excepting  in  the 
case  of  the  florin,  where  the  head  bears  a 
crown  for  the  first  time  since  the  coinage  of 
Charles  II.  In  the  copper  coinage  a  laurel 
wreath  was  intertwined  with  the  hair.  In 
1887  Sir  Edgar  Boehm  designed  a  new  bust 
portrait,  showing  the  features  in  mature  age 
with  a  small  crown  and  veil  most  awkwardly 
placed  on  the  head.  This  ineffective  design 
was  replaced  in  1893  by  a  more  artistic 
crowned  presentment  from  the  hand  of  Mr. 
Thomas  Brock,  R.A. 

Of  medals  on  which  her  head  appears  the 
majority  commemorate  military  or  naval 
achievements,  and  are  not  of  great  artistic 
note  (cf.  JOHX  H.  MAYO'S  Medals  and  Deco- 
rations of  the  British  Army  and  Navy,  1897). 
Many  medals  commemorating  events  in  the 
queen's  reign  were  also  struck  by  order  of 


the  corporation  of  London  (cf.  Ci: 
WELCH'S  NumixmataLondiru-ntia^Wl,  with 
plates).  Of  strictly  official  medals  of  the 
reign  the  chief  are  that  struck  in  honour 
of  the  coronation  from  designs  !• 
in  1838;  the  jubilee  medal  of  18*7,  with  tin- 
reverse  designed  by  Lord  Leighton ;  mid  th.? 
diamond  jubilee  medal  of  1897,  with  Wyon's 
design  of  the  queen's  head  in  youth  on  the 
reverse,  and  Mr.  Brock's  design  of  the  head 
in  old  age  on  the  obverse  with  the  noble 
inscription  :  '  Longitudo  dierum  in  dextera 
eius  et  in  sinistra  gloria.' 

The  adhesive  postage  stamp  was  an  in- 
vention of  the  queen's  reign,  and  was  adopted 
by  the  government  in  1840.  A  crowned 
portrait  head  of  the  queen  was  designed  for 
postage  stamps  in  that  year,  and  was  not 
moditied  in  the  United  Kingdom  during  her 
lifetime.  In  most  of  the  colonies  recent 
issues  of  postage  stamps  bear  a  portrait  of 
the  queen  in  old  age. 

[No  life  of  Queen  Victoria  of  any  importance 
has  yet  been  published.  The  sketches  by  Mr. 
R.  R.  Holmes,  librarian  at  Windsor  (with  elabo- 
rate portrait  illustrations,  1887,  and  text  alone, 
1901),  by  Mrs.  Oliphant,  by  Principal  Tulloch, 


perfect.     The   outward   fac's  of  her  life   and 
reign  are  best  studied  in  the  Annual  R' 
from  1837   to   1900,  together  with  the  Tim.  s 
newspaper,  Hansard's  Parliamentary   Debates, 
and   the   collected  edition  of  Punch.     A  vast 
library  of  memoirs  of  contemporaries  supplies 
useful    hints    and   information   for   the   whole 
period.     For  the  years  before  and  immediately 
after  the  accession,  see  Mrs.  Gerald  Gurney'8 
Childhood  of   Queen    Victoria,    1901  ;    Tuer's 
First    Year    of  a  Silken    Reign ;    Memoir  of 
Gabriele  von  Billow  (Eagl.  transl.),  1897  ;   Karl 
of  Albemarle's  Fifty  Years  of  my  Life;  Straf- 
ford   House  Letters,   1891,   pt.   ri. ;    and    Sir 
Charles  Murray's  papers  in  Cornhill  Mag.  1897- 
The  only  portion  of  the  queen's  career  which 
has  been  dealt  with  fully  is  her  marri. 
1840-61,  which   is  treated   in   General  ' 
Early  Years  of  the  Prince  Consort,  1808.  and 
in   Sir   Theodore  Martin's  Life  of  the   Prince 
Consort,  5  vols.  1874-80.     The  account   then» 
given  of  the  queen's  private  and  public  «peri- 
ences  during  the  years   in  question  is   largely 
drawn  from  her  and  her  hu-band's  jonn. 
letters.     Both  deneral  Grey  and  Sir  Theodore 
Marlin  write  from  the  queen's  point  of  view, 
and  pay  little  or  no  attention  to  the  evidence 
writers  with  whom  the  qu.  rn  was  out  of  »ym- 
pathy ;  some  memoirs  published  since  the  ap- 
pearance of  these  volumes  also  usefully  rappb- 
montthe  information.     The  U-st  tutbontl 
the  general  course  of  the  qu 
I  relations  with  political  history  down  to  It: 

K  K  31 


Victoria 


500 


Vogel 


to  be  found  in  the  three  series  of  the  Greville 
Memoirs  (1817-60),  which   are  outspoken,  and 
in  the  main  trustworthy.     The  Duke  Ernest  of 
Saxe-Coburg's  Memoirs,  4  vols.  (English  transl. 
1888-90),  throw  very  valuable  side  lights  on  the 
queen's   personal  relations  with  Germany  and 
German  politics,  and  print  many  of  her  letters ; 
they  carry  events  from  her  marriage  in   1840 
down   to  1870.      The  early  years  of  the  same 
period  are  covered  by  the  Memoirs  of  Baron  von 
Bunsen  and  by  Memoirs  of  Baron  von  Stoekmar, 
by  his  son  (Engl.  transl.  2  vols.  1892).     Other 
hints  from  the  German  side  may  be  gleaned  for 
both  early  and  late  periods  of  the  reign  in  Th.  von 
Bernhardi  Aus  dem  Leben,  pt.  v.  1895  ;  Memoirs 
of  Count  von  Beust ;  Memoirs  of  Count  Vitz- 
thum  von    Eckstadt ;    Moltke's  Letters  to   his 
Wife  and  other  Relatives,  ed.  Sidney  Whitman 
(2  vols.  1896);    Margaretha  von   Poschinger's 
Life  of  Emperor   Frederick  (Engl.   transl.  by 
Whitman,    1901);   Bismarck's   Reflections    and 
Reminiscences   (2   vols.    1898,   Engl.   transl.) ; 
and  Busch's  Conversations  of  Bismarck  (3  vols. 
1897).    For  the  English  relations  with  Napo- 
leon III  (18-51-68)  see  De  la  Gorce's  Histoire 
du  Second  Empire  (5  vols.)    The  queen's  domes- 
tic life  from  1838  to    1870  may  be  traced  in 
Letters  from  Sarah,  Ltdy  Lyttelton,  1797-1870 
(privately  printed  for  the  family,  1873);   from 
1863  to  1878  in  the  Letters  of  Princess  Alice, 
with  memoir  by  Dr.  Sell  (Engl.  transl.  1884); 
from  1842  to  1882  in  the  queen's  Leaves  (1868), 
and  More  Leaves  (1883)  from  her  Journal  in 
the  Highlands ;  and  from  1850  to  1897  in  Mr. 
Kinloch  Cooke's  Life  of  the  Duchess  of  Teek, 
2  vols.  1900.     Both  court  and  diplomatic  affairs 
(1837-68)  are   sketched   in    Lady  Bloomfield's 
Court  and  Diplomatic  Life  (1883,  2  vols.),  and 
diplomatic  affairs  alone  (1837-1879)  in  the  two 
series  of  Lord  Augustus  Loftus's  Reminiscences 
( 4  vols.  1892-4).  For  home  politics  see  Torrens's 
Life  of  Lord  Melbourne ;    the  Croker  Papers ; 
the  Peel  Papers  (a  specially  valuable  work) ;   Sir 
Spencer  Walpole's  Life  of  Lord  John  Russell 
(a  most  useful  biography) ;  Bulwer  and  Ashley's 
Life  of  Lord  Palmerston ;   Lord  Malmesbury's 
Memoirs  of  an  Ex-Minister ;  Benham  and  David- 
son's  Life   of  Archbishop   Tait  (1891);    Lori 
Selborne's   Memorials ;    Gladstone's   Gleanings, 
vol.  i. ;  Childers's  Life  of  Hush  C.  E.  Childers 
(1901),  and  Sir  Algernon  West's  Recollections. 
Personal  reminiscences  of  the  queen  in  private 
life  abound  in  Donald  Macleod's  Life  of  Norman 
Macleod  (2  vols.  1876),  Mrs.  Oliphant's  Life  of 
Principal Tulloch  (1888),  Proth ero's  Life  of  Dean 
Stanley,  Lord  Tennyson's  Memoir  of  Lord  Tenny- 
son, and  Benson's  Memoirs  of  Archbishop  Benson : 
all  print  some  letters  of  hers.     A  good  personal 
character  sketch  is  in  the  Quarterly  Review  for 
April  1901.      Slighter  particulars  are  met  with 
in  Trevelyan's  Life  of  Macaulay ;  Ashwell  and 
Wilberforce's  Life  of  Bishop  Wilberforce(3  vols. 
1879) ;  Wemyss  Reid's  Lives  of  Lord  Houghton 
and  of  W.  E.  Forster ;  Fanny  Kemble's  Records ; 
Lang's  Life  of  Lord  Iddesleigh  ;  Maxwell's  Life 


of  W.  H.  Smith ;  Sir  Theodore  Martin's  Life  of 
Helena  Faucit,  Lady  Martin  (1900);  Sir  John 
Mowbray's  Seventy  Years  at  Westminster ; 
Laughton's  Life  of  Henry  Reeve  (1899)  ;  W.  A. 
Lindsay's  The  Royal  Household  (1897);  Lord 
Ronald  Gower's  Reminiscences ;  and  Wilkinson's 
Reminiscences  of  King  Ernest  of  Hanover.  In 
the  preparation  of  this  article  the  writer  has 
utilised  private  information  derived  from  various 
sources.]  S.  L. 

VpGEL,  SIR  JULIUS  (1835-1899), 
premier  of  New  Zealand,  son  of  Albert  Leo- 
pold Vogel  and  his  wife  Phoebe,  daughter  ol 
Alexander  Isaac  of  Russell  Square,  London, 
was  born  in  London  on  24  Feb.  1835.  He 
was  educated  at  University  College  School, 
London,  and  at  the  Royal  School  of  Mines. 
Both  his  parents  died  when  he  was  sixteen, 
and  after  serving  as  a  merchant's  clerk  in 
his  grandfather's  office  he  emigrated  to  the 
gold-fields  of  Victoria,  where,  after  gaining  a 
livelihood  by  various  shifts,  he  became  editor 
of  a  small  country  newspaper, '  The  Mary- 
borough and  Dunolly  Advertiser.'  After 
being  beaten  in  an  attempt  to  enter  the 
Victorian  parliament  he  was  drawn  in  1861 
to  Otago,  New  Zealand,  by  the  large  dis- 
coveries of  gold  then  made  there,  and,  settling 
in  Dunedin,  bought  a  half-share  in  the '  Otago 
Witness '  and  started  the  '  Otago  Daily 
Times.'  As  brother-editor  and  partner  he 
had  the  novelist,  Mr.  B.  L.  Farjeon.  He 
quickly  made  his  paper  what  it  still  is,  one 
of  the  leading  morning  journals  in  the  colony, 
and  with  its  help  was  chosen  in  1862  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Otago  provincial  council.  There 
in  1866  he  became,  and  for  three  years  re- 
mained, head  of  the  provincial  executive. 

Vogel's  entry  into  the  New  Zealand  House 
of  Representatives  was  made  in  1863,  and 
six  years  later  he  was  appointed  colonial 
treasurer  in  the  cabinet  of  Sir  William  Fox 
[q.  v.  Suppl.]  To  the  treasury  were  soon 
added  the  post  office  and  the  departments 
of  customs  and  telegraphs,  and  he  became 
the  moving  mind  of  what  was  quickly  called 
the  Fox- Vogel  ministry.  In  1869  the  colony, 
still  struggling  with  the  native  tribes,  was 
exhausted  by  nearly  a  decade  of  intermittent 
and  inglorious  warfare  with  them,  and  it  was 
embarrassed  by  English  disfavour  and  the  low 
price  of  its  staple  export,  wool.  The  imperial 
troops  had  been  withdrawn,  and  though,  with 
some  reluctance,  the  imperial  government 
guaranteed  a  loan  of  1,000,000/.  to  enable 
the  colonists  to  carry  on  the  warfare  with 
their  own  militia,  the  colony  and  the  pro- 
vinces owed  some  7,000,OOOJ.,  and  were  de- 
pressed and  disheartened.  Vogel  believec" 
that  if  peace  could  be  secured  the  grea 
natural  resources  of  the  islands  might 


Vogel 


Vogel 


rapidly  developed  by  making  roads,  bridges, 
railways,  and  telegraphs  with  money  bor- 
rowed by  the  colony  in  London.  He  pro- 
posed to  raise  10,000,000^.  for  this  work,  and 
to  take  as  security  five  million  acres  of  land 
adjacent  to  the  proposed  railway  lines.  His 
parliament  authorised  the  borrowing  of 
4,000,000/.,  but  refused  to  touch  the  public 
lands,  which  were  the  endowment  of  the 
provinces.  Except  during  one  month  in 
1892,  when  Sir  Edward  Stafford  ejected  the 
Fox- Vogel  ministry,  Vogel  remained  in  office 
for  seven  years,  and  was  always  at  the  head 
of  affairs,  though  not  always  premier.  The 
Maori  wars  were  honourably  ended,  public 
works  were  rapidly  pushed  on,  immigrants 
poured  in,  the  San  Francisco  mail  service 
was  begun,  and  a  cable  laid  between  New 
Zealand  and  Australia.  The  ballot  act  was 
passed,  the  Torrens  land  transfer  system 
adopted,  the  public  trust  office  opened,  and 
the  government  life  insurance  department 
set  up.  Finally  (1874-6)  Vogel,  hitherto 
accounted  a  provincialist,  allied  himself  with 
Stafford  and  Atkinson,  and  abolished  the 
provinces.  Immediately  afterwards  he  ap- 
pointed himself  agent-general  in  London, 
and,  resigning  the  premiership,  quitted  the 
colony. 

Vogel  left  New  Zealand  prosperous  and 
confident.  Nearly  all  the  money  he  had 
borrowed  had  been  wisely  spent.  Un- 
fortunately, no  steps  were  taken  to  check 
speculation  in  land,  which  went  on  wildly, 
especially  in  the  south  island.  This,  com- 
bined with  a  steady  decline  in  the  prices  of 
wool  and  grain,  brought  about  a  reaction  in 
1879,  the  effects  of  which  lasted  for  fifteen 
years,  and  which  was  popularly  attributed 
to  Vogel's  policy  of  public  works  and  loans. 
In  1877  an  imperial  act  was  passed  confirm- 
ing an  arrangement  made  by  Vogel  in  1875 
with  the  Bank  of  England,  by  which  colonial 
stocks  were  authorised  to  be  inscribed  there, 
to  the  great  advantage  of  the  borrowing 
colonies.  In  1880  Vogel,  who  had  been 
knighted  in  1875,  was  a  candidate  for  elec- 
tion to  the  British  House  of  Commons  ;  he 
stood  for  Penrhyn  as  a  conservative,  but  was 
beaten.  In  1881  he  resigned  the  agent- 
generalship,  as  the  New  Zealand  government 
obj  scted  to  his  connection  with  certain  public 
companies,  and  in  1884  re-entered  New  Zea- 
land politics.  Elected  for  Christchurch  by  a 
large  majority  he  was  welcomed  back  to  the 
colonial  parliament  by  numbers  who  hoped 
from  his  resourceful,  inventive,  and  sanguine 
mind  some  scheme  or  policy  which  might 
restore  cheerfulness  and  prosperity  to  the 
overclouded  colony.  Since  lavish  borrowing 
had  for  the  time  gone  out  of  fashion,  the 


phrase  'Vogel  with  the  brake  on'  was  caught 
up  as  representing  the  combination  of  • 
prise  with  prudence,  which  a  coalition  be- 
tween Vogel  and  the  radical  party  was  ex- 
pected to  bring  about.  The  coalition  was 
arranged,  the  Atkinson  ministry  was  ousted, 
and  Vogel  became  treasurer  once  more,  under 
the  radical  chief,  Sir  Robert  Stout.  Fate, 
however,  did  not  aid  the  Stout-Vogel  govern- 
ment. Prices,  low  in  1884,  fell  still  further  in 
1885  ;  the  largest  financial  institution  in  th«! 
colony,  the  Bank  of  New  Zealand,  showed 
signs  of  embarrassment;  the  customs  revenue 
declined ;  and  Vogel,  who  had  come  into  office 
to  reduce  taxation,  found  himself  obliged  in 
1887  to  admit  a  heavy  deficit  and  ask  for 
more  taxes.  The  ministry  was  defeated,  ap- 
pealed to  the  country,  and  was  beaten.  Sir 
liobert  Stout  and  many  of  his  section  dis- 
appeared from  parliament,  and  though  Vogel 
was  returned  with  a  substantial  following, 
he  did  not  prolong  the  struggle,  but,  after 
leading  the  opposition  unsuccessfully  for 
one  session,  quitted  the  colony  finally. 

Thereafter  poverty  and  bodily  infirmities 
combined  to  keep  him  out  of  public  life. 
He  lived  quietly  near  London,  where  for 
the  last  three  years  of  his  life  he  held  a 
small  post,  under  the  New  Zealand  govern- 
ment, the  duties  of  which  were  nominal,  and 
the  salary  300/.  In  addition  to  this  quasi- 
pension  the  colony  after  his  death  gave  his 
widow  1.500/.  Vogel  died  at  Ilillersdon, 
East  Molesey,  on  12  March  1899.  \\.- 
physical  sufferings  had  been  great.  For 
many  years  he  had  been  tortured  by  gout, 
afflicted  with  deafness,  and  partly  paralysed 
in  the  lower  limbs.  The  courage  and  buoyant 
spirit  which  helped  him  to  struggle  against 
his  atHictions,to  toil  over  complicated  fiimn- 
cial  problems  in  a  sick-room,  and  to  direct  a 
colonial  political  party  from  a  bath-chair, 
were  not  the  least  admirable  of  his  qualities. 
Bold  and  sanguine  as  he  was  in  tempera- 
ment, his  constitutional  hastiness  did  not 
prevent  his  manner  in  private  lift?  from 
being  uniformly  kind,  considerate,  and  even 
patient  towards  those  around  him.  A  specu- 
lator, though  without  greed  or  hardness,  his 
rashness  in  his  private  affairs  gave  colour  to 
the  harsh  verdict  of  the  many  critics  who 
declared  that  in  public  life  he  was  a  gambler 
masquerading  as  a  statesman.  This  was  not 
true.  The  policy  of  developing  colonies  by 
borrowing  and  spending  state  loans  is ^ ob- 
viously open  to  abuse.  But  it  WOJUI 
more  easy  to  show  that  those  who  followed 
in  Vogel's  footsteps  w.-nt  too  far  and  I 
fast  than  that  he  himself  WUtod  Ml 
money  uselessly.  Finani-.-  I 
mark  on  the  institutions  of  New  Zealand; 


Walker 


502 


Walker 


the  public  trust  and  state  life  insurance 
offices  have  flourished;  women's  franchise, 
proposed  by  him  in  1887,  became  law  in 
1893 ;  the  conservation  of  the  New  Zealand 
forests,  which  lie  unsuccessfully  prayed  for, 
is  now  a  recognised  necessity;  the  extension 
of  British  influence  in  the  South  Seas,  ad- 
vocated by  him  in  1874,  then  dismissed  as  a 
dream  by  the  colonists,  and  which,  when  he 
attempted  it  at  Samoa  in  1886,  was  thwarted 
by  the  colonial  office,  was  a  scheme  the 
scouting  of  which  most  Australasians  now 
regret.  Vogel's  imperialism,  as  set  out  in 
many  magazine  and  newspaper  articles, 
though  vague  and  dreamy,  was  in  effect  an 
anticipation  of  the  views  of  a  subsequently 
popular  school.  Curious  mixture  as  he  was  of 
visionary  and  financier,  his  visions  were  often 
tinctured  with  realism,  just  as  his  finance 
was  inspired  by  imagination.  Industrious 
as  well  as  original  in  administration,  he 
was  a  persuasive  and  copious  rather  than  a 
brilliant  or  incisive  talker  and  speaker.  He 
wrote  clearly  and  easily  on  political  matters, 


though  his  solitary  novel,   '  Anno  Domini 
2000,  or  Woman's  Destiny,'  written  late  ii 
life,  has  little  merit.     His  other  publics 
tions  were :  '  Great  Britain  and  her  Cole 
nies  '  (London,  1865,  8vo)  and  '  New  Zea- 
land and  the  South  Sea  Islands  '  (London, 
1878).     He  also  edited  the  '  Official  Hand- 
book of  New  Zealand '  for  1875. 

Vogel,  who  was  a  Jew  of  the  Ashkenazi 
rite,  married,  on  19  March  1867,  Mary, 
daughter  of  William  Henry  Clayton,  colonial 
architect,  New  Zealand,  and  left  two  song 
and  a  daughter.  Another  son  was  killed 
when  cut  off  with  Major  Wilson's  force 
by  the  Matabele  in  1894. 

[Gisborne's  New  Zealand  Rulers  and  States- 

!  men  (1840-97),  2nd  edit.  London,  1897;  Rus- 

|  den's  History  of  New  Zealand,  2nd  edit.  Mel- 

I  bourne.  1896;  Anthony  Trollope's  Australia  and 

i  New  Zealand,   London,    1873  ;    Times,    Daily 

Telegraph,  Daily  News,  14  March  1899;  Jewish 

Chronicle,  16  March  1899;  Reeves's  Long  White 

'  Cloud.  London,  1898  ;  Eurke's  Colnnial  Gentry, 

1  ii.  518.]  W.  P.  R. 


W 


WALKER,  JOHN  (1692  ?-l  741),  a 
Cambridge,  scholar  and  coadjutor  of  Bentley 
in  his  proposed  edition  of  the  Grteco-Latin 
Testament,  was  son  of  Thomas  Walker  of 
Huddersfield,  and  was  educated,  like  Bentley, 
at  Wakefield  school,  where  he  was  under 
Edward  Clarke.  He  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  as  a  pensioner  on  24  May  1710, 
at  the  age  of  seventeen.  He  was  Craven 
scholar  in  1712.  He  graduated  B.A.  in 
1713,  and  was  elected  minor  fellow  on 
28  Sept.  1716  (see  E.  HUD,  Diary,  ed.  Luard, 
Cambridge,  1860).  He  took  his  M.A.,  and 
was  elected  socius  major  and  sublector  ter- 
tius  in  1717. 

Walker  was  amiable  and  attractive,  and 
ready  to  work  with  others,  as  well  as  learned. 
The  firstfruits  of  his  studies  that  have  come 
down  to  us  are  emendations  on  Cicero,  '  De 
Natura  Deorum,'  printed  at  the  end  of  the 
edition  of  Dr.  John  Davies,  master  of  Queens' 
College,  in  1718,  and  honourably  mentioned 
in  the  preface.  They  are  mostly  bold  or 
ingenious  conjectures,  after  the  manner  of 
Beiitley,  and  show  a  wide  range  of  reading. 
Pearce  also  incorporated  some  notes  of 
AValker's  in  his  edition  of  the  '  De  Officiis ' 
in  1745  (see  p.  xiv).  While  working  for 
the  New  Testament  he  also  helped  Bentley 
with  various  readings  of  manuscripts  of 
Suetonius  and  Cicero's '  Tusculans.'  For  his 
own  part  he  was  preparing  an  edition  of  Arno- 


bius,  and  left  large  materials  for  the  purpose 
to  Dr.  Richard  Mead  [q.  v.]  One  valuable 
volume  of  this  collection  now  belongs  to 
Professor  J.  E.  B.  Mayor  of  Cambridge,  and 
contains  notes  and  conjectures  well  worthy 
of  attention,  as  well  as  collations  of  the 
Paris  and  Antwerp  manuscripts,  the  second 
of  which  is  a  copy  from  the  first,  and  was 
then  at  Brussels. 

In  the  summer  or  autumn  of  1719  he 
went  to  Paris,  as  Bentley's  emissary,  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  various  readings  for 
the  proposed  Grseco-Latin  New  Testament, 
which  had  been  projected  by  Bentley  about 
1716.  J.  J.  Wetsteiu  had  been  first  em- 
ployed; but,  after  Wetstein's  return  to 
Switzerland,  Bentley  was  naturally  glad  to 
have  one  of  his  own  scholars  as  his  confi- 
dential assistant.  Walker  was  kindly  re- 
ceived at  Paris,  especially  by  the  Benedic- 
tines, and,  after  some  suspicion  of  a  clash 
of  literary  interests  between  their  project  for 
an  edition  of  the '  Versio  Itala '  and  Bentley's 
undertaking,  he  was  aided  by  them  in  his 
work.  Thuillier,  Sabatier,  Mopinot ,  and  Mont- 
faucon  were  his  chief  friends,  and  the  latter 
regarded  him  as  a  son.  He  remained  in  Paris 
apparently  nearly  a  year.  Bentley  thus 
writes  of  him  at  the  end  of  his  '  Proposals," 
published  in  1720 :  '  The  work  will  be  put  in 
the  press  as  soon  as  money  is  contributed  to 
support  the  charge  of  the  impression.  . 


Walker 


503 


Walker 


The  overseer  and  corrector  of  the  press  will 
be  the  learned  Mr.  John  AValker  of  Trinity 
College  in  Cambridge ;  who  with  great  ac- 
curateness  has  collated  many  MSS.  at  Paris 
for  the  present  edition.  And  the  issue 
of  it,  whether  gain  or  loss,  is  equally  to  fall 
on  him  and  the  author.'  Walker  had,  in 
fact,  collated  the  whole  New  Testament  in 
five  Latin  manuscripts  at  Paris,  and  part  of 
it  in  nine  others,  besides  noting  the  readings 
of  four  Tours  manuscripts  collated  by  Leon 
Chevallier,  which  were  given  him  by  Saba- 
tier.  These  collections  are  contained  in  the 
volume  numbered  B.  17.  5,  in  the  library  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (ELLIS,  pp.  xxxv 
foil. ;  Old  Lat.  Bibl.  Texts,  i.  55,  foil.,  where 
they  are  all  identified).  Next  year  (1721) 
he  returned  to  Paris,  this  time  to  collate 
Greek  texts.  The  readings  of  the  manu- 
scripts from  the  Eoyal,  Coislin,  St.  Ger- 
main, and  Colbert  collections  in  Trinity  Col- 
lege (B.  17.  42,  43)  probably  belong  to  this 
date  or  to  the  following  years.  The  winter 
of  1721-2  was,  however,  spent  in  Brussels 
in  the  company  of  Charles  Graham,  third 
viscount  Preston  (d.  1739),  grandson  of 
James  II's  ambassador  at  Paris.  Here 
"Walker  collated  the  manuscript  of  Arnobius 
(and  Minucius  Felix)  already  mentioned, 
and  the  Corsendonk  Greek  Testament  (now 
at  Vienna,  Imp.  Lib.,  cursive  3),  and  suc- 
ceeded in  identifying  many  of  the  manu- 
scripts used  by  Lucas  Brugensis.  When 
the  fear  of  the  plague  had  abated,  Walker 
returned  to  Paris,  and  seems  to  have  re- 
mained there  till  1723. 

Bentley  had  communicated  his  under- 
taking to  Archbishop  Wake  in  1716,  and 
this  naturally  led  to  intercourse  between 
the  archbishop  and  Walker.  The  first 
extant  evidence  of  this  is  a  letter  from 
Walker  at  Brussels,  24 Nov.  1721  (Old  Lat. 
Bibl.  Texts,  i.  66),  in  answer  to  a  kind  one 
of  Wake's,  perhaps  the  beginning  of  their 
friendship.  Wake  showed  him  many  marks 
of  favour,  and  Walker  collated  a  great  num- 
ber of  his  manuscripts.  These  collations 
are  found,  some  in  B.  17.  42,  43,  and  others 
in  B.  17.  34.  A  selection  of  Walker's  read- 
ings is  also  found  in  a  Greek  Testament  in 
Christ  Church  Library,  where  the  Wake 
MSS.  themselves  are  (WAKE,  Arch.  Gr.  35). 
Altogether  Walker  seems  to  have  collated 
some  seventy-eight  Greek  manuscripts,  con- 
taining the  whole  or  parts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

His  course  of  promotion  was  as  follows : 
He  became  dean  and  rector  of  Booking, 
Essex,  in  the  archbishop's  patronage,  15  Nov. 
1725.  At  Lady  day  1726  he  received  his 
last  dividend  as  fellow  of  Trinity.  He  be- 


came chancellor  of  St.  David's  on  17  July 
i          ™Hls  marriage  followed  six  month* 
later,  26  Jan.  1727-8.     He  was  mad.-  1  >  I  > 
under  royal  commission  (together  wi; 
chard  Walker  the  vice-master)  on  •_»:, 
1728.     A  year  later  Wake  appointed  him 
archdeacon  of  Hereford  on  3  Feb.  1  ~ 
and  on  12  Dec.  1730  he  was  instituted  r 
of  St.  Mary  Aldermary  in  the  same  patronage. 
He  also  became  incumbent  of  St.  Thomasthe 
Apostle  in  the  same  year.     He  was  also 
chaplain  ^to  King  George  II.    He  died  on 
9  Isov.  1741,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-eight. 

Walker  married  Charlotte  Sheffield,  one 
of  the  three  natural  daughters  of  the  well- 
known  John  Sheffield,  duke  of  Normanby 
and  Buckinghamshire  (d.  1721)  [q.  v.],  by 
Frances  Stewart,  who  afterwards  married 
Hon.  Oliver  Lambart  (sherf.  1760-1).  These 
daughters  (and  their  brother)  took  the  name 
of  Sheffield  under  their  father's  will.  Mrs. 
Walker  had  a  fortune  of  some  6,000/.,  and 
bore  her  husband  six  sons  and  four  daugh- 
ters. One  of  their  sons,  Henry,  became 
fellow  of  King's  College,  B.A.  1/67,  MA. 
1760.  Mrs.  Walker  is  described  as '  a  woman 
of  violent  and  turbulent  temper,'  but  pro- 
fessed much  respect  for  her  husband,  to 
whom  she  erected  a  monument  in  the  chancel 
of  Booking  church,  with  a  laudatory  cha- 
racter (Old  Lat.  Bibl.  Texts,  i.  66),  which 
all  extant  evidence  confirms.  It  asserts 
that  his '  uncommon  learning  and  sweetness 
of  temper,  joined  to  all  other  Christian  per- 
fections, and  accompanied  with  a  pleasing 
form  of  body,  justly  rendered  him  the  delight 
and  ornament  of  mankind.' 

The  later  course  of  his  studies  and  the 
reasons  for  the  collapse  of  his  great  literary 
project  are  matters  of  conjecture  and  infer- 
ence. He  certainly  went  on  collating  Greek 
manuscripts  till  after  1736,  as  the  Greek 
Testament  numbered  B.  17.  44,  46  is  on.-  of 
J.  Wetstein  and  G.  Smith's,  Amsterdam, 
1735,  and  contains  collations  of  manuscripts, 
some  of  them  brought  to  Archbishop  Wake 
in  that  year.  Wake  died  in  1787,  and  left 
his  manuscripts  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
and  therefore  Walker's  work  on  them  wmi 
probably  done  before  that.  Bentley  himself 
was  in  perpetual  strife  in  his  later  yean, 
and  had  a  paraly t  ic  stroke  in  1 739.  Walker's 
own  healtn  was  delicate,  and  he  may  have 
had  warnings  of  approaching  deal  h.  Some^ 
thing  of  the  kind  seems  necessary  to  explain 
the  fact  that  Bentley,  making  his  will  on 
29  May  1741  (six  months  before  Walker's 
death),  left  his  Greek  manuscripts  brought 
from  Mount  Athos  to  the  college,  and  '  tli- 
rest  and  residue  of  his  libraryr(inclu.lin>:. 
apparently,  Walker's  collations  in  the 


Wallace 


504 


Warburton 


volumes  now  at  Trinity  College)  to  his 
nephew  Richard,  and  did  not  mention 
Walker.  Bentley  himself  died  six  months 
after  his  younger  friend.  There  is  no  trace 
of  a  quarrel  between  them.  It  seems  there- 
fore that  Walker's  premature  death  was  the 
chief  cause  of  the  failure  of  all  this  prepara- 
tion, and  the  operation  of  this  simple  cir- 
cumstance has  been  strangely  overlooked 
by  Bentley's  biographers.  Bentley  used  to 
call  Walker  '  Clarissimus  Walker,'  probably 
to  distinguish  him  from  his  two  contem- 
poraries at  Trinity  College,  Richard  the  vice- 
master  and  Samuel. 

Walker's  collations  of  Latin  manuscripts 
are  decidedly  better  than  Bentley's,  although 
they  are  not  as  perfect  as  his  reputation  for 
scholarship  and  his  neat  writing  would  lead 
one  to  hope. 

[Life  of  Bentley  [q.  v.]  and  Old  Latin  Biblical 
Texts,  i.  (St.  Germain,  St.  Matthew),  Oxf.  1883, 
esp.  pp.  v,  xxiii-xxvi,  55-67;  Gent.  Mag.  1741, 
p.  609;  Hennessy's  Nov.  Rep.  Eccl.  1898,  pp. 
cxxx,  300,  302.  The  contents  of  the  volumes 
at  Trinity  College  are  given  (not  quite  accu- 
rately) in  A.  A.  Ellis's  Bentleii  Critica  Sacra. 
Information  has  also  been  supplied  by  friends 
at  Cambridge  and  elsewhere.  Walker's  will, 
which  has  been  consulted,  is  at  Somerset  House.] 

JOHN  SAEUM. 

WALLACE,  ROBERT  (1831-1899), 
divine  and  member  of  parliament,  second 
son  of  Jasper  Wallace,  master  gardener, 
was  born  near  Cupar,  Fife,  on  24  June  1831. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Geddes  Institu- 
tion, Culross,  the  High  School,  Edinburgh, 
and  at  St.  Andrews  University,  where  he 
won  special  distinction  and  graduated  M.A. 
in  1853.  After  teaching  for  some  time  in 
private  families,  and  attending  the  1853-4 
session  at  the  Divinity  Hall,  Edinburgh, 
he  was  appointed  on  22  April  1854  classical 
master  at  the  Madras  Academy,  Cupar,  Fife. 
In  October  1855  he  resumed  his  theological 
studies  at  Edinburgh  University.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1857,  and  shortly 
afterwards  appointed  to  the  charge  of  New- 
ton-on-Ayr,  whence  he  removed  in  1860  to 
Trinity  College  Church,  Edinburgh.  In 
1866  he  was  appointed  examiner  in  philo- 
sophy in  the  university  of  St.  Andrews,  and 
two  years  later  the  Edinburgh  corporation 
presented  him  with  the  charge  of  Old  Grey- 
friars.  In  1869  the  university  of  Glasgow 
conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  D.D. 

Wallace  as  a  churchman  was  noted  for 
the  support  he  gave  both  in  the  Edinburgh 
presbytery  and  in  the  general  assembly  of 
the  church  of  Scotland  to  broad  views  on 
theology  and  to  the  reform  of  worship,  of 
which  Dr.  Robert  Lee  (1804-1868)  [q.  v.] 


was  the  chief  champion.  To  the  latter  con- 
troversy he  contributed  '  Reform  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  in  Worship,  Govern- 
ment, and  Doctrine ; '  and  to  the  former 
an  essay  on  '  Church  Tendencies  in  Scot- 
land,' published  in  '  Recess  Studies '  (Edin- 
burgh, 1870),  which  led  to  much  contro- 
versy, and  ultimately  to  his  impeachment 
for  heresy.  In  1872  he  was  appointed  by 
the  crown  to  the  chair  of  church  history 
in  Edinburgh  University,  and  his  ecclesias- 
tical and  political  opponents  protested.  The 
controversy  which  followed  was  one  of  the 
most  exciting  in  the  recent  annals  of  the 
church  of  Scotland.  Wallace  won  mainly 
owing  to  his  own  remarkable  powers  as  a 
debater,  but  in  1876  he  determined  to  leave 
the  church,  and  became  editor  of  the  '  Scots- 
man '  newspaper. 

For  some  years  previously  he  had  been 
contributing  to  that  newspaper,  but  his 
editorship  was  not  a  success,  and  he  resigned 
in  1880.  In  1881  he  entered  the  Middle 
Temple,  and  in  1883  was  called  to  the  bar. 
In  1886  he  was  elected  to  parliament  as  a 
radical  to  represent  East  Edinburgh,  and 
his  connection  with  the  constituency  lasted 
until  his  death.  In  parliament  he  main- 
tained an  unusual  independence,  and  though 
he  took  only  an  occasional  part  in  the 
debates,  he  kept  up  the  reputation  he  had 
won  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  While 
about  to  address  the  House  of  Commons  on 
5  June  1899  he  fell  down  in  a  fit,  and  died 
in  Westminster  hospital  on  the  following 
day.  He  was  buried  in  Kensal  Green  ceme- 
tery. 

He  was  married  in  1858  to  Margaret, 
daughter  of  James  Robertson  of  Cupar,  who 
predeceased  him ;  by  her  he  had  four  sons 
and  a  daughter. 

Wallace  wrote  frequently  for  the  maga- 
zines, but  in  addition  to  fugitive  contro- 
versial matter  he  published  little.  His  in- 
augural address  as  professor  of  church 
history,  '  The  Study  of  Ecclesiastical  History 
in  its  Relations  to  Church  Theology,'  was 
published  in  Edinburgh,  1873.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  on  a 
biography  of  George  Buchanan,  since  com- 
pleted (Edinburgh,  1899),  and  on  his  own 
reminiscences,  which  will  be  included  in  his 
'  Life.' 

[Hew  Scott,  Fasti  Ecclesiae,  i.  i.  156,  n.  i.  151, 
&c. ;  Lawson's  Reminiscences  (private  circula- 
tion) ;  Scotsman,  7  June  1899;  Biography  by 
Sheriff  Campbell  Smith  and  Mr.  Wallace  is  in 
preparation.]  J.  R.  M. 

WARBURTON,  SIE  ROBERT  (1842- 
1899),  warden  of  the  Khyber,  born  in  a 
Ghilzai  fort  between  Jagdallak  and  Ganda- 


Warburton 


Warburton 


mak  on  11  July  1842,  was  the  only  son  of 
Robert  Warburton  (d.  10  Nov.  1864),  lieu- 
tenant-colonel in  the  royal  artillery,  by  his 
wife,  a  noble  Afghan  lady,  niece  of  the  Amir 
Dost  Muhammad.  At  the  time  of  his  birth 
his  mother  was  flying  from  the  troopers  of 
Sardar  Muhammad  Akbar  Khan,  who  pur- 
sued her  for  months  after  the  massacre  of 
English  at  Kabul  on  1  Nov.  1841.  She  was 
sheltered  by  her  relatives,  and  finally  re- 
joined her  husband  on  20  Sept.  1842.  At 
the  close  of  the  Afghan  war  Robert  and  his 
mother  accompanied  his  father's  battery  to 
Sipri,  whence  they  removed  to  Morar  in 
Gwalior.  In  1850  he  was  placed  at  school 
at  Mussoorie  under  Robert  North  Maddock, 
where  he  remained  until  1  Dec.  1856.  He 
was  then  sent  to  England,  and  was  placed  at 
Kensington  grammar  school  under  G.  Frost. 
Thence  he  obtained  a  cadetship,  and  after  one 
term  at  Addiscombe  and  two  at  the  Royal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich  he  obtained 
his  commission  in  the  royal  regiment  of 
artillery  on  18  Dec.  1861.  In  1862  he  was 
sent  to  India  and  stationed  with  the  1st  bat- 
tery of  the  24th  brigade  at  Fort  Govindghar, 
the  fortress  of  Amritsar.  In  August  1864 
he  exchanged  into  the  F  battery  of  the  18th 
brigade  and  was  stationed  at  Mian  Mir.  In 
1866  the  failure  of  the  Agra  and  Master- 
man's  bank  left  him  with  only  his  pay  to 
support  himself  and  his  mother.  To  increase 
his  resources  he  exchanged  into  the  21st  Pun- 
jab infantry.  This  regiment  was  then  under 
orders  for  the  Abyssinian  campaign,  and  dis- 
embarked at  Zoula  on  1  Feb.  1868.  While 
serving  with  the  transport  train  he  showed 
great  tact  in  conciliating  native  feeling  and 
received  the  thanks  of  Sir  Robert  jSapier 
(afterwards  Baron  Napier)  [q.  v.]  for  his 
services.  When  he  was  invalided  to  Eng- 
land Napier  interested  himself  in  his  behalf, 
and  wrote  to  the  lieutenant-governor  of  the 
Punjab  recommending  him  for  employment 
on  the  frontier.  On  his  return  to  India  in 
April  1869  he  was  attached  as  a  probationer 
to  the  15th  Ludhiana  Sikhs,  and  in  July 
1870  he  was  appointed  to  the  Punjab  com- 
mission as  an  assistant  commissioner  to  the 
Peshawar  division.  At  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber 1872  he  was  removed  temporarily  to  the 
sub-district  of  Yusafzai  and  stationed  at 
Hoti-mardan,  and  in  February  1876  he  was 
permanently  appointed.  Under  Sir  Pierre 
Louis  Napoleon  Cavagnari  [q.  v.]  he  took 
part  in  several  enterprises  against  the  hill 
tribes  who  persisted  in  raiding  British  terri- 
tory, particularly  against  the  Utman  Khel 
in  1878,  and  was  five  times  complimented 
by  the  government  of  the  Punjab  and  thrice 
by  the  secretary  of  state  for  India.  In  1879, 


during  the  Afghan  campaign,  Cavagnari  nude 
repeated  applications  for  his  service*,  but 
the  Punjab  government  refused  to  spare  him. 
In  July,  however,  he  was  appointed  political 
officer  of  the  Khyber,  a  post  which  he  held 
for  eighteen  years. 

On  the  news  of  the  murder  of  Cavagnari 
at  Kabul,  Warburton  was  nominated  chief 
political  officer  with  General  Sir  R.  O. 
BrightjCommandingthe  Jalalabad  field  force. 
He  joined  the  force  on  10  Oct.  and  proceeded 
to  Jalalabad  to  ascertain  the  revenues  of  the 
district.  In  April  1880  he  was  invalided  to 
England,  and  he  did  not  return  to  the 
Khyber  Pass  until  16  Feb.  1882.  From  that 
time  he  remained  on  the  frontier  almost  con- 
tinuously until  his  retirement.  He  obtained 
a  remarkable  influence  over  the  hill  tribes, 
due  in  part  no  doubt  to  his  Afghan  blood. 
He  raised  the  Khyber  rifles  from  among 
these  tribes,  a  force  which  for  many  years 
kept  the  pass  tranquil.  His  camp  became 
the  rendezvous  of  mutually  hostile  tribes- 
men, who  carefully  refrained  from  hostilities 
so  long  as  they  remained  within  its  precincts. 
He  was  accustomed  to  travel  with  no  weapon 
but  a  walking-stick,  and  everywhere  met 
with  demonstrations  of  attachment.  Able 
to  converse  fluently  with  the  learned  in 
Persian  and  with  the  common  folk  in  the 
vernacular  Pushto,  he  succeeded,  by  his 
acquaintance  with  tribal  life  and  character, 
in  gaining  an  influence  over  the  border 
Afghans  which  has  never  been  equalled, 
In  1881  he  attained  the  rank  of  major,  and 
in  1887  that  of  lieutenant-colonel.  On  1  Jan. 
1890,  in  recognition  of  his  services,  he  was 
created  C.S.I.  In  1893  he  was  nominated 
to  the  brevet  rank  of  colonel.  He  resigned 
his  post  on  11  July  1897  and  received  the 
thanks  of  the  Punjab  government.  He  had 
frequently  requested  government  to  give 
him  an  English  assistant  who  might  con- 
tinue his  policy  and  succeed  to  his  influence 
after  his  retirement.  This  request  was 
never  granted,  and  the  advent  of  a  suc- 
cessor without  local  experience  was  at  once 
followed  by  disquiet.  On  the  outbreak  of 
excitement  among  the  Afridis  in  August,  he 
was  asked  by  the  Indian  government  on 
13  Aug.  whether  he  was  willing  to  resume 
his  service  in  connection  with  the  Khyb»-r 
Pass  and  the  Afridis.  He  declared  InmsHf 
willing,  but  on  23  Aug.,  before  definite  order 
had  been  given,  hostilities  broke  out.  JH 
served  with  the  Tirah  expedition  of  11 
and  in  1898  he  was  created  K.I  M.K.  The 
hardships  of  the  Tirah  campaign  wore  o 
his  frame  and  the  loss  of  the  Khyber  port 
broke  his  heart.  He  returned  to  England 
with  broken  health,  and  dying  at  3  Russell 


Ward 


506 


Ward 


Road,  Kensington,  on  22  April  1899,  was 
buried  at  Brornpton  cemetery  on  27  April. 
In  1868  he  married  Mary,  eldest  daughter 
of  William  Cecil  of  Dyftrin,  Monmouth- 
shire. 

"Warburton's  reminiscences  of  his  life  were 
published  in  1900  under  the  title  '  Eighteen 
Years  in  the  Khyber,'  London,  8vo. 

[Eighteen  Years  in  the  Khyber  (with  por- 
traits) ;  Times,  24,  25,  28  April  1899.] 

K   T   f1 

WARD,  MARY  (1585-1645),  founder  of 
a  female  order  modelled  on  the  rule  of  the 
Jesuits,  born  at  Mulwith,  near  Ripon,  on 
23  Jan.  1584-5,  was  the  eldest  child  of  Mar- 
maduke  Ward  of  Givendale,  Mulwith,  and 
Newby,  in  the  West  riding  of  Yorkshire,  by 
his  wife  Ursula,  daughter  of  Robert  Wright 
(d.  1594)  of  Plowland  in  Holderness,  and 
widow  of  John  Constable  (d.  1581)  of  Hat- 
field  in  the  same  district.  John  Wright 
(1568  P-1605)  [q.  v.]  was  Mary's  uncle.  She 
was  at  baptism  named  Jane,  a  name  which 
at  her  confirmation  was  changed  to  Mary. 
Her  parents  were  Roman  catholics,  and  she 
was  educated  in  the  same  faith.  At  the  age 
of  five  she  went  to  live  at  Plowland  with 
her  grandmother,  Ursula  Wright,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Nicholas  Rudston  of  Hayton  in  the 
East  riding.  On  the  death  of  her  grand- 
father in  1594  she  returned  to  Mulwith,  but 
the  household  was  broken  up  by  the  per- 
secution of  1597-8,  and  she  was  entrusted 
to  her  kinswoman,  Mrs.  Ardington  of  Hare- 
well,  a  daughter  of  Sir  William  Ingleby  of 
Ripley.  From  1600  to  1606  she  resided  with 
the  wife  of  Sir  Ralph  Babthorpe  of  Osgodby 
and  Babthorpe,  near  York.  Her  birth  and 
her  great  beauty  attracted  numerous  suitors, 
but  her  heart  was  set  on  the  monastic  life, 
and  in  1606  she  proceeded  to  St.  Omer,  and 
entered  the  community  of  the  Colettines, 
the  severest  order  of  St.  Clare.  Somewhat 
against  her  inclination  she  was  appointed 
to  collect  alms  from  the  townspeople,  her 
own  desire  being  for  greater  solitude  and 
contemplation.  Moreover,  as  a  lay  sister 
she  was  not  subject  to  the  rule  of  St.  Clare, 
but  to  the  less  rigorous  discipline  of  the 
third  order  of  St.  Francis.  In  May  1607  she 
left  the  convent,  resolved  on  founding  a  com- 
munity especially  for  Englishwomen.  She 
repaired  to  the  court  of  the  archdukes  at 
Brussels,  and  in  spite  of  considerable  oppo- 
sition obtained  land  for  a  convent  near  Grave- 
lines.  On  Christmas  eve  she  commenced  her 
community  in  a  temporary  dwelling  at  St. 
Omer,  with  five  English  nuns  transferred 
from  'the  Walloon  monastery'  in  that  city. 
In  1609,  however,  she  left  this  convent  also, 
after  endowing  it  with  most  of  her  possessions. 


She  returned  to  St.  Omer,  after  a  visit  to 
England,  accompanied  by  five  young  English 
ladies,  with  whom  she  founded  a  community 
in  the  Grosse  Rue,  which  chiefly  concerned 
itself  with  the  education  of  girls,  and  did 
not  bind  itself  to  the  life  of  strict  seclusion 
which  was  characteristic  of  most  female 
orders.  In  1611.  after  a  severe  illness,  she 
resolved,  in  consequence  of  a  supernatural 
communication,  to  adopt  the  rules  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  for  her  community,  adapt- 
ing them  for  the  use  of  women.  About 
1611  the  first  affiliated  community  was  esta- 
blished in  London  at  Spitalfields.  By  1617 
the  number  of  inmates  in  the  parent  com- 
munity had  increased  to  sixty  persons,  and 
in  that  year  a  second  subordinate  community 
was  established  at  Liege,  Mary  Ward  her- 
self removing  to  the  new  house.  During 
the  next  few  years  she  travelled  constantly 
in  England  and  the  Low  Countries,  and  on 
one  occasion  was  arrested  and  thrown  into 
prison  in  London.  In  1620  and  1621  she 
was  occupied  in  founding  houses  in  Kciln 
and  Trier. 

At  the  close  of  1621,  finding  considerable 
opposition  arising  to  her  order,  she  resolved 
to  proceed  to  Rome,  where  she  arrived  on 
Christmas  eve.  She  immediately  submitted 
to  Gregory  XV  a  memorial,  stating  that  she 
and  her  companions  had  by  divine  appoint- 
ment taken  upon  them  the  rule  of  life  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  requesting  the  establishment  of 
an  order  under  his  sanction.  Finding  that 
the  English  clergy  were  hostile  and  passed 
strictures  on  the  conduct  of  her  house  in 
London,  she  requested  leave  on  1  July  1622 
to  establish  a  house  in  Rome,  that  her  plan 
might  be  made  a  matter  of  observation. 
Her  request  was  granted,  schools  for  girls 
were  instituted,  and  the  community  was 
quickly  organised. 

For  more  than  a  year  affairs  went  well, 
but  renewed  trouble  arose  at  the  close  of 
that  period.  In  June  1625,  in  consequence 
of  fresh  charges  brought  against  Mary  of 
preaching  publicly  in  London  before  an  altar, 
and  similar  absurdities,  the  schools  were 
closed  by  the  order  of  Urban  VIII.  In  No- 
vember 1626,  despairing  of  obtaining  the 
ratification  of  her  order,  Mary  determined 
to  proceed  to  England  through  Germany. 
At  Milan  she  was  received  with  great  respect 
by  the  saintly  cardinal  archbishop,  Federigo 
Borromeo.  Passing  through  the  Tyrol  she 
arrived  at  Munich,  where  the  elector,  Maxi- 
milian I,  permitted  her  and  her  companions 
to  remain,  and  gave  them  a  residence  and 
a  yearly  allowance  for  their  maintenance. 
In  1627  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  invited 
Mary  to  Vienna,  and  provided  a  foundation 


Ward 


507 


Ward 


for  her  in  that  city.  The  dislike  aroused  by 
her  independent  action  pursued  her  to 
Germany,  and  in  July  1628,  in  consequence 
of  a  communication  from  the  Archbishop  of 
Vienna,  Cardinal  Klessel,  a  private  con- 
gregation was  called  by  Urban  VIII,  when 
it  was  decided  that  measures  should  be 
taken  through  the  legates  of  the  various 
countries  to  break  up  the  houses  of  the  in- 
stitute without  issuing  a  papal  bull.  Warned 
of  the  imminence  of  the  peril  Mary  set  out  i 
for  Rome,  but  owing  to  illness  was  unable 
to  reach  the  city  until  February  1629.  After 
laying  her  case  before  Urban  VIII  and  the  I 
cardinals  she  returned  to  Munich,  and 
thence  proceeded  to  Vienna.  The  report  of 
the  suppression  rapidly  spread ;  but  on  hear- 
ing that  Mary  was  to  be  imprisoned  as  a 
heretic,  the  emperor  refused  to  allow  the 
measures  against  her  to  be  carried  into  effect 
at  Vienna.  Unwilling  to  be  a  cause  of  strife, 
she  removed  to  Munich,  where  on  7  Feb. 
1630-1  she  was  arrested  and  confined  in  the 
Anger  convent.  The  unhealthiness  of  her 
prison  brought  on  an  illness  that  was  almost 
fatal.  Her  friends,  however,  interested  them- 
selves in  her  behalf,  and  on  15  April  she  was 
released  by  a  papal  mandate.  During  her 
imprisonment  a  papal  bull  for  the  suppression 
of  the  institute  had  been  issued ;  but,  owing 
to  the  favour  of  Maximilian,  Mary  and  her 
companions  were  permitted  to  remain  in  their 
abode  at  Paradeiser  H  aus  in  Munich.  In  April 
1632  she  again  set  out  for  Rome  to  intercede 
for  the  dispersed  members  of  her  sister- 
hood, who  were  undergoing  great  hardships. 
She  was  well  received  by  Urban  VIII,  who 
seemed  won  by  her  patience  under  trial,  and 
gave  her  permission  to  establish  a  new  house 
in  Rome  itself.  In  October  1634  she  took  pos- 
session of  an  abode  on  the  Esquiline,  which 
became  a  frequent  resort  of  English  catholics 
in  Rome.  Here  she  remained  until  1637, 
continually  beset  by  spies,  and  assailed  by 
the  malice  of  her  opponents,  but  supported 
by  the  esteem  of  Urban.  In  September  1637 
she  set  out  for  England,  arriving  in  London 
on  20  May  1638.  There  she  drew  compa- 
nions round  her  in  a  house  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Strand.  She  remained  in  London 
until  the  strict  parliamentary  regime  that 
followed  the  departure  of  Charles  I  for  the 
north  in  1642  rendered  it  too  unsafe.  She 
left  the  city  on  1  May,  sought  refuge  in  York- 
shire, where  she  was  well  received  by  her 
catholic  kinsfolk,  and  settled  at  Hutton 
Rudby  in  Cleveland.  In  1644  she  removed 
to  Heworth,  near  York.  Her  health,  which 
had  been  much  impaired  during  her  later 
years,  altogether  failed  during  the  hardships 
of  the  siege  of  York  by  the  parliamentary 


troops,  and  she  died  on  20  Jan.  1644—ri  at 
Heworth,  soon  after  the  capitulation  of  the 
city,  and  was  buried  on  22  Jan.  in  the  comer 
next  the  porch  of  Osbaldwick  church  on  the 
east  side,  where  a  gravestone  was  afterward* 
placed  bearing  an  inscription  which  is  still 
legible.  It  is,  however,  probable  that  her 
body  was  secretly  removed  to  the  Nether- 
lands by  her  companions  at  a  later  date. 

After  Mary  AVard's  death  various  com- 
munities following  her  rule  subsisted  un- 
recognised by  ecclesiastical  authority,  until 
on  13  June  1703  a  bull  of  confirmation  of 
the  Institute  of  Man-,  the  blessed  Virgin, 
was  obtained  from  Clement  XI,  which  sanc- 
tioned all  the  essential  features  of  Mary 
Ward's  scheme.  The  headquarters  of  the 
order  were  established  at  Munich  until 
1809,  when  their  property  was  secularised 
with  most  of  the  ecclesiastical  possession*  in 
Germany.  In  Austrian  territory,  however, 
they  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  emperor, 
and  several  communities  exist  at  the  present 
day  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Germany,  an 
well  as  dependent  houses  in  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America.  In  1877  Pius  IX  gave  his  final  ap- 
probation to  the  whole  institute. 

Mary  Ward  left  fragmentary  autobio- 
graphies in  English  and  Italian,  which  are 
now  in  possession  of  the  community  at  Nym- 
phenburg,  near  Munich.  An  oil  painting 
of  Mary  Ward,  executed  about  1620,  is  in 
possession  of  the  nuns  of  the  English  In- 
stitute of  the  Blessed  Virgin  at  Augsburg, 
and  a  second,  representing  her  in  later  life,  10 
in  possession  of  the  nuns  of  the  institute  of 
Altotting  in  Bavaria.  Many  of  her  auto- 
graph letters,  as  well  as  many  historical 
documents  relative  to  the  society,  are  in  the 
Xymphenburg  archives. 

*A  life  of  Mary  Ward  by  her  friend  and 
companion,  Winefrid  Witrmore,  was  written 
between  1645  and  l»i"'7.  S.-veral  copies  exist 
in  manuscript  both  in  French  and  English. 
A  manuscript  life  in  Italian  by  Yincento 
Pageti,  secretary  of  Cardinal  Borghe*e  and 
apostolic  notary,  written  in  lH»i2,  and  en- 
titled '  Breve  Raconto  della  Vit*  di  donna 
Maria  della  Guardia,'  is  in  the  powewion  of 
the  community  at  Nympht-nburg.  The  next 
biography  in  point  <>f  time  was  compi 
Latin  in  1674  by  Dominic  H 
regular  of  tin-  holy  cross  at  Augsburg. 
There  is  a  copy  among  the  are! 
diocese  at  \\Wtmin.-t.-r.  In  !•>'.»  a  life  was 
written  in  German  at  .Munich  »>y  Tobia* 
Lohner,  a  Jesuit  fat h«>r.  The  autograph  copy 
is  in  the  Nymphenburg  archive-.  All  OK 
these  are  in  large  measure  independent, 
although  that  by  Winefrid  Wi^more  U  of 
primary  importance.  In  1717  an  aceoi; 


Watson 


508 


Watson 


the  order  by  the  Benedictine  father,  Cor- 
binian  Khamm,  entitled  '  Relatio  de  Origine 
et  Propagatione  Instituti,  Marise  nuncupati, 
Virginum  Anglarum,'  was  printed  at  Augs- 
burg, and  about  1729  a  life  of  Mary  Ward  by 
Marco  Fridl,  a  priest.  The  chief  incidents  of 
Mary's  life  are  portrayed  in  fifty  very  large  oil 
paintings  which  have  existed  in  the  convent 
of  the  institute  at  Augsburg  almost  from  its 
foundation  in  1662.  The  series  is  known 
among  the  nuns  as '  the  painted  life,'  and  was 
probably  constructed  from  descriptions  given 
to  the  artist  by  Mary's  surviving  companions. 
The  German  descriptions  appended  to  the  pic- 
tures are  quoted  by  Lohner  as  early  as  1689, 
indicating  that  they  were  existing  at  that 
early  date.  These  various  sources  have  been 
collated  in  the  '  Life  of  Mary  Ward '  by  Mary 
Catherine  Elizabeth  Chambers,  which  ap- 
peared in  the  '  Quarterly  Series'  in  1882  and 
1885  (vols.  xxxv.  and  lii.),  under  the  editor- 
ship of  Henry  James  Coleridge. 

[Miss  Chambers's  Life  of  Mary  Ward,  1882- 
1885  (with  portraits);  Poulson's  Holderness, 
ii.  516,  517  ;  Foster's  Yorkshire  Pedigrees,  s.v. 
'  Constable  of  Flamborough ; '  Foley's  Records  of 
the  English  Province,  i.  128,  458-9,  670 ;  Dodd's 
Church  Hist.  1739,  ii.  341  ;  Butler's  Memoir  of 
St.  Ignatius,  1812,  p.  405.]  E.  I.  C. 

WATSON,  WILLIAM,  LORD  WATSON 
(1827-1899),  judge,  son  of  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Watson,  minister  in  the  church  of  Scotland, 
by  Eleonora,  daughter  of  David  McIIaffie, 
was  born  at  the  Manse,  Covington,  Lanark- 
shire, on  25  Aug.  1827.  He  was  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Glasgow  and  Edin- 
burgh, the  latter  of  which  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1876.  He  was 
admitted  advocate  in  1851,  but  nearly  a 
decade  elapsed  before  he  entered  upon  his 
career,  and  then  he  owed  his  introduction  to 
practice  to  the  illness  of  a  friend  who  re- 
commended him  as  a  substitute.  In  July 
1865  he  appeared  for  the  defence  in  the 
cause  ctlebre  of  Dr.  Edward  Pritchard  [q.  v.], 
the  poisoner.  Thenceforth  his  practice  grew 
steadily,  though  slowly,  until  in  1874  it  was 
sufficient  to  warrant  Disraeli  in  rewarding 
his  conservatism,  then  altogether  exceptional 
at  the  Scottish  bar,  with  the  office  of  soli- 
citor-general for  Scotland  (21  July).  In- the 
following  year  he  was  elected  dean  of  the 
faculty  of  advocates,  and  in  1876  he  suc- 
ceeded Edward  Strathearn  Gordon  [q.  v.]  in 
the  office  of  lord  advocate  and  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  universities  of  Glasgow  and 
Aberdeen.  In  1878  he  was  sworn  of  the 
privy  council,  and  placed  on  the  committee 
of  the  council  for  education  in  Scotland 
(2  April).  As  lord  advocate  he  conducted 
the  prosecution  of  the  fraudulent  directors 


of  the  City  of  Glasgow  Bank,  and  several 
civil  actions  arising  out  of  the  failure.  On 
28  April  1880  he  was  appointed  to  the  place 
among  the  lords  of  appeal  in  ordinary,  vacant 
by  the  recent  death  of  Lord  Gordon,  and 
created  a  life  peer  by  the  title  of  Baron 
Watson  of  Thankerton,  Lanarkshire. 

A  lord  advocate  of  less  than  four  years' 
standing,  who  enters  the  highest  judiciary 
of  the  empire,  might  not  unreasonably  plead 
his  limited  experience  as  a  reason  for  occu- 
pying himself  mainly,  if  not  exclusively, 
with  the  decision  of  Scottish  cases.  Almost, 
however,  from  the  outset  Watson  grappled 
boldly  and  unreservedly  with  the  multi- 
farious, intricate,  and  frequently  recondite 
legal  problems  which  constitute  the  staple 
topics  of  the  judicial  deliberations  of  the 
House  of  Lords  and  privy  council,  and  his 
great  natural  acumen  and  extraordinary  assi- 
duity gave  to  his  decisions  a  soundness  and 
solidity  worthy  the  best  traditions  of  British 
jurisprudence.  The  conversance  with  the 
civil  law  which  he  owed  to  his  Scottish 
training  stood  him  in  good  stead  in  dealing 
with  appeals  from  colonies  in  which  it  still 
forms  the  basis  of  the  jurisprudence  (see 
Law  Reports,  Appeal  Cases,  xii.  562)  ;  but 
where  such  aid  failed  him,  as  in  vexed  ques- 
tions of  domicile  (ib.  xiii.  436  ;  1895,  p.  522), 
or  French  or  Indian  custom,  his  judgments 
were  no  less  able,  while  the  part  which  he 
took  in  determining  the  policy  and  practice 
of  the  privy  council  in  the  exercise  of  the 
prerogatival  jurisdiction  in  Canadian  cases 
was  of  capital  constitutional  importance. 
His  mastery  of  English  law,  if  less  con- 
spicuous, was  hardly  less  consummate ;  his 
authority  on  Scottish  law  was  immense ; 
nor  can  he  be  justly  taxed  with  provin- 
cialism because  he  showed  himself  sedulous 
to  preserve  its  purity  (ib.  vii.  393).  In  later 
life  he  was  reputed  the  profoundest  lawyer 
in  the  three  kingdoms,  and  his  influence 
was  commensurate. 

Watson  has  thus  been  generally  credited 
with  a  principal  share  in  the  responsibility  for 
the  decision  in  Lord  Sheffield's  case,  which 
was  perhaps  justified  by  the  peculiar  facts 
upon  which  it  turned,  but  would  unquestion- 
ably, if  followed,  have  seriously  hampered 
the  business  of  the  banking  community.  This 
consequence  was  in  fact  only  obviated  by  a 
later  decision  (ib.  1892,  p.  201 ;  cf.  HERSCHE'LL, 
FARRER,  LOKD  HERSCHELL)  ;  but  the  aber- 
ration, if  such  it  must  be  deemed,  was  unique 
in  a  career  of  nearly  twenty  years  of  splendid 
service,  which  has  left  an  ineffaceable  im- 
press upon  every  part  of  our  legal  system. 

Watson  was  homely  in  appearance  and 
unassuming  in  manner,  though  a  merciless 


Wauchope 


Wauchope 


dissector  of  bad  argument.  He  never  lost  his 
broad  Scottish  accent  or  acquired  the  niceties 
of  English  style,  but  his  judgments  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  methodical  arrangement  and 
massive  strength  of  diction  which  amply 
atone  for  their  occasional  infelicity  of  phrase. 
The  care  which  he  lavished  on  them  was 
prompted  neither  by  zest  nor  by  ambition, 
but  by  sheer  sense  of  duty ;  for  law,  if  not 
positively  irksome,  was  at  any  rate  not 
particularly  congenial  to  him,  while  of  am- 
bition he  had  not  a  jot.  He  was  a  keen 
sportsman,  but  otherwise  somewhat  indolent, 
and  would  probably  have  been  happier  in  a 
quiet  country  life  than  while  dispensing  jus- 
tice in  the  most  august  tribunals  of  the 
British  empire. 

Watson  died  at  Sunlaw's  House,  Kelso, 
on  14  Sept.  1899,  leaving  issue  by  his  wife 
Margaret  (m.  6  Aug.  1868,  d.3  March  1898), 
daughter  of  Dugald  John  Bannatyne.  An 
'  Address  on  the  Repression  of  Crime,'  de- 
livered by  "Watson  in  1877  before  the  National 
Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Social 
Science,  is  printed  in  the  '  Transactions '  of 
the  association. 

[Foster's  Men  at  the  Bar ;  Burke's  Peerage, 
1899;  G.  E.  C[okayne]'s  Complete  Peerage; 
Irving's  Book  of  Scotsmen ;  Reports  of  Cases 
before  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary,  iv.  161  et 
seq. ;  Scottish  Law  Keporter,  xiii-xvii. ;  Men  and 
Women  of  the  Time,  1899  ;  Members  of  Parlia- 
ment (Official  Lists) ;  Lords'  Journal,  cxii.  130 ; 
Times,  15  Sept.  1899;  Ann.  Reg.  1899,  ii.  16-5; 
Law  Journal,  16  Sept.  1899 ;  Law  Times,  23  Sept. 
1899;  Juridical  Review,  1899,  pp.  269-81.] 

J.  M.  B. 

WAUCHOPE,  ANDREW  GILBERT 

(1846-1899),  major-general,  born  at  Xiddrie 
Marischal,  Midlothian,  on  o  July  1846,  was 
the  second  son  of  Andrew  Wauchope  (1818- 
1874)  of  Niddrie  by  his  wife,  Frances 
Maria  (d.  26  June  1858),  daughter  of  Henry 
Lloyd  of  Lloydsburg,  co.  Tipperary.  Sir 
John  Wauchope  [q.  v.],  the  covenanter,  was 
his  ancestor.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he  was 
sent  to  a  school  at  Worksop  in  Nottingham- 
shire, and  a  little  later  to  Foster's  school, 
Stubbington  House,  Gosport,  to  prepare 
him  for  the  navy.  In  1859  he  entered  the 
Britannia  as  a  naval  cadet,  and  on  5  Oct. 
1860  was  entered  as  midshipman  on  board 
the  St.  George,  where  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Prince  Alfred.  Finding  the 
army  more  to  his  taste,  he  obtained  his  dis- 
charge on  3  July  1862.  He  obtained  a 
commission  in  the  42nd  regiment  (the  Black 
Watch)  on  21  Nov.  1865,  and  was  made  a 
lieutenant  on  23  June  1867.  He  served  in 
the  Ashanti  war  from  30  Nov.  1873,  ob- 
taining special  employment  as  commander 


of  Russell's  regiment  of  Haussaa  during  its 
advance  from  the  river  Prah  to  Kumaai. 
While  in  this  post  he  took  part  in  a  number 
of  engagements,  and  was  twice  wounded, 
the  second  time  severely.  He  was  men- 
tioned in  the  despatches,  and  received  a 
medal  with  a  clasp. 

In  July  1878,  on  the  annexation  of  Cyprus, 
he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  district  of 
Papho  on  that  island,  and  on  his  return  to 
England  in  August  1880  he  was  nominated 
C.M.G.  in  recognition  of  his  services.  On 
14  Sept.  1878  he  obtained  his  captaincv, 
and  in  1882  he  served  in  the  Egyptian 
campaign.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  enter 
the  trenches  at  Tel-el-Kebir  and  received  a 
medal  with  a  clasp  and  the  khedive's  star.  On 
14  March  1884  he  attained  the  rank  of  major, 
and  in  the  Soudan  expedition  of  that  year  he 
served  under  Sir  Gerald  Graham  as  cl  ; 
assistant  adj  utant  and  q  uartermaster-general. 
At  the  battle  of  El  Teb  he  was  again 
severely  wounded.  He  was  mentioned  in 
the  despatches,  and  was  rewarded  on  21  May 
with  a  brevet  lieutenant-colonelcy.  In  the 
following  season,  1884-5,  he  took  part  i 
Nile  expedition,  serving  in  the  river  column 
under  Maj or-general  William  Earle  . 
At  Kirkeban  on  11  Feb.  1885  he  was  again 
severely  wounded. 

After  the  return  of  the  expedition  he  went 
back  to  Scotland  to  recruit,  and  for  a  time 
devoted  himself  to  the  management  of  his 
estates,  to  which  he  had  succeeded  on  th- 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  Major  William 
John  Wauchope,  on  28  Nov.  1^:' 
popularity  in  the  county  of  Midlothian  be- 
came so  great  that  the  conservative  leaden 
induced  him  to  contest  Midlothian  in  op- 
position to  W.  E.  Gladstone  at  the  general 
election  of  1892.  He  was  successful  in  re- 
ducing Gladstone's  majority  from  4,631  to 
690. 

On  21  May  1888  he  attained  the  rank  of 
colonel,  and  "in  the  autumn  of  1892  he  re- 
sumed active  military  dut;  nomi- 
nated colonel  of  tin-  7:'.rd   IVrtli-iiir-  regi- 
ment.     In  July  1898  he  was  selected  to 
command  a  brigade  in  tli-  i-\p.'.!iti.>n 
Major-general  (now  Lord)Kitch< 
re-conquest  of  the  Soudan.  irt  in 
the  engagements  at  Atbara  and  Omdurrann, 
and  on  16  N                  was  appointed  major- 
general  in  recognition  of  his  service^ 
14  April  1^99  he  nr.-iv.-.l  th-- honor t 
greeof  LL.D.  from  Edinburgh  Inn 
and  in  June  unsuccessfully  contested 
Edinburgh  again                    mr  Dewar  at  a 
by-election.  In  October  he  received  a  com- 
,  mission  to  command  the  third  or  highland 
I  brigade  destined  for  sen-ice  in  the  Tran»- 


Westminster 


Westwood 


yaal,  where  war  had  just  been  declared 
It  formed  part  of  the  column  under  Genera 
Lord  Methuen  for  the  relief  of  the  be- 
sieged towns  of  Kimberley  and  Mafeking 
After  taking  part  in  the  engagements  01 
Belmont  and  Modder  River  he  fell  at  Magers- 
fontein  on  1 1  Dec.  while  leading  his  brigade 
in  a  night  attack  on  the  Boer  entrench- 
ments. He  was  buried  on  13  Dec.  at  the 
township  of  Modder  River.  On  18  Dec.  he 
was  reinterred  at  Matjesfontein.  Wauchope 
was  twice  married :  first,  on  9  Dec.  1882,  to 
Elythea  Ruth  (d.  3  Feb.  1884),  daughter  oi 
Sir  Thomas  Erskine,  baronet,  of  Carnbo  ;  and 
secondly,  in  1893,  to  Jean,  daughter  of  Sir 
William  Muir.  He  left  no  issue. 

[Baird's  General  Wauchope  (with  portrait), 
1900;  Army  Lists  ;  Conan  Doyle's  Great  Boer 
War,  1900.]  E.  I.  C. 

WESTMINSTER,  DTJKE  or.  [See 
GROSVENOK,  HUGH  LTJPTTS,  1825-1899.] 

WESTMORLAND,  EABL  OF.  [See 
FANE,  FRANCIS  WILLIAM  HENRT,  1825- 
1891.] 

WESTWOOD,  THOMAS  (1814-1888), 
minor  poet  and  bibliographer  of  angling, 
was  the  son  of  the  Thomas  Westwood  of 
Enfield  so  vividly  portrayed  by  Charles 
Lamb  in  several  letters  bearing  date  1829- 
1830.  '  Father  ('  Daddy  '  or  more  familiarly 
*  Gaifer ')  Westwood,'  as  Lamb  calls  him, 
was  formerly  a  rider  or  traveller  for  a 
wholesale  drapery  house,  then  a  thriving 
haberdasher  within  the  sound  of  Bow  Bells, 
who  retired  with  something  under  a  com- 
petence before  the  beginning  of  the  French 
war  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  settled  at  Enfield,  of  which  place  he 
became  a  patriarch.  Living  upon  the 
minimum  consistent  with  gentility,  he  was 
nevertheless  '  a  star  among  the  minor  gentry, 
receiving  the  bows  of  the  tradespeople  and 
the  courtesies  of  the  almswomen  daily  .  .  . 
he  hath  borne  parish  offices,  sings  fine  old 
sea  songs  at  three  score  and  ten,'  is  proud  of 
having  married  his  daughter,  '  and  sighs 
only  now  and  then  when  he  thinks  that  he 
has  a  son  on  his  hands  about  fifteen '  (letter 
to  Wordsworth,  22  Jan.  1830). 

This  son  was  the  future  poet,  Thomas 
Westwood,  who  was  born  at  Enfield  on 
26  Nov.  1814,  and  early  became  an  ardent 
disciple  and  student  of  Izaak  Walton, 
Lamb's  copy  of  whose  '  Compleat  Angler ' 
he  was  privileged  to  use.  Lamb  let  him 
loose  in  his  library,  the  shelves  of  which  he 
used  frequently  to  relieve  by  flinging  modern 
books  (presentation  copies)  into  the  West- 
woods'  garden.  Many  years  later  Westwood 


contributed  to  '  Notes  and  Queries '  (see 
below)  some  interesting  reminiscences  of 
Charles  Lamb,  whom  he  characterised  as  '  a 
seventeenth-century  man  mislaid.'  Intro- 
duced by  degrees  to  many  of  Lamb's  literary 
friends,  the  young  man  was  imbued  with  a 
taste  for  letters.  In  1840  he  issued  a  dainty 
volume  of  'Poems'  (London,  8vo),  and  was 
credited  by  a  critic  in  the  '  Athenaeum  '  with 
'  a  poetical  eye,  a  poetical  heart,  and  a 
musical  ear.'  It  was  followed  in  1850  by 
'  Burden  of  the  Bell  and  other  Lyrics,'  many 
of  which  had  previously  appeared  in  the 
'  Gentleman's  Magazine.  His  remaining 
volumes  of  verse  were  :  '  Berries  and  Blos- 
soms '  (1855),  '  Foxglove  Bells :  a  Book  of 
Sonnets  '  (1856),  '  The  Sword  of  Kingship ' 
(privately  printed,  1866),  '  The  Quest  of  the 
Sancgreall*  (1868),  '  Twelve  Sonnets  and 
an  Epilogue  (In  Memoriam  I.  Walton),' 
London,  1884,  and  '  Gathered  iu  the  Gloam- 
ing '  (1886),  poems  of  early  and  later  years, 
representing  the  verses  he  thought  best 
worthy  of  survival.  In  a  humorous  sonnet 
on  the  '  Small  Poets,'  Westwood  sang  as  a 
unit  in  a  countless  swarm,  '  Oh  for  a  wizard's 
sleight  to  turn  this  swarm  of  mites  into  one 
mighty ! '  Yet  all  his  lyrics  are  marked  by 
an  exquisite  taste,  and  one  of  them,  '  Love 
in  the  Alpuxaras,'  is  said  to  have  excited  the 
envious  admiration  of  Landor. 

In  1844  Westwood  went  to  Belgium  and 
there  obtained  the  post  of  director  and  secre- 
tary of  the  Tournay  railway.  He  spent 
most  of  his  later  life  in  West  Flanders,  de- 
voting leisure  and  money  to  the  collection 
of  a  splendid  library  of  works  on  angling, 
upon  which  subject  he  was  recognised  in 
England  as  an  authority,  probably  without 
a  rival.  In  1861  he  published  through  the 
Field '  office  '  A  New  Bibliotheca  Pisca- 
toria ;  or  General  Catalogue  of  Angling  and 
Fishing  Literature,  with  Bibliographical 
Notes  and  Data'  (preface  dated  Brussels, 
July  1861).  In  1864  he  issued  his  '  Chroni- 
cle of  the  Compleat  Angler,'  now  a  scarce 
volume,  and  deservedly  prized,  for  it  is  per- 
haps the  most  elaborate  bibliography  on 
record  of  any  book  printed  in  England,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Bible  ;  it  was  printed  as 
a  supplement  to  Marston's  sumptuous  edition 
of ' The  Compleat  Angler'  of  1888  (ii.  258- 
330,  with  a  new  preface).  In  1883,  with 
;he  collaboration  of  Thomas  Satchell  (d, 
L888),  Westwood  produced  in  a  handsome 
quarto  his  magnum  opus,  the  '  Bibliotheca 
fiscatoria:  a  Catalogue  of  Books  on  Angling, 
the  Fisheries  and  Fish-Culture,'  the  small 
volume  of  1861  being  practically  transformed 
nto  a  new  work,  containing  considerably 
over  five  thousand  separate  entries.  In  the 


Wightman  51 

same  year  Westwood  reprinted,  with  a  good 
introduction,  '  The  Secrets  of  Angling ' 
(1613)  of  John  Dennys.  Westwood  died  in 
Belgium  on  13  March  1888. 

[Miles's  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the  Century 
(Tennyson  to  Clough),  pp.  435-445  ;  Notes  and 
Queries,  3rd  ser.  x.  222,  4th  ser.  v.  528,  x.  405; 
Brit.  Mas.  Cat.]  T.  S. 

WIGHTMAN,  JOSEPH  (d.  1722), 
major-general,  was  appointed  ensign  to 
Lieutenant-colonel  Robert  Smith  on  28  Dec. 
1690,  and  lieutenant  to  Lieutenant-colonel 
Thomas  Hopson  on  7  Aug.  1693,  with  the 
additional  rank  of  captain.  On  8  Dec.  1696 
he  was  promoted  captain  and  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  first  foot  guards.  He  subse- 
quently became  an  officer  of  Sir  Matthew 
Bridges's  regiment  of  foot  (now  the  Lei- 
cestershire regiment),  with  which  he  served 
in  the  Netherlands  under  William  III.  In 
1701  he  accompanied  the  regiment  to  Hol- 
land and  served  in  Marlborough's  campaigns 
in  1702  and  1703.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
regimental  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1702,  and  on  26  Aug.  1703  received  the 
brevet  rank  of  colonel.  Marlborough  com- 
mended him  as  '  a  very  careful,  diligent 
officer'  (Letters  and  Despatches  of  Marl- 
borouyh,  ed.  Murray,  1845,  i.  192).  In  1704 
the  regiment  was  transferred  to  the  Spanish 
peninsula,  where  it  saw  much  service  under 
the  Earl  of  Gal  way,  and  suffered  severely  at 
Almanza  on  25  April  1707.  On  1  Jan.  1707 
Wightman  became  brigadier-general,  and  on 
20  Aug.  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  regiment  on  the  death  of  Colonel  Hoi- 
croft  Blood  [q.v.]  On  1  Jan.  1710  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 

On  13  July  1712  Wightman  was  appointed 
Commander-in-chief  in  Scotland  during  the 
absence  of  John  Campbell,  second  duke  of 
Argyll  [q.  v.]  This  command  he  obtained 
through  General  John  Richmond  Webb  [q.v.l, 
somewhat  against  the  inclination  of  Argyll, 
who  desired  to  nominate  Brigadier-general 
William  Breton  (Addit.  MS.  33273,  f.  198). 
AVightman's  position  was  difficult.  He  did 
not  get  on  well  with  Argyll,  who,  he  com- 
plained, never  answered  his  letters,  and  he 
found  the  Scottish  people  generally  Jacobite 
in  feeling,  and  hostile  to  the  English  sol- 
diery. To  avoid  offending  the  presbyterians 
he  ordered  his  chaplain  to  discontinue  the 
use  of  the  book  of  common  prayer  in  the 
regimental  services  (Addit.  MS.  6116,  f.  31). 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion  of  1715 
under  the  Earl  of  Mar  [see  EESKINE,  JOHN, 
SIXTH  or  ELEVENTH  EARL]  Argyll  was  absent 
from  Scotland,  and  Wightman,  drawing  to- 
gether his  forces,  numbering  about  eighteen 


Wilde 

hundred  men,  took  post    under   

where  Argyll,  hastening  from  London,! 
him  about  the  middle  of  September.  At  the 
battle  of  Sheriffmuir  on  13  Nov.  Wight  mta 
commanded  the  centre  of  the  royal  force*, 
composed  of  about  three  regiments  of  in- 
fantry, and  ably  supported  Argyll,  who, 
with  the  cavalry  on  the  right  wing,  com- 
pletely routed  the  enemy's  left.  He  wrote 
an  account  of  the  battle  on  the  following 
day,  which  was  printed  in  1717  in  '  A  Hi«- 
tory  of  the  late  Rebellion '  by  Robert  Patten 
[q.v.]  It  was  reprinted  and  severely  criti- 
cised in  1745  by  Robert  Campbell  in  hi* 
'  Life  of  John,  duke  of  Argyle  and  Green- 
wich.' 

In  1718,  at  the  time  of  the  landing  of  the 
Jacobites  at  Loch  Alsh  under  William  Mur- 
ray, marquis  of  Tullibardine  [q.  v.],  Wight- 
man was  stationed  at  Inverness,  and  on 
10  June  he  commanded  the  royal  troops  at 
the  battle  of  Glenshill,  where  he  forced  the 
highlanders  to  disperse,  and  the  Spanish 
troops  to  surrender  prisoners  of  war.  Hi* 
services  were  rewarded  with  the  government 
of  Kinsale.  He  died  suddenly  of  apoplexy 
at  Bath  on  25  Sept.  1722. 

[Dalton's  English  Army  Lists,  1896-8,  roll, 
iii.  and  ir. ;  Cannon's  Hist.  Record  of  the  Seven- 
teenth or  Leicestershire  Regiment,  1848,  p.  49  ; 
Kae's  Hist,  of  the  Rebellion,  1746;  Patten'* 
Hist,  of  the  Rebellion  of  1715,  1745 ;  Note* and 
Queries,  2nd  ser.  viii.  446;  Hist.  Register,  1719. 
No.  xv.;  1722,  Chron.  Diary,  p.  44  ;  Lockhart 
Papers,  1817,  ii.  19-20;  Campbell'*  Life  of 
Argyle  and  Greenwich,  1745;  Kington  Oli- 
phant's  Jacobite  Lairds  of  Oask.  1 870 ;  Jacobite 
Attempt  of  1719,  Scottish  Hist.  Soc.  PubL. 
vol.  xix. ;  Crichton's  Life  of  Lieut*nant-«olon*l 
Blackader,  1824,  p.  467  ;  Terry's  Chevalier  d* 
St.  George,  1901.] 

WILDE,    JAMES    I'LAISTED,  LORD 
PEN/ANCE  (1816-1899),  judge,  second  son 
of  Edward  Archer  Wilde,  solicitor,  of 
don,  by    Marianne,  daughter  of    William 
Norris,'  M.D.,  was  born  on   12  Julv  181(5 
[cf.  WILDE,  THOMAS,  LORD  TRVBO]. 
was  educated  at  Win.  *>1  and  the 

university  of  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
(from  Trinity  College)  B.A.  in   I  H,   mt 
proceeded  M.A.  in  1842.    On  1/i  April  1- 
he    was    admitted    student    at   the  Inner 
Temple,  and  was  there  call«-«l  to  th«-  bar  on 
<>2  Nov.  1839,  and  elected  brm-li.T  <.n  l/>  Jan. 
1856.    A  pupil  of  Barnea  (afterward*  Sir 
Barnes  Peacock),  and  'devil '  t  .  In* 
Sir  Thomas  Wilde,  he  was  rapidly  launched 
into  practice.    In  1840  he  was  made  ami 
to  the  commissioners  of  customc,  and  t 
after  both  on  the  northern  circuit  and 
Westminster  his  career  wa«  one  of  rapid 


Wilde 


Wilde 


and  sustained  success.  He  took  silk  on 
6  July  1855,  was  made  counsel  to  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster  in  1859,  and  in  1860  baron  of 
the  exchequer,  being  at  the  same  time 
invested  with  the  coif  and  knighted  (13, 
24  April).  Thence,  on  the  death  of  Sir 
Cresswell  Cresswell  in  1863,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  court  of  probate  and  divorce 
(28  Aug.),  and  on  26  April  1864  was  sworn 
of  the  privy  council.  In  his  new  office  he  at 
once  gave  proof  of  the  highest  judicial 
qualities,  and  by  a  series  of  luminous 
decisions  did  much  to  shape  both  the  sub- 
stantive law  and  the  procedure  of  the  court. 
He  took  part  with  Lord-chief-justice  Cock- 
burn  and  Chief-baron  Pollock  in  the  pro- 
ceedings under  the  Legitimacy  Declaration 
Act  (21  &  22  Viet.,  c.  93),  which  disposed 
of  the  preposterous  pretensions  of  the  soi- 
disant  Princess  Olive  [see  SEERBS,  MRS. 
OLIVIA.].  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  on 
6  April  1869  by  the  title  of  Baron  Penzance 
of  Penzance,  Cornwall,  and  on  23  April  took 
his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  new  peer 
counted  as  a  distinct  gain  to  the  government. 
In  a  weighty  and  eloquent  maiden  speech  he 
justified  (15  June  1869)  the  disestablishment 
of  the  Irish  church  on  the  broad  ground  of 
equity.  He  carried  the  measure  of  the  same 
session  enabling  the  evidence  of  the  parties  to 
be  taken  in  actions  for  breach  of  promise  of 
marriage  and  proceedings  consequent  upon 
adultery.  In  the  following  session  he  sup- 
ported the  measures  in  amendment  of  the 
laws  relating  to  absconding  debtors,  married 
women's  property,  and  the  naturalisation  of 
aliens,  and  moved  on  27  March  1871  the 
second  reading  of  the  bill  for  the  legalisation 
of  marriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sister. 
He  also  took  an  active  part  in  the  discussions 
on  the  judicature  bills  of  1872  and  1874. 
In  November  1872  he  retired  from  judicial 
office  in  consequence  of  ill  health,  and  at 
considerable  pecuniary  sacrifice — his  pension 
was  fixed  at  3,500/. — but  in  1874  he  was 
sufficiently  recovered  to  undertake  the  not 
very  onerous  duties  of  judge  under  the 
Public  Worship  Regulation  Act  (37  &  38 
Viet.,  c.  85).  The  frankly  Erastian  character 
of  the  act  placed  Penzance  from  the  first 
under  a  grievous  disadvantage.  He  was  in- 
vested with  the  statutory  jurisdiction  by  sign 
manual  on  14  Nov.  1874,  without  other  pre- 
liminary than  a  formal  nomination  by  the 
archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York.  By 
virtue  of  the  statute  he  succeeded  to  the 
offices  of  dean  of  the  arches  court  of  Canter- 
bury, master  of  the  faculties,  and  official  prin- 
cipal of  the  chancery  court  of  York  on  the 
retirement  in  the  following  year  (October) 
of  Sir  Robert  Phillimore  and  Granville  Har- 


court  Vernon,  a  mere  declaration  of  church- 
manship  being  substituted  for  the  oath  and 
subscription  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  re- 
quired by  the  127th  canon  of  1603-4.  His 
jurisdiction  thus  lacked  moral  authority,  his 
monitions  were  disregarded,  and  his  inhibi- 
tions treated  with  contempt.  His  position  in 
the  judicial  hierarchy  was  also  by  no  means 
well  defined.  The  statute  did  not  expressly 
constitute  his  court  a  superior  court  of  law,  or 
invest  him  with  power  to  commit  for  con- 
tempt,andthe  court  of  queen's  bench  asserted 
the  right  to  review  his  decisions  and  restrain 
their  enforcement  by  prohibition  [cf.  COCK- 
BFRN,  SIR  ALEXANDER].  These  questions 
were  determined  in  Penzance's  favour  by  the 
House  of  Lords  in  1881  and  1882  {Law  Re- 
ports, Appeal  Cases,  vi.  424,657,vii.  240),  but 
by  that  time  his  occupation  was  virtually 
gone.  The  bishops  discouraged  recourse  to 
his  court,  while  among  the  laity  not  a  few 
of  those  least  disposed  to  sympathise  with 
lawlessness  deplored  the  scandal  and  doubted 
the  policy  of  converting  ritualists  into 
martyrs.  For  these  reasons  Penzance's  court 
came  eventually  to  be  all  but  deserted  for 
that  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Penzance  retired  from  the  bench  in  March 
1899,  and  died  at  his  seat,  Bashing  Park, 
Godalming,  Surrey,  on  9  Dec.  following. 
His  remains  were  interred  on  15  Dec.  at 
Shackleford,  near  Godalming.  By  his  wife, 
Lady  Mary  Pleydell  Bouverie,  youngest 
daughter  of  William,  third  earl  of  Radnor, 
whom  he  married  on  20  Feb.  1860,  he  left  no 
issue :  she  died  on  24  Oct.  1900.  Penzance 
served  on  the  Royal  Commissions  on  the 
Marriage  Laws,  1865 ;  the  Courts  of  Law, 
1867  and  1869 ;  claims  to  compensation 
consequent  on  the  abolition  of  purchase  in  the 
army,  1873 ;  the  retirement  and  promotion  of 
military  officers,  1874 ;  the  customs  of  the 
Stock  Exchange,  1877 ;  and  the  condition 
of  Wellington  College,  1878.  He  took 
only  very  occasional  .part  in  the  judicial 
deliberations  of  the  House  of  Lords.  His 
favourite  pastime  was  floriculture,  and  his 
favourite  flower  the  rose,  which  he  hybri- 
dised with  remarkable  success. 

An'  Address  on  Jurisprudence  and  Amend- 
ment of  the  Law,'  delivered  by  Penzance  in 
1864  at  the  York  meeting  of  the  National 
Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Social 
Science,  is  printed  in  the  '  Transactions '  o 
the  association. 

[Foss's  Lives  of  the  Judges  ;  Foster's  Men  at 
the  Bar  and  Peerage  ;  Burke's  Peerage,  1900  ; 
G.  E.  C[okayne]'s  Complete  Peerage ;  Grad.  Cant.; 
Hubbard's  Ecclesiastical  Courts ;  Phillimore's 
Ecclesiastical  Law,  ii  1026  ;  Parl.  Deb.  3rd  ser. 
vols.  cxcvi-ccxii.,  ccviii-ccxxvi.,  cexxxv-cclxiv. ; 


Wilde 


513 


Wilde 


Parl.  Pap.  (H.  C.),  1865  c.  4059,  1868-9 c.  4130, 
1872  c.  631,  1874  c.  957,  98t,  1018,  1090, 
1876  c.  1569,  1878  c.  2157,  1880  c.  2650; 
Lords'  Journ.  ci.  185;  Vanity  Fair,  18  Dec. 
1869;  Ballantine's  Experiences,  1883,  p.  172; 
Selborne's  Memorials,  Personal  and  Political  ; 
Liddon's  Life  of  Pusey.  iv.  282-8  ;  Dean  Hole's 
Memories,  p.  228;  Times,  12  and  16  Dec. 
1899;  Ann.  Reg.  1866  ii.  222,  1899  ii.  13,  180; 
Law  Journ.  16  Dec.  1899;  Law  Mag.  and  Rev. 
5th  ser.  xxv.  212-27;  Law  Times,  10  April 
1869,  18  Feb.  1871,  2  Nor.  1872,  8  Aug.  1874, 
j  27  Nov.  1875,  8  April  1876,  16  Dec.  1899; 
Guardian,  13  Dec.  1899;  Coombe  v.  Edwards 
I  Judgment,  1878;  the  Argument  delivered  in 
i  the  Folkestone  Ritual  case,  &c.,  1878  ;  Law  Re- 
ports, Appeal  Cases,  xii.  '  Judges  and  Law  Offi- 
cers.'] J.  M.  R. 

WILDE,  OSCAR  O'FLAHERTIE 
WILLS  (1856-1900),  wit  and  dramatist, 
born  in  Dublin  on  15  Oct.  1856,  was  the 
younger  son  of  Sir  William  Robert  AVills 
Wilde  [q.  v.],  who  married,  in  18ol,  Jane 
Francisca  Elgee  (d.  1896),  a  granddaughter 
of  Archdeacon  Elgee  of  Wexford  f see  under 
WILDE,  SIR  W.  R.  W.]  Oscar  Wilde's  elder 
brother,  William  Charles  Kingsbury  Wilde 
(Ls")-'5-1899),  a  journalist,  who  wrote  much 
for  the  '  World''  and  the  '  Daily  Telegraph,' 
died  in  London  in  March  1899.  His  mother, 
who  wrote  under  the  signature  '  Speranza,' 
had  a  literary  salon  at  Dublin,  where  much 
clever  talk  was  listened  to  by  the  children. 

After  education  at  Portora  royal  school, 
Enniskillen,  Oscar  Wilde  studied  during 
1^73-4  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he 
won  the  Berkeley  gold  medal  with  an  essay 
on  the  Greek  comic  poets.  He  matriculated 
from  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  17  Oct. 
1*74,  holding  a  demyship  at  Magdalen  from 
1874  to  1879,  and  graduating  B.A.  in  1878. 
In  1877,  during  a  vacation  ramble,  he  visited 
Ravenna  and  Greece,  in  company  with  Pro- 
fessor Mahaffy,  and  in  June  1878  he  won  the 
Newdigate  prize  with  a  poem  on '  Ravenna.' 
He  was  greatly  impressed  by  Florence  and 
by  the  lectures  of  Ruskin,  spending  several 
whole  days  in  breaking  stones  upon  the  road 
which  the  professor  projected  near  Oxford. 
He  had  from  his  youth  a  strong  antipathy 
to  games,  though  he  was  fond  of  riding. 
His  precocity,  both  physical  and  mental, 
was  exceptional,  and  while  still  at  Magdalen 
he  excogitated  his  aesthetic  philosophy  of 
'Art  for  Art's  sake,'  of  which  he  was  re- 
cognised" at  once  as  the  apostle,  and  enun- 
ciated the  aspiration  that  he  might  be  able 
to  live  up  to  his  blue  china.  His  rooms,  over- 
looking the  Cher  well,  were  notorious  for  their 
exotic  splendour,  and  Wilde's  bric-a-brac  was 
the  object  of  several  philistine  outrages. 

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


The  abuse  of  foe3  and  the  absurditia-  ^ 
friends  alike  furnished  material  for  per. 
siftage.  His  wit  was  undoubted,  and  be 
successfully  cultivated  the  notation  (DOC 
wholly  deserved)  of  being  a  complete  idler. 
Me  had  a  natural  aptitude  for  cUuical 
studies,  and  he  obtained  with  ease  a 
first-class  both  in  classical  moderatioM 
(1876)  and  in  literee  humaniore»(\yi^).  He 
had  already  written  poems,  marked  by 
strange  affectations,  but  with  a  classical 
finish  and  an  occasional  felicity  of  detail. 
These  had  appeared  in  the  '  Month,'  the 
'Catholic  Mirror,'  the  'Irish  Monthly,' 
'Kottabos,'  and  in  the  first  number  of 
Edmund  Yates's  periodical  called  '  Time.' 
A  selection  of  these  juvenile  pieces  waa 
printed  in  1881  as  '  Poems  by  Oscar  Wilde* 
(reprinted  in  New  York,  1882).  On  leaving 
Oxford  Wilde  was  already  a  well-known 
figure  and  a  favourite  subject  for  caricature 
(notably  in  '  Punch,'  and  later  as  Bunthorae 
in  Gilbert  and  Sullivan's  comic  opera, 
'Patience').  He  was  recognised  as  the 
founder  of  the  aesthetic  cult,  the  symbol*  of 
which  were  peacocks'  feathers,  sunflower*, 
dados,  and  blue  china,  long  hair,  and  velvet- 
een breeches.  His  sayings  were  pi  mod  from 
mouth  to  mouth  as  those  of  one  of  the  pro* 
fessed  wits  of  the  age.  His  fame  croestid 
the  Atlantic,  and  in  1882  he  made  a  tour 
through  the  United  States,  lecturing  two 
hundred  times  in  such  cities  as  New  York, 
Boston,  and  Chicago,  upon  '  Esthetic  Philo- 
sophy,' and  meeting  with  great,  though  not 
unvaried,  success.  The  paradoxical  nature 
of  his  utterances  at  times  excited  disgust. 
A  cablegram  to  England  expressed  his  •  dis- 
appointment'  with  the  Atlantic,  and  he 
finally  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Eng- 
lish 'have  really  everything  in  common  with 
the  Americans — except,  of  course,  language.' 
A  drama  by  him,  called  '  Vera,'  was  pro- 
duced in  New  York  during  his  stay  then  in 
1882. 

For  five  or  six  years  after  his  return  from 
America  Wilde  resided  chiefly  in  London  in 
comparative  privacy,  but  paid  frequent  visit* 
to  Paris  and  travelled  on  the  continent.  In 
1884  he  married  Constance,  daughter  of 
Horace  Lloyd,  Q.C.,  and  in  1HHS  he  com- 
menced a  period  of  literary  activity,  which 
was  progressive  until  the  collapse  of  hu 
career  in  1895.  This  period  opened  witfc 
'  The  Happy  Prince  and  other  Tale* '  (1888, 
illustrated  by  Walter  Crane  and  Jacomb 
Hood),  a  volume  of  charming  fairy  Ulm 
with  a  piquant  touch  of  contemporary  sat  in-. 
In  1891  appeared  'Lord  Arthur  S« 
Crime,  and  other  Stories'  and  'The  Picture 
of  Dorian  Gray.'  The  novel  last  mentioned, 

L  L 


Wilde 


514 


Wilde 


which  was  first  published  in  'Lippincott's 
Magazine,'  was  full  of  subtle  impressionism 
and  highly  wrought  epigram,  but  owed  noto-  i 
riety  to  an  undercurrent  of  very  disagreeable 
suggestion.  A  '  Preface  to  Dorian  Gray,'  i 
concluding  'All  Art  is  quite  useless,'  ap-  j 
peared  separately  in  the  '  Fortnightly  Re- 
view '  (March  1891).  In  the  previous  num- 
ber of  the  '  Review  '  readers  had  been  more 
than  ever  bewildered  by  Wilde's  exception- 
ally brilliant  plea  for  socialism,  on  the  ground 
that  it  would  relieve  us  of '  the  sordid  neces- 
sity of  living  for  others.'  Later  in  the  same 
year  Wilde  reprinted  some  'literary  wild 
oats'  under  the  title  'Intentions'  (three  con- 
tributions to  leading  reviews).  One  of  these, 
on  '  Masks,'  revealed  an  intimate  knowledge 
of  Shakespeare.  '  A  House  of  Pomegranates ' 
(more  fairy  tales),  189:2,  was  taken  in  the 
main  at  the  author's  valuation  as  '  intended 
neither  for  the  British  child  nor  the  British 
public.' 

Meanwhile  in  1891  a  blank-verse  tragedy 
by  Wilde,  called  '  The  Duchess  of  Padua/ 
was  produced  in  New  York,  and  subse- 
quently he  found  a  more  profitable  mode 
of  expression  for  his  literary  abilities  in 
light  comedies,  which,  despite  his  very  narrow 
experience  of  modern  stage  conditions,  were 
remarkable  equally  for  theatrical  and  for 
literary  skill.  His  first  light  comedy,  'Lady 
Windermere's  Fan,'  was  produced  at  the  St. 
James's  Theatre  on  20  Feb.  1892,  and  was 
printed  next  year.  It  was  full  of  saucy 
repartee  and  overdone  with  epigram  of  the 
pattern  peculiar  to  'the  author,  namely,  the 
inverted  proverb,  but  it  made  a  hit.  It  was 
followed  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre  in  April 
1893  by  '  A  Woman  of  no  Importance,'  a 
drama  of  a  similar  kind,  to  the  theatrical 
success  of  which  the  fine  acting  of  Mr.  Tree 
and  Mrs.  Bernard  Beere  greatly  contributed 
(printed  1894,  4to). 

In  the  summer  of  1893  the  licenser  of 
plays  refused  to  sanction  the  performance  of 
'  Salome,'  a  play  of  more  serious  character, 
written  in  French.  This  was  a  marvel  of 
mimetic  power,  which  owed  most  perhaps  to 
Flaubert's  'Herodias;'  it  was  printed  as 
'Salome,  Drame  en  un  acte'(1893,  4to),  and 
was  rendered  into  English  by  Wilde's  friend, 
Lord  Alfred  Douglas,  in  1894  (London,  4to; 
with  ten  pictures  by  Aubrey  Beardsley). 
The  original  version  was  produced  by 
Madame  Sarah  Bernhardt  in  Paris  in  1894. 
In  1894  was  also  published  'The  Sphinx' 
(dedicated  to  Marcel  Schwob),  a  poetical  cata- 
logue of  '  amours  frequent  and  free,'  pre- 
sented in  the  metre  of  '  In  Memoriam.'  In 
the  same  year,  in  a  paper  entitled  '  Phrases 
and  Philosophies  for  the  use  of  the  Young,' 


Wilde  gave  the  tone  to  a  magazine  called 
'  The  Chameleon,'  two  numbers  of  which  were 
issued  at  Oxford  in  a  very  limited  edition. 
The  tortured  paradoxes  of  the  new  cult  were 
effectively  parodied  in  Mr.  Hichens's  'Green 
Carnation.'  To  the  '  Fortnightly '  of  July 
1894  Wilde  contributed  some  curious '  Poems 
in  Prose.'  He  could  write  English  of  silken 
delicacy,  but  in  his  choice  of  epithets  there 
are  frequently  traces  of  that '  industry '  which 
he  denounced  as  the  'root  of  all  ugliness.' 

A  third- comedy,  'The  Ideal  Husband,'  was 
successfully  produced  at  the  Haymarket  on 
3  Jan.  1895,  although  it  was  not  printed 
until  1899.  On  14  Feb.  1895  was  given  at 
the  St.  James's  Theatre  a  fourth  play  in  the 
light  vein,  '  The  Importance  of  being  Ear- 
nest :  a  trivial  comedy  for  serious  people ' 
(1899,  4to),  an  irresistible  dramatic  trifle,  at 
once  insolent  in  its  levity  and  exquisite  in 
its  finish.  The  Victorian  era,  it  may  fairly 
be  said,  knew  no  light  comedies  which  for 
brilliant  wit,  literary  finish,  or  theatrical 
dexterity  were  comparable  with  Wilde's 
handiwork. 

The  manuscript  of  a  poetical  drama  by 
Wilde,  entitled  '  A  Florentine  Tragedy,'  was 
stolen  from  his  house  in  Tite  Street  in  1895, 
together  with  an  enlarged  version  of  an  essay 
on  Shakespeare's  sonnets,  entitled  '  The  His- 
tory of  Mr.  W.  H.,'  of  which  an  outline  ap- 
peared in  '  Blackwood's  Magazine '  in  July 
1889  ('The  Portrait  of  Mr.  W.  H.') 

In  the  month  following  the  successful 
production  of  '  The  Importance  of  being 
Earnest '  Wilde  brought,  with  fatal  insolence, 
an  unsuccessful  action  for  criminal  libel 
against  the  Marquis  of  Queensberry.  In  the 
result  he  was  himself  arrested  and  charged 
with  offences  under  the  Criminal  Law  Amend- 
ment Act,  and  being  found  guilty  after  a  pro- 
tracted trial  at  the  Old  Bailey  on  27  May  1895, 
he  was  sentenced  by  Mr.  Justice  Wills  to 
two  years'  imprisonment  with  hard  labour. 
Ruined  in  fortune  as  well  as  in  fame,  he  soon 
afterwards  passed  through  the  bankruptcy 
court.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  a  kind  of 
apology  for  his  life,  a  manuscript  amounting 
to  about  forty-five  thousand  words,  now  in 
the  hands  of  his  literary  executor,  and  also 
studied  Dante  assiduously,  contemplating 
an  essay  on  'The  Divine  Comedy'  which 
should  develop  a  new  theory.  On  19  May 
1897  he  was  released  from  prison.  Thence- 
forth his  necessities  were  provided _for  by  a 
small  annuity  purchased  by  his  friends. 
After  spending  some  time  at  Berneval,  he 
in  1898  made  his  headquarters  at  the  Hotel 
d'Alsace,  Paris.  While  at  Berneval  he  wrofc 
and  issued  anonymously  in  London  a  power- 
ful '  Ballad  of  Reading  Gaol '  (1898),  the 


Willis 


515 


Willis 


America,  and 

in  1854,  was 
and 


at  the 
ie's  farm, 


wher 
Willis  leadin 


sincerity  of  which  is  overlaid  by  an  excess  I  Mediterranean  tW  \v^  T  j 
'of  rhetoric      Thenceforth  he  wrote  nothing.  !  America Zl ^^I'S?'. 
He  adopted  the  name  Sebastian  Melmoth — 
Melmoth  from  the  romance  of  Maturin,  a 
connection    of   his    mother,    Lady  Wilde, 
Sebastian  suggested  by  the  arrows  on  the 
prison  dress.  He  had  contributed  some  infor- 
mation to  the  1892  edition  of '  Melmoth  the 
Wanderer.' 

After  visiting  Sicily  and  Rome  in  the 
spring  of  1900,  Wilde  died  of  cerebral 
meningitis  at  the  Hotel  d' Alsace  on  30  Nov. 


H    r     . 


of  Bui- 


1900.     He   received  the   last   rites  of  the 
Roman  catholic  church.     Shortly  before  his 


m  the  trenches  before  Sebastopol,  and  took 
part  in  the  repulse  of  several  sortie*.  On 
13 


. 

April  1855  he  was  appointed  deputy- 
assistant    quartermaster-general     on    Lord 


Raglan's  staff,  and  was  present  at  the  cap- 
ture of  the  quarries,  the  unsuccessful  attack 


J        .1       i  11-  •     ,•  .  •  .  »»«v«j|    me    uunui;i-VBBIIU  I 

death  he  expressed  his  conviction  that  his  of  the  Redan  on  18  Juno  the  battle  of 
'moral  obliquity  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Tchernaya  in  August,  and  the  fall  of 
his  father  had  prevented  him  irom  entering  Sebastopol  on  8  Sept.  On  11  May  1866  he 
the  Roman  church  while  he  was  at  Oxford,  was  appointed  assistant  quartermaitewwne- 
addmg,  '  The  artistic  side  of  the  church  and  ral  to  the  4th  division  until  the  return  of 
the  fragrance  of  its  teaching  would  have  the  troops  to  England, 
curbed  my  degeneracies.'  He  was  buried  in  j  For  his  services  in  the  Crimea  he  wa* 
the  Bagneux  cemetery  on  3  Dec.,  his  tomb-  !  mentioned  in  despatches  (London  Ga-ette 
stone  bearing  the  inscription  :  'Ci-git  Oscar  24  April  ia55),  received  the  war  medal  with 
Wilde,  poete  et  auteur  dramatique.'  His  ,  three  clasps,  the  Sardinian  and  Turkish 
wife  had  died  in  1896.  Two  sons— Cyril,  \  medals,  the  5th  class  of  the  legion  of 
;„  i««fi_o,,~.;,.^  honour  and  of  the  Medjidie,  and  breveta  of 
major  and  lieutenant-colon-'!. 

Willis  went  to  Algeria  with  the  French 
after  the  Crimean  war,  and  n-turned  home  in 
1857,  when  he  formed  the  second  battalion 
of  the  6th  foot  (War\viek>hirrt,  with  which 
he  served  as  major  until  his  appointment 
to  be  assistant  quartermaster-general  at 
Gibraltar  on  25  May  1858.  He  was  trans- 
ferred to  Malta  as  assist  ant  adjutant -general 
on  20  Feb.  1859,  and  remained  tin-re  fire 
years.  From  22  Feb.  1*6(5  he  served  for 
five  years  as  assistant  quartermaster-general 
on  the  .staff  of  the  southern  di-trit  t,  was 
made  a  companion  of  the  order  of  tin-  Ilath. 
military  division,  on  20  May  1 87 1 ,  and  terred 
on  the  headquarters  staff* at  the  war  office  a* 
assistant  quartermaster-general  from  35  Aug. 
1873  until  his  promotion  to  be  major-general. 
Willis  commanded  the  northern  military 


born  in  1885,  and  Vivian  in  1886—  survived 
both  parents. 

[Miles's  Poets  of  the  Century ;  Stedman's  Vic- 
torian Anthology,  1896;  Hamilton's  Esthetic 
Movement  in  England;  Young's  Apologia  pro 
Oscar  Wilde,  1895;  Whistler's  Gentle  Art  of 
Making  Enemies,  1890,  pp.  106-21  ;  Biocraph, 
August  1880;  Times,  March-April  1895, 20  May 
1897, 1  Dec.  1900  ;  Dublin  Evening  Mail,  1  Dec. 
1900 ;  Daily  Chronicle,  7  Dec.  1900  ;  Bookselling, 
January  1895;  Academy,  18  March  1899;  Brit. 
Mus.  Cat. ;  private  information.  A  set  of  Oscar 
Wilde's  Works  in  14  vols.  (including  the  Oxford 
periodical,  The  Spirit  Lump,  to  which  he  contri- 
snted  May  1892  to  June  1893)  fetched  18/.5*.  in 
January  1901.]  T.  S. 

WILLIS,  SIR  GEORGE  HARRY 
SMITH  (1823-1900),  general,  colonel  of  the 
Middlesex  regiment,  of  Stretham  Manor, 
Cambridgeshire,  only  son  of  Lieutenant 


George  Brander  "Willis,  royal  artillery,  of  district  for  three  years  from  1  April  187H, 
Sopley  Park,  Hampshire,  who  had  served  in  and  in  1882  was  selected  to  command  the 
the  Walcheren  and  Peninsular  campaigns,  i  first  division  in  the  Egyptian  expedition 

'—  under  Sir  Garnet  (afterwards  Viscount) 
Wolseley.  He  was  in  command  <>f  th«-  troop* 
at  the  actions  of  El  Magfnr  and  Tel-fl- 
Mahuta,  at  the  capture  of  Mahsameh,at  the 
second  battle  of  K assassin  <>n  S»  S«-t>t.,  and 
was  wounded  in  the  assault  of  the  line*  of 
Tel-el-Kebir  (  L'5  S.-pt. )  1-W  hi*  nerrioM  he 
was  mentioned  in  despatch*-*  (to.  8  and 
26  Sept.,  6  Oct.,  and  2  Nov.  1HH2),  necemd 
the  thanks  of  both  houses  of  parliament,  the 
medal  with  clasp  and  the  bronxe  star,  the 
second  class  of  the  Turkish  order  of  the 
Osmanieh,  and  was  made  a  K.CM '• 


was  born  at  Sopley  Park  on  11  Nov.  1823. 
Educated  privately  he  obtained  a  commission 
on  23  April  1841  as  ensign  in  the  77th  foot, 
then  stationed  at  Malta.  His  further  com- 
missions were  dated:  lieutenant  30  Aug. 
1844,  captain  27  Dec.  1850,  brevet  major 
12  Dec.  1854,  brevet,  lieutenant-colonel 
6  June  1856,  major  unattached  19  Dec. 
1856,  brevet  colonel  26  June  1862,  major- 
general  29  May  1875,  antedated  to  28  June 
1868,  lieutenant-general  8  May  1880, 
general  11  May  1887. 

Willis  served  with  his  regiment  in  the 


Wimperis 


516 


Wodehouse 


Willis  commanded  the  southern  military 
district  with  headquarters  at  Portsmouth 
for  five  years  from  1  May  1884,  and  retired 
from  the  service  on  11  Nov.  1890.  In  July 
of  this  year  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
Devonshire  regiment,  and  in  October  hono- 
rary colonel  of  the  2nd  Hants  volunteer 
artillery.  He  unsuccessfully  contested 
Portsmouth  as  a  parliamentary  candidate  in 
the  conservative  interest  in  1892.  Deco- 
rated with  a  G.C.B.  on  25  May  1895,  in 
1897  he  was  transferred  to  the  colonelcy  of 
his  old  regiment,  the  Middlesex.  He  was 
a  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and 
a  Knight  of  justice  of  the  order  of  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem,  and  was  in  receipt  of  a  dis- 
tinguished service  pension.  He  died  after  a 
long  illness  at  his  residence,  Seabank, 
Bournemouth,  on  29  Nov.  1900. 

Willis  married,  first,  in  1856,  Eliza  (d. 
1867),  daughter  of  George  Gould  Morgan, 
M.P.,  of  Brickendonbury,  Hertfordshire; 
and,  secondly,  in  1 874,  Ada  Mary,  daughter 
of  Sir  John  Neeld,  first  baronet,  who  sur- 
vived him. 

[War  Office  Records ;  Army  Lists ;  Des- 
patches; Who's  Who,  1900;  Times,  30  Nov. 
1900;  Kinglake's  Invasion  of  the  Crimea; 
Maurice's  Military  History  of  the  Campaign  of 
1882  in  Egypt;  Royle's  Egyptian  Campaigns, 
1882-5.]  R.  H.  V. 

WIMPEKIS,  EDMUND  MORISON 
(1835-1900),  water-colour  painter,  eldest 
son  of  Edmund  Richard  Wimperis,  cashier 
of  Messrs.  "Walker,  Parker,  &  Co.'s  lead  works 
at  Chester,  and  Marv  Morison,  was  born  at 
Flocker's  Brook,  Chester,  on  6  Feb.  1835. 
He  came  early  in  life  to  London,  and  was 
trained  as  a  wood-engraver  and  draughtsman 
on  wood  under  Myles  Birket  Foster  [q.  v. 
Suppl.]  He  did  much  for  the  '  Illustrated 
London  News'  and  other  periodicals  and 
books.  He  was  an  indifferent  figure  draughts- 
man, and  confined  himself  to  landscape  when 
he  adopted  painting  as  his  profession.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  British  Ar- 
tists from  1870  to  1874.  He  bepan  in  1866 
to  contribute  to  the  Institute  of  Painters  in 
Water-colours  the  pretty  landscapes  in  the 
manner  of  Birket  Foster  or  of  David  Cox 
in  his  tamer  moods,  by  which  he  is  chiefly 
known.  They  are  neat  and  finished,  but 
somewhat  characterless  and  old-fashioned 
in  technique.  In  later  life  he  also  painted 
in  oils.  Wimperis  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  institute  in  1873,  a  full  member  on 
3  May  1875,  and  vice-president  on  1  April 
1895.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  affairs 
of  the  institute,  and  in  those  of  the  Artists' 
Benevolent  Fund. 

He  was  married  on  11  April  1863  to  Anne 


Harry,  daughter  of  Thomas  Edmonds  o: 
Penzance,  and  left  a  family  of  two  sons  ant 
two  daughters  at  his  death,  which  tool 
place  at  Southbourne,  Christchurch,  Hamp- 
shire, on  25  Dec.  1900. 

[Times.   28    Dec.  1900;    Athenaeum,   5  Jan 
1901  ;  private  information.]  C.  D. 

WODEHOUSE,  SIB  PHILIP  EDMONE 
(1811-1887),  colonial  governor,  born  or 
26  Feb.  1811,  was  the  eldest  child  of  Edmond 
Wodehouse  (1784-1855)  of  Sennow  Lodge, 
Norfolk,  by  his  wife  and  first  cousin,  Lucy 
(d.  21  June  1829),  daughter  of  Philip  Wod 
house  (1745-1811),  prebendary  of  Norwich. 
The  Earl  of  Kimberley  is  his  second  cousin 
Wodehouse  obtained  a  writership  in  th 
Ceylon  civil  service  in  May  1828,  and  became 
assistant  colonial  secretary  and  clerk  of  the 
executive  and  legislative  councils  in  October 
1833.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  assistant 
judge  at  Kandi,  and  in  1843  government 
agent  for  the  western  province.  In  1851 
he  was  nominated  superintendent  of  British 
Honduras,  where  he  directed  his  attention 
to  financial  and  fiscal  reform,  and  on  23  March 
1854  he  arrived  at  Georgetown  as  governor 
of  British  Guiana.  His  administration  was 
signalised  by  two  serious  negro  riots,  the 
second  occasioned  by  the  imposition  of  a 
head  tax.  On  25  July  1857  the  governor  and 
his  suite  were  pelted  by  a  large  mob  of 
negroes,  and  several  persons  injured.  In 
1858  he  was  employed  on  a  special  mission 
to  Venezuela.  On  28  Oct.  1861  he  suc- 
ceeded Sir  George  Grey  [q.v.  Suppl.]  as  go- 
vernor of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  high 
commissioner  in  South  Africa,  offices  which 
he  held  until  1870.  He  arrived  at  Cape 
Town  on  15  Jan.  1862,  and  was  almost  im- 
mediately occupied  in  arbitrating  between 
the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Basuto  chief, 
Moshesh.  Wodehouse  did  not  regard  the 
government  of  the  Orange  Free  State  with 
much  favour.  In  October  1864,  however,  on 
the  request  of  the  president,  Sir  Johannes 
Henricus  Brand  [q.  v.  Suppl.],  he  determined 
the  boundary  line  between  the  Basutos  and 
Free  State  in  favour  of  the  latter.  Moshesh 
acquiesced  in  the  decision,  but  in  the  follow- 
ing year  took  advantage  of  another  pretext 
to  declare  war  on  the  Free  State.  Wode- 
house, on  27  June  1865,  issued  a  proclama- 
tion of  neutrality,  and  on  12  March  1868, 
after  the  natives  had  been  worsted,  he  de- 
clared the  Basutos  British  subjects,  at  the 
request  of  Moshesh,  and  ordered  the  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities.  After  long  negotiations 
he  succeeded  on  12  Feb.  1F69  in  coming 
to  an  agreement  with  the  Free  State,  b; 
which  theyreceived  some  cessions  of  territory 


Woodgate 


517 


while  the  rest  of  the  Lesuto  became  a  native 
reserve  under  British  protection.  He  was 
involved  during  the  whole  of  his  administra- 
tion in  a  conflict  with  colonial  opinion  on 
the  question  of  responsible  government.  Cape 
Colony  had  received  representative  institu- 
tions, but  the  limits  of  the  governor's  autho- 
rity were  as  yet  unsettled,  and  the  principle 
that  the  administration  should  direct  the 
internal  policy  of  the  colony  was  not  yet 
established.  Unlike  his  predecessor,  Sir 
George  Grey,  Wodehouse  disapproved  of  re- 
sponsible government,  desiring  a  more  auto- 
cratic system,  and  even  proposing  that  the 
Cape  should  return  to  the  position  of  a 
crown  colony.  He  successively  proposed 
four  constitutions,  each  more  despotic  than 
the  last ;  but  finding  no  adequate  support  at 
home,  and  encountering  bitter  opposition  in 
the  Cape,  he  failed  to  find  a  solution  of  the 
problem,  which  was  left  to  his  successor,  Sir 
Henry  Barkley  [q.v.  Suppl.] 

On  2  March  187-2  Wodehouse  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Bombay,  retaining  office 
until  1877,  when  lie  was  succeeded  by  Sir 
Eichard  Temple.  He  cultivated  the  friend- 
ship of  native  states,  and  successfully  dealt 
with  riots  in  Bombay,  consequent  on  the 
famine  of  1874.  On  relinquishing  his  com- 
mand on  30  April  1877,  he  retired  from 
active  service.  He  was  nominated  C.B.  in 
1860,  K.C.B.  in  1862,  and  G.C.S.I.  in  1877. 
He  died  in  London  on  25  Oct.  1887  at  Queen 
Anne's  Mansions,  Westminster.  On  19  Dec. 
1833  he  married  Katherine  Mary  (d.  6  Oct. 
1866),  eldest  daughter  of  F.  J.  Templer.  By 
her  he  had  an  only  child,  Edmond  Robert 
Wodehouse,  M.P.  for  Bath  since  1880.  The 
division  of  Wodehouse  in  Cape  Colony,  cre- 
ated in  1872,  was  called  after  the  governor. 

[Colonial  Office  Lists;  Gilbss  British  Hon- 
duras, 1883,  p.  129;  Kodway's  Hist,  of  British 
Guiana,  Georgetown,  1894,  pp.  114-36;  Theal's 
Hist,  of  South  Africa,  1854-72,  passim;  P.  A. 
Molteno's  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  J.  C.  Molteno, 
1900,  passim;  Temple's  Men  and  Events  of  my 
Time  in  Indin,  1882,  pp.  461-2,  4?o.  480; 
Temple's  Story  of  my  Life,  1892,  ii.  2-3.] 

K.  I.  C. 

WOODGATE,  SIK  EDWARD  1  JO- 
BERT  PREVOST  (1845-1900),  major- 
general,  born  on  1  Nov.  1845,  was  the 
second  son  of  Henry  Arthur  AYoodgate  (d. 
24  April  1874),  rector  of  Belbroughton  in 
Worcestershire.  He  was  educated  at  Rad- 
ley  and  Sandhurst,  and  joined  the  4th  foot 
(now  the  Royal  Lancashire  regiment)  on 
7  April  1865.  With  it  he  served  in  the 
Abyssinian  campaign  of  1868  ;  was  present 
at  the  action  of  Arogee  and  the  capture  of 
Magdala,  and  received  a  medal.  He  ob- 


tained his  lieutenancy  on  7  July  IN;I».  He 
was  next  employed  on  special  st  r 
Ashanti  war  ol  1873-4,  and  took  part  in 
the  actions  of  Esaman,  Ainsah,  Abrak.mpa, 
and  Jaysunah,  the  battle  of  Amoaful.  and 
the  capture  of  Kumasai.  He  was  twice 
mentioned  in  the  despatches  and  received  a 
medal  with  a  clasp.  After  passing  through 
the  staff  college  in  1*77,  ho  attained  the 
rank  of  captain  on  2  March  l->.  .md  waa 
selected  for  special  employment  in  the  South 
African  war  of  1879.  lie  was  twice  men- 
tioned in  the  despatches  for  his  work  aa 
staff  officer  of  the  flying  column  in  the  X.ulu 
campaign ;  was  present  at  Kambula  and 
Ulundi,  and  was  rewarded  with  a  brevet 
majority  on  29  Nov.  1879,  and  a  medal  with 
a  clasp. 

From  1880  to  1885  Woodgate  served  aa 
brigade  major  in  the  W.-.-t  huli.s.  In  the 
autumn  of  1885  he  proceeded  to  India  aa  a 
regimental  officer,  returning  in  December 
1889.  In  1893  he  obtained  the  command  of 
the  first  battalion  of  the  Royal  Lancashire 
regiment,  and  on  26  June  attained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant -colonel.  On  24  Mav  Ih96  he 
was  nominated  C.B.,  and  on  L'»>  June  1897 
he  received  his  colonelcy,  obtaining  the 
charge  of  the  fourth  regimental  district  at 
Lancaster.  In  April  185(8  he  was  f- 
Sierra  Leone  to  organise  the  new  Wctt 
African  regiment.  The  new  corps  was 
almost  immediately  called  to  take  the  field 
against  Bai  Burch  and  other  malcontents 
who  had  risen  on  account  of  the  hut  tax. 
Woodgnte  successful Iv  conducted  the  opera- 
tions against  the  rebels,  but  in  1M>9  he  waa 
invalided  home,  where  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  seventeenth  regimental 
district  at  Leicester. 

Four  months  later,  on  13  Nov.  1£99,  op 
the  formation  of  the  filth  divi.-ion  under  Sir 
Charles  Warren  for  service  in  Smith  Africa, 
Woodgate  was  given  command    over  the 
eleventh  or  Lannohire   brigade  with  the 
local  rank  of  major-general.      Arriving  at 
Durban   in  Natal   in    December    1899    be 
crossed  the  Tugela  with   Warren  at  Wagon 
Drift  on  10-17  Jan.  1900.     On  t '  • 
23  Jan.  he  occupied  the  VtffloM  6JHMBM 
of  Spion  Kop.     On  the    following  day  b« 
was  dangerou>ly  wounded   jnct    • 
order  for  retreat'  from  Spion  K"]>  wn-  . 
On  I':!  March  hedi.d  .;- 
effects  of  bis  wounds.    A  few  weeks  before 
his  death  he  was  nominated    l\  i '  M  • 
recognition  of  his  sen  'ra  I^one. 

[Tinus,  26  March  I'.iCO  ;  Wlm*  Wl...  .  Haifa 
Army  Lists;  Connn  Doyle's  OrcAt  Borr 
1900;  Beunet  Burleigh's  Wiir  in  Natal.  1*00.] 


Woodward 


518 


Woodward 


WOODWARD,  BENJAMIN  (1815- 
1801),  architect,  of  Irish  birth,  was  articled 
to  a  civil  engineer,  but  his  interest  in 
mediaeval  art  led  him  to  take  up  architec- 
ture as  his  professional  work.  In  1846  he 
was  associated  with  Sir  Thomas  Deane 
[q.  v.]  in  building  Queen's  College,  Cork, 
which  was  finished  in  1848.  Their  next 
joint  work  was  Killarney  lunatic  asylum. 
Both  buildings  were  in  the  late  Gothic 
style.  In  1853  Woodward  entered  into 
partnership  with  Deane  and  his  son  (Sir) 
Thomas  Newenham  Deane  [q.  y.  Suppl.], 
and  settled  in  Dublin,  where  the  new  library 
of  Trinity  College  was  built  from  their  de- 
signs in  Venetian  style,  1853-7.  In  this 
building  the  influence  of  Ruskin  on  Wood- 
ward, his  ardent  admirer,  was  already  appa- 
rent ;  the  experiment  was  made  of  leaving 
sculptural  details  to  the  taste  of  individual 
workmen,  who  copied  natural  foliage  in  an 
unconventional  style. 

This  attempt  to  revive  freedom  of  design 
in  the  craftsman,  in  the  spirit  of  mediaeval 
Gothic  art,  was  carried  still  further,  under 
Ruskin's  direct  supervision,  in  the  next  im- 
portant work  of  the  firm,  the  Oxford  Mu- 
seum, with  which  Woodward's  name  is 
especially  connected.  A  competition  be- 
tween Palladian  and  Gothic  designs  was 
decided  in  1854  in  favour  of  Deane  and 
Woodward,  whose  design  had  been  selected, 
with  one  in  Renaissance  style  by  Barry, 
from  the  work  of  thirty-two  anonymous 
contributors.  Their  task  was  a  difficult 
one,  as  the  sum  of  30,000/.  voted  by  the 
university  for  the  erection  of  the  shell  of 
the  building  was  inadequate  for  the  pur- 
pose; most  of  the  ornament  subsequently 
added  was  the  gift  of  private  individuals. 
The  foundation-stone  was  laid  on  20  June 
1855,  and  the  building  was  mainly  completed 
by  1858 ;  many  details,  however,  remain  un- 
finished. The  museum  is  in  thirteenth  cen- 
tury Gothic  style,  strongly  influenced  by 
Venetian  architecture;  the  form  of  the 
chemical  laboratory  at  the  south  end  of  the 
building  was  suggested  by  the  abbots' 
kitchen  at  Glastonbury.  A  fine  series  of 
shafts  in  the  interior  illustrate  the  principal 
geological  formations  of  the  British  islands, 
while  their  capitals  and  the  corbels  which 
support  statues  of  men  of  science  are  carved 
with  a  selection  of  plants  typical  of  the 
British  flora.  The  details  of  these  carvings 
were  left  to  the  taste  of  the  craftsmen,  the 


most  skilful  of  whom  were  a  family  of  the 
name  of  O'Shea,  whom  Woodward  brought 
with  him  from  Dublin.  The  same  idea  was 
carried  out  in  the  wrought-iron  decoration, 
by  Skidmore,  which  was  freely  employed  in 
the  interior.  Some  details  of  window  tracery 
and  other  ornament  were  also  designed  by 
the  workmen  themselves.  The  experiment, 
though  interesting-  as  one  of  the  earliest 
attempts  to  revive  the  spirit  of  mediaeval 
architecture  as  distinguished  from  mere 
correctness  in  copying  detail,  was  not  alto- 
gether successful ;  the  museum  set  the  un- 
fortunate example  of  imitating  the  palaces 
of  Venice  and  Verona  in  the  uncongenial 
surroundings  of  English  streets. 

Woodward  spent  half  of  each  year  at 
Oxford  during  the  building  of  the  museum  ; 
he  enjoyed  the  cordial  friendship  of  Ruskin 
and  Sir  Henry  Wentworth  Acland,  and  was 
intimate  with  the  younger  group  of  '  pre- 
Raphaelites'  under  the  influence  of  lios- 
setti,  of  whom  Morris  and  Burne-Jones  were 
the  leaders.  In  1857,  while  engaged  in 
building  the  debating-hall,  now  the  library, 
of  the  Union  Society,  he  gave  his  sanction 
to  the  unlucky  experiment  made  by  Rossetti 
and  six  of  his  friends  of  decorating  the  ceil- 
ing and  the  Avail  space  above  the  book-shelves 
with  paintings  in  tempera.  In  that  year 
Deane  and  Woodward  competed  for  the  new 
government  offices  in  Whitehall  and  Down- 
ing Street,  and  their  design  for  the  foreign 
office  obtained  the  fourth  premium,  stand- 
ing second  among  the  Gothic  designs,  none 
of  which  were  ultimately  adopted.  The 
last  work  of  the  firm  was  the  Kildare  Street 
club  at  Dublin,  finished  in  1861.  In  1860 
Woodward  fell  a  victim  to  consumption; 
he  spent  the  winter  mouths  at  Hyeres  in 
the  vain  hope  of  regaining  health,  but  died 
at  Lyons  on  his  return  journey  on  15  May 
1861,  in  his  forty-sixth  year. 

He  contributed  some  sketches  to  an  early 
volume  of  the  'Builder,'  xix.  436.  A 
medallion  portrait  of  Woodward  by  Alex- 
ander Munro  [q.v.],  one  of  the  sculptors  of  the 
portrait  statues  in  the  Oxford  Museum,  is 
in  the  Radclitfe  library  at  Oxford. 

[Dublin  Builder,  1  July  1861,  p.  563;  Mac- 
kail's  Life  of  William  Morris,  i.  117-26;  Col- 
lingwood's  Life  of  Euskin,  pp.  176-7  ;  Tuck- 
well's  Reminiscences  of  Oxford,  pp.  48-50,  -with 
portrait  of  Woodward  ;  Acland  and  Ruskin's  Ox- 
ford Museum,  1859,  with  additions,  1893;  Diet, 
of  Architecture.]  C.  D. 


INDEX 


VOLUME     III.  — SUPPLEMENT. 


How,  William  Walsham  (1823-1897) 
Howard,  Edward  Henry  (1829-1892) 
Howe,  George  Augustus,  third  Viscount 

Howe  i  1725  ?-1758)        ....  3 

Howe,  Henry  (1812-1896),  whose  real  name 

was  Henry  Howe  Hutchinson      .  3 

Huchown  (fl.  14th  cent.) ...  4 


Jones,  William   Basil  (whose  surname  was 

ongmally  Tickell)  i  is-j-j-  47 

Jowett,  Benjamin  (1817-1898)         .  , ', 


Hudson,  Sir  John  (1833-1893) '.        .  0 
Hugessen,    Edward    Hugessen    Knatchbull- 

(1829-1893),  first  Baron  Brabourne.      See 

Knatchbull-Hugessen. 

Hughes,  David  Edward  (1830-1900)  5 

Hughes,  Thomas  (1822-1896)  ...  7 

Huish,  Robert  (1777-1850)        .         .         '.  10 

Hulke,  John  Whitaker  (1830-1895) .        .        .  10 

Humphry,  Sir  George  Murray  (1820-1896)  '.  11 
Hungerford,  Mrs.  Margaret  Wolfe  (1855?- 

1897)      ......  13 

Hunt,  Alfred  William  (1830-1896)  '. 

Hunter,  Robert  (1823-1897)     .        .        .        .14 

Hunter,  William  Alexander  (1844-1898) .        '.  15 

Hunter,  Sir  William  Wilson  (1840-1900)  .  16 
Hutton,  Richard  Holt  (1826-1897)  .  .  .19 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry  (1825-1895)        .        .  22 

Ingelow,  Jean  (1820-1897)        .        .        .        .81 

Inglefield,  Sir  Edward  Augustus  (1820-1894) .  32 

lonides,  Constantine  Alexander  (1833-1900)   .  83 

Ireland,  Alexander  (1810-1894)  .  .  .  83 
Ireland,  Mrs  Annie  (d.  1893).  See  under 

Ireland,  Alexander. 

Ismay,  Thomas  Henry  (1837-1899) ...  84 

Jackson,  Basil  (1795-1889)  .  .  .  .85 
Jackson,  Catherine  Hannah  Charlotte,  Lady 

(A  1891) .    85 

Jago,  James  (1815-1893) 86 

James,  David  (1839-1893),  whose  real  name 

was  Belasco 86 

Jenner,  Sir  William,  first  baronet  (1815-1898)  87 
Jennings,  Louis  John  (1836-1893)  .  .  .88 
Jennings,  Sir  Patrick  Alfred  (1881-1897)  .  89 
Jenyns,  Leonard  (1799-1893).  See  Blome- 

field. 

Jerrard,  George  Birch  (d.  1863)       .  .    40 

Jervois,    Sir    William    Francis     Drummond 

(1821-1897) 40 

Johnson,  Sir  Edwin  Beaumont  (1825-1893)  .  48 
Johnson,  Sir  George  (1818-1896)  .  .  .  44 
Jones,  Henry  (1831-1899)  .  ,  .  .45 
Jones,  Lewis  Tobias  (1797-1895)  ...  46 


Kay,  Sir  Edward  Ebenezer  (1822-1897)  .  66 

Keeley,  Mrs.  Mary  Ann  (1805  7-1899)     .  50 

Kemble,  Frances  Anne,  afterward*  Mrm. 
Butler,  generally  known  as  Fanny  Kemble 
(1809—1893)  ....  M 

Kennedy,  Vans  (1784-18401      .       .  i, 

Kennish  or  Kinnish,  William  (1799-1809)  vi 

Keppel,   William    Coatts,    seventh    Earl    of 

Albemarle  and  Viscount  Bury  (1833-1894)      80 
Ker,  John  (d.  1741)  .... 
Kerr,  Norman  (1834-1899)       .        .  '     ,.,, 

I  Kerr,  Schomberg  Henry,  ninth  Marquis  of 

Lothian  (1888-1900)      .         .         .  <Ji 

Kettle,  Sir  Rupert  Alfred  (1817-1891)     .  .  • 

i  Kettlewell,  Samuel  (1822-1898)       . 
:  Keux,  John  Henry  Le  (1813-1890).    See  La 

Keux. 

!  Keymer  or  Keymor,  John  (fl.  1610-1630)  f  : 

I  King,  Thomas  (1885-188*  .    <B 

King,  Thomas  Chi* well  (1818-1898)  .    04 

Kingsford,  William  (1819-1898)       .  .    0ft 

Kingsley,  Mary  Henrietta  (1863-1900)  .    07 

Kirkes,  William  Senhouse  f  1H-23-1864)  .    09 

Knatchbull-Hngessen,     Edward     HogMMB, 

first  Baron  Brabourne  (1839-1898  >< 

Knibb,  William  1 1*08-1845)     .  .    TO 

Knight-Bruce,  George  Wyndham  Hamilton 

(1852-1896).    See  Brace. 
1  Knox,  Robert  Bent  (1808-1898)       . 

Lacaita,  Sir  James  Philip  (1818-1895)    .        .    7* 

Lacy,  Edmund  (1870  M4U)  . 

Lacy,  Walter 

Lafonhuur.  Sir  I.-;;.-  Hvpolite,  first  hiroml 

(1807-l*C>4i    .         .  .         .  .78 

Lung,  Samuel  (1819-1897  .        .    7« 

Lake,  William  Charles  (1817-1897)          .        .    78 
Lambert,  Sir  John  (1778-18471  .     78 

Lamington,    Baron.      Bee    Cochrane-BaiUi*, 

Alexander  Dandas    ROM  Wishart  (1810- 

1890). 
Lawes,  Sir  John  Bennet,  fint  baronet  (1814- 

1900)      ...  .79 

Layard,  Sir  A  7-1894)  .        .    W 

Layer,  John  (1586  ?- 1  •  , :  .88 

Leathes,  Stanley  (1880-1900)  ....•§ 


520 


Index  to  Volume  III. — Supplement. 


Le  Caron,  Major  Henri.    See  Beach,  Thomas 

(1841-1894). 

Leclercq,  Carlotta  (1840  ?-1898)  ...  86 
Leclercq,  Rose  (1845  ?-1899).  See  under 

Leclercq,  Carlotta. 
Le  Despencer,  Baron.    See  Dashwood,  Sir 

Francis  (1708-1781). 

Lee,  Holme.    See  Parr,  Harriet  (1828-1900). 
Legge,  James  (1815-1897)         .         .         .        .87 
Leighton,  Frederic,  Baron  Leighton  of  Stret- 

ton  (1830-1896) 88 

Le  Keux,  John  Henry  (1812-1896)  ...     91 
Lenihan,  Maurice  (1811-1895) .         .        .         .91 
Lennox,  Sir  Wilbraham  Gates  (1830-1897)      .    92 
Leslie,  Frederick,  whose  real  name  was  Fre- 
derick Hobson  (1855-1892)   .        .        .        .94 
Liddell,  Henry  George  (1811-1898)          .         .    94 
Lilford,  Baron.     See  Powys,  Thomas  Little- 
ton (1833-1896). 

Lindley,  William  (1808-1900)  .  .  .  .96 
Lindsay,  Colin  (1819-1892)  ....  97 
Lindsay,  James  Bowman  (1799-1862)  .  .  97 
Linton,  Eliza  Lynn  (1822-1898)  ...  98 
Linton,  William  James  (1812-1898)  .  .  100 
Lloyd,  William  Watkiss  (1813-1893)  .  .  102 
Loch,  Henry  Brougham,  first  Baron  Loch  of 

Drylaw  (1827-1900) 103 

Locker,  Arthur  (1828-1893)  .  .  .  .105 
Locker-Lampson,  Frederick  (1821-1895), 

commonly  known  as  Frederick  Locker  .  105 
Lockhart,  William  Ewart  (1846-1900)  .  .  107 
Lockhart,  Sir  William  Stephen  Alexander 

(1841-1900) 108 

Lockwood,  Sir  Frank  (1846-1897)  .  .  .109 
Lopes,  Henry  Charles,  first  Baron  Ludlow 

(1828-1899) 110 

Lothian,  ninth  Marquis  of.    See  Kerr,  Schom- 

berg  Henry  (1833-1900). 

Lovell,  Robert  (1770  ?-1796)  .  .  .  .111 
Lucan,  Earl  of.  See  Bingham,  George  Charles 

(1800-1888). 
Ludlow,  Baron.     See  Lopes,  Henry  Charles 

(1828-1899). 

Lumby,  Joseph  Rawson  (1831-1895)  .  .  Ill 
Lumsden,  Sir  Harry  Burnett  (1821-1896)  .  112 
Lushington,  Edmund  Law  (1811-1893)  .  .  114 
Lysons,  Sir  Daniel  (1816-1898;  .  .  .115 

Macallum,  Hamilton  (1841-1896)  .  .  .116 
Macartney,  James  (1770-1848)  .  .  .116 
McCosh,  James  (1811-1894)  .  .  .  .117 
McCoy,  Sir  Frederick  (1823-1899)  .  .  .119 
Macdonell,  Alastair  Ruadh,  known  as  '  Pickle 

the  Spy '  (1725  ?-1761) 119 

MacDougall,  Sir  Duncan  (1787-1862)  .  .  120 
MacDongall,  Sir  Patrick  Leonard  (1819-1894)  121 
Macfie,  Robert  Andrew  (1811-1893)  .  .  122 
Mcllwraith,  Sir  Thomas  (1835-1900)  .  .  123 
Mackay,  Alexander  (1815-1895)  .  .  .124 
Mackenzie,  Colin  (1806-1881)  .  .  .  .125 
Mackinnon,  Sir  William,  first  baronet  (1823- 

189H) 127 

Macknight,  Thomas  (1829-1899)  .  .  .128 
McLachlan,  Thomas  Hope  (1845-1897)  .  .  128 
Maclean,  Sir  John  (1811-1895)  .  .  .129 
Macleod,  Sir  John  Macpherson  (1792-1881)  .  130 
MacMahon,  John  Henry  (1829-1900)  .  .  130 
McMurdo,  Sir  William  Montagu  Scott  (1819- 

1894) 130 

Maitland,  Edward  (1824-1897)  .  .  .181 
Malan,  Cesar  Jean  Salomon,  calling  himself 

later  Solomon  Csesar  Malan  (1812-1894)      .  133 


PAGP 

Malcolm,  Sir  George  (1818-1897)  .  .  .  134 
Malleson,  George  Bruce  (1825-1898)  .  .  135 
Mangles,  Ross  Donnelly  (1801-1877)  .  .  136 
Manning,  Anne  (1807-1879)  .  .  .  .137 
Manuche  or  Manucci,  Cosmo  (fl.  1652)  .  .  188 
Margaret,  the  Maid  of  Norway  (1288-1290)  .  189 
Marks,  Henry  Stacy  (1829-1898)  .  .  .140 
Marryat,  Florence,  successively  Mrs.  Church 

and  Mrs.  Lean  (1838-1899)  .  .  .  .141 
Marshall,  Arthur  Milnes  (1852-1893)  .  .  142 
Marshall,  Benjamin  (1767  ?-1835)  .  .  .148 
Marshall,  Emma  (1830-1899)  .  .  .  .144 
Marshall,  William  Calder  (1813-1894)  .  .  144 
Martin,  Lady  (1816-1898).  See  Faucit,  Helen. 
Martin,  Sir  William  Fanshawe,  fourth  baronet, 

(1801-1895) 145 

Martineau,  James  (1805-1900)  .  .  .146 
Martineau,  Russell  (1831-1898).  See  under 

Martineau,  James. 

Massie,  Thomas  Leeke  (1802-1898)  .  .  151 
Max  Miiller,  Friedrich  (1823-1900) .  .  .151 
Maxse,  Frederick  Augustus  (1833-1900) .  .  157 
Maxwell,  Sir  Peter  Benson  (1817-1893). 

See  under  Maxwell,  Sir  William  Edward. 
Maxwell,  Sir  William  Edward  (1846-1897)      .  158 
Maynard,  Walter.     See  Beale,  Thomas  Wil- 

lert  (1828-1894). 

Meade,  Sir  Robert  Henry  (1835-1898)  .  .  158 
Melvill,  Sir  James  Cosmo  (1792-1861)  .  .  159 
Mends,  Sir  William  Robert  (1812-1897)  .  159 

Mercier,  Honore  (1840-1894)  .  .  .  .161 
Merivale,  Charles  (1808-1893)  .  .  .163 
Metford,  William  Ellis  (1824-1899)  .  .  165 
Middleton,  John  Henry  (1846-1896)  .  .  166 
Millais,  Sir  John  Everett  (1829-1896)  .  .167 
Milligan,  William  (1821-1893)  .  .  .174 
Mills,  Sir  Charles  (1825-1895)  .  .  .175 
Milne,  Sir  Alexander,  first  baronet  (1806- 

1896) 176 

Mitchell,  Alexander  Ferrier  (1822-1899)  .  177 
Mitchell,  Peter  (1824-1899)  .  .  .  .178 
Mivart,  St.  George  Jackson  (1827-1900) .  .  179 
Molteno,  Sir  John  Charles  (1814-1886)  .  .  181 
Momerie,  Alfred  Williams  (1848-1900)  .  .  183 
Monck,  Sir  Charles  Stanley,  fourth  Viscount 

Monck  in  the  Irish  peerage,  and  first  Baron 

Monck  in  the  peerage  of  the  United  King- 
dom (1819-1894) 183 

Moncreiff,   James,   first  Baron  Moncreiff   of 

Tullibole  (1811-1895) 184 

Monier- Williams,  Sir  Monier  (1819-1899)  .  186 
Monk-Bretton,  Baron.  See  Dodson,  John 

George  (1825-1897). 

Monsell,  William,  Baron  Emly  (1812-1894)  .  187 
Montagu,  John  (1797-1858)  .  .  .  .188 
Montgomery,  Sir  Henry  Conyugham,  second 

baronet  (1803-1878) 189 

Moon,  William  (1818-1894)  .  .  .  .190 
Moore,  Henry  (1831-1896)  .  .  .  .192 
Moore,  John  Bramley  (1800-1886).  See 

Bramley-Moore. 

Morgan,  Sir  George  Osborne  (1826-1897)  .  192 
Morley,  William  Hook  (1815-1860) .  .  195 

Morris,  Richard  (1833-1894)    .        .  .  196 

Morris,  William  (1884-1896)    .         .  .197 

Morrison,  Alfred  (1821-1897)  .        .  .203 

Morton,  George  Highfield  (1826-1900)  ,  204 

Moulton,  William  Fiddian  (1885-1898)  .  204 

Mount-Temple,  Baron.    See  Cowper,  William 

Francis  (1811-1888). 
Mowbray  (formerly  Cornish),  Sir  John  Robert, 

first  baronet  (1815-1899)      .         .  .205 


Index  to  Volume  III. — Supplement. 


PAGE 

.  206 
.  206 
.  207 


Muirhead,  George  (1715-1773) 
Muirhead,  James  Patrick  (1813-1898) 
Mulhall,  Michael  George  (1836-1900) 
Miiller,    Friedrich   Max   (1823-1900).        See 

Max  Miiller. 

Miiller,  George  (1805-1898)  .  .  .  .208 
Mummery,  Albert  Frederick  (1855-1895)  .  209 
Mundella,  Anthony  John  (1825-1897)  .  .  209 
Munk,  William  (1816-1898)  .  .  .  .212 
Murphy,  Denis  (1833-1896)  .  .  .  .213 
Murray,  Sir  Charles  Augustus  (1806-1895)  .  213 
Myers,  Frederic  William  Henry  (1843-1901) .  215 

Nairne,  Sir  Charles  Edward  (1836-1899)  .  218 
Napier,  Sir  Francis,  ninth  Baron  Napier  of 
Merchistoun  in  the  Scottish  peerage,  first 
Baron  Ettrick  of  Ettrick  in  the  peerage  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  eleventh  (Nova 
Scotia)  baronet  of  Scott  of  Thirlestane 

(1819-1898) 218 

Newman,  Francis  William  (1805-1897)  .  .  221 
Newth,  Samuel  (1821-1898)  .  .  .  .223 
Newton,  Sir  Charles  Thomas  (1816-1894)  .  224 

Nichol,  John  (1833-1894) 225 

Nicholson,  Henry  Alleyne  (1844-1899)  .  .  227 
Nimrod,  pseudonym.  See  Apperley,  Charles 

James  (1779-1843). 
Nixon,  John  (1815-1899) 229 

O'Byrne,  William  Richard  (1823-1896)    .  .  230 

Oliphant,  Margaret  Oliphant  (1828-1897)  .  230 

O'Neill,  Sir  Brian  MacPhelim  (d.  1574)  .  .  284 

Ormsby,  John  (1829-1895)       .        .        .  .235 

Orton,  Arthur  (1834-1898)        .         .         .  .236 

Osborne  Morgan,  Sir  George  (1826-1897).  See 

Morgan. 

Ottley,  Sir  Francis  (1601-1649)        .        .  .238 


Playfair,  Lyon,  first   Baron   PUyUir  at  81** 

Andrews  (1818-1898)    .        . 
Playfair  Sir  Robert  Lambert  (1888-1899)      !  tTt 
Phmsoll,  Samuel  (1824-1898) 
Plume,  Thomas  (1680-1704)    .  '  ST4 

Plunket,  William  Conyngham,  fourth  Baron 

Plunket  (1828-1897)     ... 
Pocock,  Nicholas  (1814-1897) . 
Pole,  William  (1814-1900) 

Pollock,  Sir  Charles  Edward  (188S-1897)  .  MO 
Potter,  Richard  (1778-1843).  See  under 

Potter,  Thomas  Bayley. 
Potter,  Sir  Thomas  (1778-1846).    See  under 

Potter,  Thomas  Bayley. 

Potter,  Thomas  Bayley  (1817-1898)  .  .  9B1 
Powell,  Sir  George  Smyth  Baden-  (1847-1896)  Ml 
Powys,  Thomas  Littleton,  fourth  Baron  Lai 

ford  (1838-1896) M4 

Prestwich,  Sir  Joseph  (1812-1896)  .  .  M4 
Price,  Bartholomew  (1818-1898)  .  .  M7 

Priestley,  Sir  William  Overend  (1829-1900)      M7 

Quain,  Sir  Richard,  first  baronet  (1816-18M)  M8 
Quaritch,  Bernard  (1819-1899)  .  .  M» 

Queensberry,    Marquis    of.       See    Dooglaa, 
John  Sholto  (1844-1900). 


Paget,  Sir  Augustus  Berkeley  (1823-1896)      . 
Paget,  Sir  James  (1814-1899)  .... 

Paget,  John  (1811-1898) 

Palgrave,  Francis  Turner  (1824-1897)     . 

Palmer,  Arthur  (1841-1897)     . 

Palmer,  Sir  Arthur  Hunter  (1819-1898) . 

Palmer,  George  (1818-1897)     .... 

Parkes,  Sir  Henry  (1815-1896) 

Parr,  Harriet  (1828-1900),  pseudonym,  Holme 

Lee 

Patmore,   Coventry  Kersey  Dighton  (1823- 

1896) 

Patmore,  Henry  John  (1860-1883).  See  under 

Patmore,  Coventry  Kersey  Dighton. 
Patrick,    Robert    William    Cochran-    (1842- 

1897).     See  Cochran-Patrick. 
Patterson,  Sir  James  Browne  (1833-1895) 
Payn,  James  (1830-1898)          . 
Pearson,  John  Loughborough  (1817-1897)      . 
Pembroke,  thirteenth  Earl  of.     See  Herbert 

George  Robert  Charles  (1850-1895). 
Fender,  Sir  John  (1815-1896)  . 
Pepper,  John  Henry  (1821-1900) 
Perry,  George  Gresley  (1820-1897) 
Peterson,  Peter  (1847-1899)     . 
Phayre,  Sir  Robert  (1820-1897) 
Phillips,  Molesworth  (1755-1832) 
Phipps,  Charles  John  (1835-1897) 
Pickersgill,  Frederick  Richard  (1820-1900)     . 
Pickle  the  Spy,  pseudonym.     See  Macdonell, 

Alastair  Ruadh  (1725  ?-1761). 
Pitman,  Sir  Isaac  (1813-1897) 
Pitt-Rirers,  Augustus  Henry  Lane  Fox  (1827- 

1900)   

VOL.  III. — SUP. 


239 
240 
242 
242 
244 
245 
245 
246 

248 
249 


•J.V2 
•2.-,:', 


258 
259 
260 
261 
262 
263 
264 


266 
268 


Rawlinson,  Sir  Robert  (1810-1898). 
Reeves,  John  Sims  (1818-1900) 
Renouf,  Sir  Peter  le  Page  (1828-1897) 
Reynolds,  Henry  Robert  (1825-1896) 
Reynolds,  Samuel  Harvey  (1831-1897) 
Richardson,  Sir  Benjamin  Ward  (1888-1896) 
Rigby,  Elizabeth,  afterwards  Lady  Eactlake 

(1809-1893).    See  Eastlake. 
Rivera,    Augustus    Henry    Lane  Fox    Pitt- 

(1827-1900).    See  Pitt- Rivera. 
Roberts,  Sir  William  (1880-1899)    . 
Robinson,  Sir  Hercules  George  Robert,  first 

Baron  Rosmead  (1824-1897) 
Robinson,  Sir  William  Cleaver  Francis  (1884- 

1897)      ...  • 

Rodweil,  John  Medows  (1808-1900) 
Rosmead,  Baron.      See  Robiiison,  Sir  Her- 
cules George  Robert  (1824-1897). 
Rothschild,  Ferdinand  James  de  (1889-1898) . 
Rundle,  Elizabeth  (1828-1898).    See  CharUa, 

Mrs.  Elizabeth. 
Ruskin,  John  .1819-1900) 
Russell,  Charles,  Baron  Russell  of  Killowen 

(1882-19<H> 

Russell,  Henry  (1812-1900)      . 
Rutherford,  William  (1889-1899)     , 
Ryder,  Dudley  Francis  Stuart,  third  Earl  of 

Harrowby  (1881-1900)  .... 
Ryle,  John  Charles  (1818-1900)       . 


M 

Ml 
Ml 


Ml 
.'•« 

m 


8*7 

H 


I  i 
884 


.-.,     A.'-.    : 


Salvin,  Osbert  (1886-1898) 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Dnke    of. 

Ernest  Albert!  1844-1900 ». 
i  Sedgwick,  Amy, afterwards  Mrs.  ««••»; 

plmberton  and  Mra.  Gooatry  (1880-1897)  . 
Sedgwick,  Robert  (d.  1666) 
Selwyn,  John  Richanl- 
Sequard,  Charles  Edward  Brown-  (1817-1894). 

|M  Brom  Moon  i 
Service,  James  (1888-1899) 
Sewell,  William  (1780-1868) 
Shan',  Isaac  (1806-1897). 
Shaw,  John  (1789-1W16) 


• 

Ml 
Ml 

• 


522 


Index  to  Volume  III. — Supplement. 


PAGB 

Simpson,  William  (1823-1899)  .  .  .845 
Skene,  Felicia  Mary  Frances  (1821-1899)  .  847 
Smith,  Barbara  Leigh  (1827-1891).  See 

Bodichon. 

Smith,  Joseph  (1788  ?-1790)  .  .  .  .848 
Smith,  Sir  Robert  Murdoch  (1835-1900).  .  849 
Smyth,  Charles  Piazzi  (1819-1900) .  .  .850 
Snowdon,  John  (1558-1626).  See  Cecil. 
Spears,  Robert  (1825-1899)  .  .  .  .851 
Stansfeld,  Sir  James  (1820-1898)  .  .  .852 
Steevens,  George  Warrington  (1869-1900)  .  854 
Stephens  or  Stevens,  Thomas  (1549  ?-1619)  .  855 
Stevenson,  Robert  Alan  Mowbray  (1847- 

1900) 356 

Stewart,  Sir  Donald  Martin  (1824-1900)  .  357 
Stewart,  Patrick  (1882-1865)  .  .  .  .858 
Stewart,  Sir  Thomas  Grainger  (1887-1900)  .  860 
Stokes,  George  Thomas  (1848-1898)  .  .  861 
Stokes,  Margaret  M'Nair  (1832-1900)  .  .  862 
Stokes,  Sir  William  (1839-1900)  .  .  .863 
Strachey,  Sir  Henry,  first  baronet  (1786-1810)  364 
Strachey,  John  (1671-1748).  See  under 

Strachey,  Sir  Henry. 

Struthers,  Sir  John  (1823-1899)       .         .         .865 
Stuart,  John  Patrick   Crichton-,  third  Mar- 
quis of  Bute  (1847-1900)       .         .         .         .866 
Sullivan,  Sir  Arthur  Seymour  (1842-1900)      .  869 
Swanborough,  Mrs.  Arthur  (1840-1893).     See 

Button,  Eleanor. 

Swan  wick,  Anna  (1818-1899)  .         .  .374 

Symons,  George  James  (1838-1900)  .  874 

Symons,  Sir  William  Penn  (1843-1899)  .  875 


Tait,  Robert  Lawson  (1845-1899)    . 
Tate,  Sir  Henry  (1819-1899)    . 
Thomas,  William  Luson  (1880-1900) 
Thompson,  William  (1785  ?-1838)    . 


377 
378 
879 
380 


Thome,  Sir  Richard  Thorne-  (1841-1899) 
Torrens,  Henry  Whitelock  (1806-1852)   . 
Torry,  Patrick  (1768-1852) 
Traill,  Henry  Duff  (1842-1900) 
Tuer,  Andrew  White  (1838-1900)     . 


Vaughan,  Henry  (1809-1899)  . 

Victor  Ferdinand  Franz  Eugen  Gustaf  Adolf 
Constantin  Friedrich  of  Hohenlohe-Lan- 
genburg,  Prince,  for  many  years  known  as 
Count  Gleichen  (1888-1891)  .  .  .388 

Victoria,  Queen  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  Empress  of 
India  (1819-1901) ....  889 

Vogel,  Sir  Julius  (1835-1899)  .        .  500 

Walker,  John  (1692  ?-174l)     .         .  502 

Wallace,  Robert  (1831-1899)   .        .  504 

Warburton,  Sir  Robert  (1842-1899)  504 

Ward,  Mary  (1585-1645)  ...  506 

Watson,  William,  Lord  Watson  (1827-1899)  508 
Wauchppe,  Andrew  Gilbert  (1846-1899)  509 

Westminster,  Duke  of.    See  Grosvenor,  Hugh 

Lupus  (1825-1899). 
Westmorland,  Earl  of.     See  Fane,   Francis 

William  Henry  (1825-1891). 

Westwood,  Thomas  (1814-1888)  .  .  .510 
Wightman,  Joseph  (d.  1722)  .  .  .  .511 
Wilde,  James  Plaisted,  Lord  Penzance  (1816- 

1899) 511 

Wilde,  Oscar  O'Flahertie  Wills  (1856-1900)  .  513 
Willis,  Sir  George  Harry  Smith  (1823-1900)  .  515 
Wimperis,  Edmund  Morison  (1835-1900)  .  516 
Wodehouse,  Sir  Philip  Edmond  (1811-1887)  .  517 
Woodgate,  Sir  Edward  Robert  Prevost  (1845- 

1900) 517 

Woodward,  Benjamin  (1815-1861)  .        .        .518 


END   OF   VOLUME   III. — SUPPLEMENT. 


-T.FEB  171968 


Dictionary  of  national 
biography 


PLEASE  DO  NOT  REMOVE 
CARDS  OR  SLIPS  FROM  THIS  POCKET 

UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO  LIBRARY 


For  u*«  in 

the  Library 

ONLY